Port Said University ‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌـــﺔ ﺑـﻮرﺳــﻌﯿـﺪ‬

Faculty of Engineering ‫ﻛﻠــﯿﺔ اﻟﮭــــﻨﺪﺳﺔ‬

Mechanical Power Eng. Dept. ‫ﻗﺴﻢ ھﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﻘﻮى اﻟﻤﯿﻜﺎﻧﯿﻜﯿﺔ‬

3RD Year Mechanical Power

MPE 331

Dr. Mohamed Hammam

2019
 Course Contents
Lecture 1 INTRODUCTION
Lecture 2 FOSSIL FUELS
Lecture 3 Biofuels
Lecture 4 Fuel Cells
Lecture 5 Nuclear energy
Lecture 6 Solar Energy
Lecture 7 Photovoltaic
Lecture 8 Geothermal
Lecture 9
Lecture 10
Lecture 11
Lecture 12
Lecture 13
Lecture 14
Lecture 7 Photovoltaic
Energy Resources Classifications

Figure 1 : IEA, 2005. Energy statistics manual

 Photovoltaic effect
When sunlight falls on semiconductors, the photons transmit their energy to a valence electrons and break a bond on the
semiconductor lattice.

Each time a photon breaks a bond and electron becomes free to move through the lattice, and the absent electron leaves
behind a hole that can also move through the lattice.

The movements of the electrons and holes generates an electric current in the semiconductor.

Figure 1 Silicon crystal.

 Photovoltaic Basics
n-doping of semiconductors: one of the five valence electrons of the phosphorous atom is not necessary for the bond and is
therefore available as a free electron to bond with silicon atom.
p-doping of semiconductors: one of the four links with silicon atom remains open as the boron atom can only offer three
valence electrons. A neighboring electron moves into this binding and thus “generates” a hole

(a) (b)
Figure 2 Representation of n- and p-type semiconductors: (a) n-type showing “excess” electrons; (b) p-type showing
“excess” positive holes.
 Photovoltaic Cell
At the p–n junction, a current is generated called the junction current.
At the junction the current generated Jj consists of the light induced current Jr due to the light applied voltage V and another
current due to the temperature of the material called the dark current J0.
𝑒𝑒0 V
𝐽𝐽𝑗𝑗 =𝐽𝐽𝑟𝑟 -𝐽𝐽0 =𝐽𝐽0 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
Where:

eo : is the charge of an electron = 1.602 × 10-19 C,

k: is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.381 × 10-23 J/K,

T: absolute temperature, K

J0 : is the dark current density A/ m2

Jj : : is the junction current density A/ m2

V : cell voltage
𝑒𝑒0 V
𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 ∶ 𝐽𝐽𝐿𝐿 =𝐽𝐽𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − 𝐽𝐽𝑗𝑗 = 𝐽𝐽𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 - 𝐽𝐽0 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)
Figure 3 Equivalent circuit of a photovoltaic cell. (a) p–n
where 𝑱𝑱𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 =𝑱𝑱𝑺𝑺 is the short circuit current. junction. (b) Electrical circuit.
 Voltage current relation
For open circuit, JL = 0 and V = Voc

For short circuit, V = 0 and JL = Jsc

The power output is the product of the load current and voltage
and is a function of the load resistance RL:

𝑃𝑃 = 𝐴𝐴JLV=𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿2 RL
To find the condition for the maximum power output (P* =Pmax)
differentiate P with respect to V and equate it to zero:
Figure 4 Typical current, voltage, and power
characteristics of a solar cell.

where Vm stands for voltage at maximum power. The current at maximum power condition JL,m

And the maximum power

 Performance characteristics of solar cell
• Efficiency of solar cell:

Figure 5 Typical current, voltage, and power

characteristics of a solar cell.
The fill factor FF describes the squareness of the J-V curve

These four quantities: Jsc , Voc, FF and η are the key performance characteristics of a solar cell. They are given at the standard
test condition for a solar cell.
 Effect of Irradiance
• The voltage at the maximum power point is insensitive to changes in irradiance,

• The current at the maximum power point scales proportionally to the irradiance.

𝐺𝐺
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 =𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ×
𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 =𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

𝐺𝐺
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 =𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ×
𝐺𝐺𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

G is the solar irradiance (w/m2), 𝑮𝑮𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 : is the solar irradiance at standard conditions.

• The load resistance corresponding to the maximum power point (MPP) will also
depend on the irradiance R(G):
Figure 6 Typical current–voltage
- So any device powered by the PV cell must continually adjust its equivalent
characteristics of a silicon cell showing
resistance to track the MPP; otherwise, the power production will not be maximized
the effects of illumination level and
during operation.
load resistance.
 The Effect of Temperature
The temperature coefficients for the short-circuit current 𝜶𝜶𝒊𝒊 , open-circuit voltage 𝜶𝜶𝑽𝑽 ,
and maximum power 𝜶𝜶𝑷𝑷 are used to correct for changes in temperature as follows:

𝛼𝛼 𝑖𝑖
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 )=𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (25°𝐶𝐶)(1+100 ×(𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 -25))
𝑉𝑉𝛼𝛼
𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 (𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 )=𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 (25°𝐶𝐶)(1+100 ×(𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 -25))
∗ ∗ 𝑃𝑃 𝛼𝛼
𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 )=𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 (25°𝐶𝐶)(1+100 ×(𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 -25))
∗
Where: 𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 is the maximum power at standard test conditions.
The coefficients are expressed as percent per Kelvin and Tc is the cell temperature
which is given from ambient temperature 𝑻𝑻𝒂𝒂 as:

Figure 7 Variation of operating

parameters with temperature.
NOCT: the Nominal Operating Cell Temperature, and G is the solar irradiance (w/m2)
• Manufacturers report the the Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT), when exposed to the following standard operating
conditions (SOC): Irradiance: 800 W/m2 , Ambient temperature: 20 ◦C , Wind speed: 1 m/s, Power output: 0 W (no load)
 Photovoltaic Modules
• Solar cells may be connected in series, parallel, or both to obtain the required voltage and current.

• Cells are connected in series to form modules(panels), and modules are connected to form arrays

• For a cell composed of 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 cells the voltage 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 and current 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 of the module are given by:

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑒𝑒0 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 =𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 -𝐼𝐼0 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1) (a)

𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 is the load current in A and 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is the cell voltage and 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 is the short circuit
current.

(b)

Figure 8 Characteristics of two similar cells

connected in a) series, b) parallels.
 Photovoltaic Array
• Commercially available PV panels rarely exceed 350 W in rated capacity.
•
• For more capacity, multiple modules are combined to form a PV array.

• Modules can be combined in series, parallel, or a combination thereof

• Series-connected PV modules are called “strings.”

Figure 9 A PV array consisting of three

strings with two modules in each string.

where Nser,str is the number of series-connected modules in a string and Npar,str is the number of strings.
 Photovoltaic System

FIGURE 10 Schematic of a PV system.

• Voltage capability of a storage battery or charge controller is used to determine the maximum voltage rating of a string.

• A blocking diode is used in series with a module or an array to prevent the current from flowing backward, for example,
from the battery to the cells under dark conditions.

• A bypass diode is used in parallel with a module in an array to bypass the module if it is shaded.

• When the load requires an AC current, an inverter is required between the DC output and the AC load.
 Standard Test Conditions (STC)
• The power rating, or capacity, of a PV module is the maximum power that can be produced under “standard test conditions”
• Standard test conditions are defined as:
- Irradiance of 1000 W/m2
- Cell temperature of 25◦C

• a PV panel rated at 100W will produce 100W if the panel operates under STC and is connected to a load whose input
resistance results in maximum power point operation.

• The conditions most favorable for PV power production are when the PV modules are at a low temperature but high
irradiance.

∗ 𝐺𝐺 𝛼𝛼
𝑃𝑃∗ (𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 )=𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 × 𝑃𝑃
(1+100 ×(𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 -25))
1000
 Effects of Shading
Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law at the node above the shaded cell with 𝐽𝐽𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2 =0:

eoV2 (a)
𝐼𝐼2 =−𝐼𝐼0 (𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 1)

The maximum power drops to 42W when one cell is shaded by 50% and to 19W
when it is shaded by 100%.

Shading is to be avoided not only because of the decreased power output but (b)
also because the shaded cells dissipate power, which can lead to local hot
spots that permanently damage the module.

Figure 11 shows the effects of shading a single cell of a 66

W PV module with 40 series-connected cells. a ) circuit
model of PV module with one cell shaded, b) I-V curve of
a PV module showing the effect of shading.
 By-pass and Blocking Diodes.
• The substantial reduction in power and the potentially damaging effects of shading can be mitigated by using by-pass diodes.

• If a diode is installed in parallel but in the opposite direction in the PV cell model, then it will conduct whenever the PV
cell voltage becomes negative (when the cell is shaded).

• The shaded cell does not meaningfully contribute to the power production, but it also does not substantially reduce it.

• A single diode is used to by-pass several cells,

• This balance between the cost of diodes and mitigating the

effects of any shading.

Figure 12 PV modules contain several by-pass diodes.

 Blocking Diodes

• The purpose of a blocking diode is to ensure that current only flows one way through the
PV module or string.

• Blocking diodes should be included whenever a PV module or array is connected directly

to a battery.

• At any time the module voltage is lower than the battery voltage — the battery
will discharge through the array, draining the battery and potentially damaging the
PV array.

Figure 13 Blocking Diodes of a PV array.

 Energy Production
• The power of a PV array changes with time due to change in solar irradiance G(t) according to the relation:

• The plot of P(t) depends on several factors, including the location and orientation of the PV array.

• A typical plot for an un-tilted (horizontal) 1 kW PV array located at the equator is shown in Fig.14.

• Production begins in the morning, peaks at midday, and ends around sunset.
• The energy produced by a PV array during a day is the area under the curve.

Figure 14 Theoretical power production for a 1 kW array.

 Design of Photovoltaic system

There are three basic steps in the design of a PV system:

1. Estimation of load and load profile,

2. Estimation of available solar radiation,

3. Design of PV system, including area of PV panels, selection of other components, and electrical system schematic
 Estimation of load and load profile
• Precise estimation of loads and their timings (load profile) are important for PV systems since the system is sized as the
minimum required to satisfy the demand over a day.

• Example: if power is needed for five different appliances requiring 200, 300, 500, 1000, and 1500 W, respectively, so that
only one appliance is on at any one time and each appliance is on for an average of 1 h a day, the PV system would be sized
based on 1500 W peak power and 3500 Wh of daily energy requirement.

• How much energy per day is used by a remote weather station given the following load characteristics?
 Estimation of Available Solar Radiation
• Capacity Factor:

The ratio of the estimated energy production over a period of time to the energy it is capable of producing if operated
continuously at its rated capacity. 𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 =
𝑇𝑇 × 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
where 𝑬𝑬𝑻𝑻 is the estimated energy production during period of time considered T matches that of the resource data.
24
𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 = � � 𝐺𝐺 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 kWh/ m2
𝐷𝐷 0

∗
𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷∗ =𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 × 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 kWh

∗
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

∗
𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 × 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 𝐼𝐼�𝐷𝐷
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = ∗ = =
𝑇𝑇 × 𝐷𝐷 × 𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑇𝑇 × 𝐷𝐷 𝑇𝑇

Where 𝑰𝑰� 2
𝑫𝑫 is the average solar radiance in kWh/day/m , and T = 24 h/day
 Orientation of PV Array
• The orientation of a PV array refers to its tilt angle with respect to the horizontal plane and its azimuth angle.

Azimuth angle : is the angle between the horizontal projection of the solar panel and the north direction

• The orientation affects the angle that the sun’s rays strike the array (incidence angle) .

• The angle at any moment can be calculated from the location, orientation, time of day, and day of the year.

• The irradiance is maximized when the sun’s rays are normal to the surface of the PV array.
• Locations near the equator tend to have the most consistent radiance throughout the year, whereas near the north and
south pole the seasonal variation is most pronounced.
Optimal Orientation:
As a rule of thumb, the tilt of a PV array should be tilted to the latitude angle of its location and its azimuth should be so that
the array faces toward the equator.

• Sun hours of a location:

is the solar radiance averaged per day on 1 m2 ( 𝐼𝐼�𝐷𝐷 ) of the solar panel at that location

• a location with insolation of 5.1 kWh/m2/day is said to receive 5.1 sun hours per day.
 PV System Sizing

Example : A PV system using 50 W, 12 V panels with Trojan T-105 6 V, 125 Ah batteries is needed to power a home with a
daily load of 1700 Wh. System voltage is 24 V. Assuming an average of 5 daylight hours in the winter, specify the collector
and storage values for the system assuming 3 days of storage.

Number of panels = 1700/5/50 = 7 panels

Since the system voltage is 24 V, but each panel produces only 12 V, an even number of panels will be needed. Therefore,
the number of panels = 8.

Storage = (1700)(3)= 5100 Wh.

Number of batteries = (5100 Wh) / (125 Ah × 6 V) = 7 batteries

Use 8 batteries to provide two rows of 24 V each

 Assignment 2

• Use the software SAM to compare the cost of installation of 1 MW power plant on different places on Egypt using
two different choices:

1- concentrated solar thermal technology,

2- photovoltaic technology

• Software website : https://sam.nrel.gov/download.

• Manual : https://sam.nrel.gov/sites/default/files/content/help/sam-help-2018-11-11.pdf