Photovoltaic Systems

4.1 Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Conversion

 Photovoltaic (PV) systems are solar electric systems which
utilize the electric energy generated by the photovoltaic
converter which may be as small as a photovoltaic cell or as
large as a photovoltaic array.
 When certain semi-conducting materials, such as silicon,
are exposed to sunlight, they release small amounts of
electricity. This process is known as the photoelectric effect.
 The photoelectric effect refers to the emission or ejection of
electrons from the surface of a metal in response to light. It
is the basic physical process in which a solar electric or
photovoltaic (PV) cell converts sunlight to electricity.
 Sunlight is made up of photons or particles of solar energy.
Photons contain various amounts of energy, corresponding
to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum.
 When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected or
absorbed, or they may pass right through. Only the
absorbed photons generate electricity.
 When this happens, the energy of the photon is transferred
to an electron in an atom of the PV cell (which is a
semiconductor).
Special electrical properties of the PV cell - a built-in electric
field - provide the voltage needed to drive the current
through an external load (such as a light bulb).
 The individual PV cells are assembled in series and/or in
parallel combination to build a module. The number of
cells in series determines the module voltage and the
number of cells in parallel determines the module current
capability.
 A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other
and mounted in a support structure or frame is called a
photovoltaic module.
 Modules are designed to supply electricity at a certain
voltage (commonly 12 volts). The current produced is
directly dependent on how much sunlight strikes the module.
 4.2 Analysis of Photovoltaic cells, equivalent
circuits and efficiency
 Solar panels are composed of silicon cells connected in
series. The most important feature of the solar cell is its
layered structure.
 The bulk of the cell is made of "P-type" silicon.
 P-type silicon is mostly pure silicon that contains a small
amount of impurity (or dopant), typically boron, which gives
the material a special electrical characteristic, a deficit of
electrons (also known as a surplus of "holes").
 On top of the P-type substrate is a layer of "N-type" silicon.
This layer is nearly pure silicon, but containing a small
amount of a different dopant (typically phosphorous).
 The interface between these layers is known as a P-N
junction, and this is the central feature of the solar cell.
 P-N Junction in a Photovoltaic Conversion System
 P-N junctions have the characteristic that they behave like a
one-way door for electricity. Because of this characteristic
they are used in all types of electronic equipment.

Fig. 4.2 Photovoltaic effect in a solar cell

 Theoretical Description of the Solar Cell

 An illuminated solar cell creates free charge carriers, which

allow current to flow through a connected load.
 An ideal solar cell can be represented by the following
simplified equivalent circuit (Fig. below).
It consists of the diode created by
the p-n junction and a
photocurrent source with the
magnitude of the current
depending on the radiation
intensity and an adjustable resistor
connected to the solar cell as a
load.

Fig. 4.3 Equivalent circuit diagram of an ideal

solar cell connected to load
 The mathematical process of an ideal solar cell leads to the
following equation:
  qV 
 
I Cell  I ph  I D  I ph  I 0 e  kT 
 1
 
Where:

Dark Saturation current, which depends

strongly on temperature.
 The I-V characteristic curve for a certain incident radiation
is constructed, point for point as indicated in Fig. below

Fig. 4.4 Construction of solar cell I-V curve from Diode curve
  When the terminals are short-circuited (Rload = 0 ) (Fig. 4.5 ), the output voltage
and thus also the voltage across the diode is zero.

Fig. 4. 5 Equivalent circuit diagram for solar cell – short circuit current

Since V = 0, no current ID flows (point 1 in Fig. 4.4).

Therefore the entire photocurrent Iph generated from the
radiation flows to the output.
Thus the cell current has its maximum at this point with the
value Icell and is referred as the short-circuit current Isc

I sc  I Cell  I ph

If the load resistance is now continuously increased, the solar

cell voltage also increases whereas the current remains
constant.
 Up to a certain voltage value, the current flowing through
the internal diode remains negligible, and the output current
continues to remain constant at the photocurrent,Iph, (point 2 in
Fig. 4.4).
 If the load resistance is further increased such that the diode
voltage threshold is exceeded, a rapidly increasing
photocurrent flows through the diode. This current leads to
power loss in the internal diode corresponding to an area
between the photocurrent curve and the cell current curve.
 Since the sum of the load current and the diode current
must be equal to the constant photocurrent Iph, the output
current decreases by exactly this amount (point 3 in Fig.
4.4).
 For an infinitely large load resistance (open circuit) as
shown in Fig. 4.6, the output current is then zero (Icell = 0 )
and thus the entire photocurrent flows through the internal
diode (point 4 in Fig. 4.4).
 Fig. 3.6 Equivalent Circuit Diagram of Solar Cell – Open-Circuit Current

The open-circuit voltage VOC is obtained from:

kT  I ph 
Voc  . ln   1
Q  Io 
Typical values of the open-circuit voltage lie b/n 0.5 – 0.6 V
for crystalline cells and 0.6 – 0.9 V for amorphous cells.
 Since electric power is the product of current and voltage, I–V
characteristic curve indicates the power delivered by a solar cell for a
given radiation level as shown in Fig. 4.7.

Fig. 3.7 Power Curve and Maximum Power Point (MPP)

Although the current has its maximum at the short-circuit
point, the voltage is zero and thus the power is also zero. The
situation for current and voltage is reversed at the open-circuit
point, so again the power here is zero.
 In between, there is one particular combination of current
and voltage, for which the power reaches a maximum
(indicated with the rectangular area in Fig. 4.7).
 The so-called Maximum Power Point (MPP) represents the
working point, at which the solar cell can deliver maximum
power for a given radiation intensity.
 It is situated near the bend of the I-V characteristic curve.
The corresponding values of VMPP and IMPP can be estimated
from VOC and ISC as follows:
 VMPP .I MPP PMPP
FF  
VOC .I SC  VOC .I SC
The Fill Factor FF indicates how far the I-V characteristic
curve approximates to a rectangle. For crystalline solar cells
Fill Factor FF is about 0.7-0.8.
 The maximum output power PMPP of the cell is given by:
PMPP  VMPP .I MPP  FF.VOC .I SC
The efficiency of the solar cell, which refers to the ratio of the
output electrical energy to the input solar radiation (Pin), is
defined by the relation.
FF .VOC .I SC

Pin
Efficiencies of the silicon solar cells vary between 10 and 14%.
 Note: in this formula:
e= Q, and Tc= T, Isc = Iph

The above power equation can be differentiated with respect to V. By

setting the derivative equal to 0, the external voltage, Vmax, that gives
the maximum cell output power can be obtained.

The above equation is explicit equation of the voltage Vmax, which

maximizes the power and can be obtained by iteration if the values of
Isc, Io and Tc are known.
 The maximum power (Pmax = Imax X Vmax) is

Another parameter of interest is the maximum efficiency, which is the

ratio between the maximum power and the incident light power, given by
 Example

The open circuit voltage is

Voltage at maximum power can be found by trial and error from the following equation
• Maximum Power is

• Maximum efficiency is

• The cell area required to get an output of 20 W is

Effect of Irradiation
 According to the relation of the photocurrent to the
irradiation, the short-circuit current ISC is linearly
proportional to the solar radiation over a wide range.

Fig. 4.8 I – V Characteristic Curves at Different Irradiation)

• As can be seen from the figure below the open circuit voltage
increases logarithmically by increasing the solar radiation,
whereas the short circuit current increases linearly.
Effect of Temperature
 The main effect of increase in temperature is on open circuit voltage,
which decreases linearly with the cell temperature; thus the cell
efficiency drops. As can be seen, the short, circuit current increases
slightly with the increase of the cell temperature

 since the band gap energy decreases with rising temperature, more
photons have enough energy to create electron-hole pairs. As a
consequence of increasing minority (N-type) carrier diffusion, the
photocurrent (ISC) is observed to increase slightly. This is, however a
small effect, Fig. 4.9
 Fig. 4.9 I – V Characteristic Curves at Different Temperatures
ISC increases by about 0.07 % / K.
VOC is strongly temperature-dependent.
VOC sinks by about 0.4 % / K.
Since the cell voltage and current depend on the temperature,
the supplied electric power (P) also varies with the temperature.
P sinks by about 0.4 – 0.5 % / K.
From Single Cells to PV Arrays
 Solar cells are rarely used individually. Rather, cells with
similar characteristics are connected and encapsulated to
form modules in order to obtain higher power values.
 These modules are then in turn combined to form arrays.
 PV arrays for a diversity of applications can be constructed
according to this principle in the power range from W to
MW.
Parallel connection
If higher current is required in a system, solar cells are
connected in parallel as illustrated in Fig. 4.10.
 Fig. 4.10 Parallel connection of solar cells

In a parallel-connected configuration, the voltage across

each cell is equal whereas the total current is the sum of all
the individual cell currents.
Accordingly, the I-V characteristic curve of the complete
configuration is obtained, as shown in Fig. 4.11, by adding the
single cell current values corresponding to each voltage value
point for point.
 Fig. 4.11 I – V Characteristic Curves for parallel connection

Series connection
In a series connection, as illustrated in Fig. 4.12, the same
current flows through each cell whereas the total voltage is the
sum of the voltage across each cell.
Fig. 4.12 Series connection of solar cells
The I-V characteristic curve of the complete configuration,
as shown in Fig. 4.13, is obtained by adding the single cell
voltage values corresponding to each current value point for
point.

Fig. 4.13 I – V Characteristic Curves for series connection

 Energy Storage Units
 The instantaneous generation of photovoltaic power is
unpredictable. It varies between zero and its maximum
value independent of demand.
 In most cases, storage of the generated PV energy is thus a
requirement.
 For grid-connected PV systems the public utility grid acts
as a convenient and cost effective means of energy storage:
the grid takes the produced energy in and then releases it
again to consumers corresponding to demand.
 In case of water pumping or ventilators, energy
consumption could be adapted to the supplied energy.
 For many stand-alone PV systems, however, which are not
connected to the public utility grid, energy storage batteries are
required to achieve a continuous electrical energy supply.
Coupling of PV Generator and Battery
 Since PV generators produce direct current and batteries
need direct current for charging, it is consequential and
practical to charge a battery with a PV generator by
directly connecting them together, Fig. 4.14.

Fig. 4.14 Direct Coupling of the PV Generator and the Battery

 The curve of an idealized characteristic of the battery can
be represented by straight line which varies, depending on
each state of charge within a certain voltage range, say 11 V
to 14.4 V in case of a lead battery, with a rated (nominal)
voltage of 12 V.
 For three different irradiation values, the characteristics of
the PV generator are represented on the same voltage scale
with the characteristic curve of the battery resulting in three
different working points as indicated in Fig. 4.15.
 With a careful sizing of the PV generator/battery
combination, the working points could be located within the
area of the maximum power of the PV generator.
Fig. 4.15 I – V Characteristic Curves for PV generator and battery
Inverters
 PV generators as well as batteries deliver basically direct
current or direct-current voltage (DC). Even though many small
consumers are suitable for operating directly with DC voltage,
most commercial devices need, however, an alternating voltage
(AC).
 Therefore, power-conditioning elements, which are commonly
called “inverters” are often applied to PV systems.
 Also in grid-connected systems inverters are basically necessary
for the conversion of DC power into grid compatible AC power.
 Since production cost of PV electricity is several times more
expensive than conventional electrical energy, conversion
efficiency becomes predominant for the economics of the total
PV system
In consequence, extremely high efficiency not only in the nominal
power range but also under partial load conditions is a requirement for
PV inverters in grid-connected as well as in stand-alone systems.
 Fig. 4.16 presents a general structure of a grid-connected PV system
consisting mainly of the components: the PV generator, the inverter,
the safety devices and in many cases the electric meter.

Fig. 4.16 General Structure of a Grid-Connected PV System

The actual power fed into the grid can be estimated by

multiplying the actual power of the PV generator with the
actual efficiency of the inverter, regardless of losses in the
safety device and in the meter.
 4.3 Design for Remote photovoltaic applications
 Photovoltaic power is ideal for a remote applications
requiring a few watts to hundreds of KW of electrical power.
 Even where conventional electrical grid is available, for
some applications, where uninterruptible or emergency
stand by power is necessary, photovoltaic would be
appropriate.
 Remote PV applications include
 Water pumping for potable water supply and irrigation
 Power for remote houses
 Street lighting
 Battery charging
 Telephone and radio communication relay stations
 Weather stations
 Vaccine refrigeration
 The design of a PV system is based on the following basic
considerations for the application.
i. Which is more important, the daily energy output or the power
(average or peak)?
ii. Is a back-up energy source needed and /or available?
iii. Is energy storage important? What type- Battery, pumped water
etc?
iv. Is the power needed as AC or DC ? What Voltage?

In general there are three basic steps in the design of a PV system.

1. Estimation of load and load profile
2. Estimation of available solar radiation and
3. Design of PV system, including area of PV panels, selection of
other components, and electrical system schematic
Estimation of Loads and Load Profiles
Precise estimation of loads and their timings (load
profile) are important for PV systems since the system
is sized as the minimum required to satisfy the demand
over a day
Example (load Calculations)
An owner of a remote cabin wants to install a PV
system. The loads in the home are described below.
Assume that all the lights and electronics are powered
by AC. Find the daily and weekly peak and average
energy estimates. The system used is a 24-volt DC
system with an inverter.
Solution
Loads need to be broken down according to:
 run-time
Peak power
Night or day use, and
AC or DC loads.
The load profile is as follows
 Estimation of Available solar radiation
 If long term measured solar radiation values are available at a
location, equations of solar radiation can be used to estimate the
average solar radiation per day.
 For designing a PV system, a decision is made whether the PV panel
will be operated as tracking the sun or will be fixed at a certain tilt
and azimuth angle.
 For fixed panels, a tilt angle of latitude +15o works best for winter
and -15o for summer. To keep the panel fixed year round an angle
equal to the latitude provides the maximum yearly energy.

Fig. 4.17 Solar radiation on panels at different tilt angles

 PV System Sizing
PV systems are usually sized based on the average
values of energy and power needed, available solar
radiation and component efficiencies, if meeting the load
at all times is not critical. This method is known as the
heuristic approach.
A system designed by this approach will not give the
best design but may provide a good start for a detailed
design.
A detailed design accounts for the changes in
efficiencies of the components depending on the load and
the solar radiation availability and whether the system is
operating in a PV-to-storage, or storage-to-load mode.
Example (Heuristic approach to PV system sizing)
A PV System using 50 watt, 12-volt panels with 6-volt, 125 amp-
hour batteries is needed to power a home in a very sunny location
with a daily load of 1700 watt-hours. System voltage is 24 volts.
There are an average of 5 daylight hours in the winter. Assuming 3
days for storage of battery and , specify the collector and storage
values for the system using heuristic approach. Take: battery
efficiency 0.75 and maximum depth of discharge = 0.7
Solution
 Water Pumping applications
Photovoltaic water pumping is one of the most common PV
applications around the world, with thousands of photovoltaic-
powered water pumps installed both in industrialized and
developing nations.
PV pumps are increasingly used for intermediate sized pumping
applications, filling the gap between small hand pumps and large
engine-powered systems and increasingly replacing mechanical
wind pumps.
Water pumping for drinking water or irrigation at remote
locations is an important application of PV.
For a simple schematic shown in fig 3.22 the power needed to
pump water at volumetric flow rate Q is
QgH
P
P
 The static head Hs is
(A+B). In case the
water level is drawn
down, the static head
would be (A+B+C).

The pump must work

against the total head
H which includes the
dynamic head Hd also,
v2
Hd  H f 
2g
Fig. 4.18 Water pumping using a submersible pump

Hf = frictional head loss in pipe and the bends

v = velocity of water at pipe outlet
 The pump efficiency is a function of the load and is
available as a characteristic curve from the manufacturer.
 For general design purposes the following typical values
could be used.
Example:
A PV system is designed to pump water for livestock in the
vicinity of El Paso, Tx. The following information is available.
 QgH

P
A System schematic is shown in fig 3.23
Fig. 4.19 System Schematic for example problem