Why Study Geomorphology?

• Understand the present

• Interpret the past

• Uniformitarianism
(Present is key to the past)
 Basic Definitions
 Topography refers to the elevation and relief of the Earth’s surface.

 Landforms are the topographic features on the Earth’s surface.

 Geomorphology is the study of earth surface processes and landforms.

The maps above represent the same area on Earth’s surface and they show three different ways we can view
landforms. The image on the far left is a clip from a topographic elevation map, the image in the middle is an
infrared aerial photo, and the image on the right is the geologic interpretation of surface sediments and
geomorphology. This location is interesting because it contains elements of a natural and human altered physical
environment. The lake in the image, (coded blue in the topographic and geology map, and black in the infrared
aerial photo) was formed by artificial damming a stream the flows through this landscape.

2
 Topography
• Topography is a term used to describe the Earth’s surface. Topography includes a variety of different
features, collectively referred to as landforms.
• Topography is measured by the differences in elevation across the earth’s surface.
• Differences between high and low elevation are referred to as changes in relief.
• Scientist examine topography using a variety of different sources ranging from paper topographic maps
to digital elevation models developed using specialized geographic information systems commonly
referred to as a GIS.

e
i dg
R
u e
Bl South Carolina’s elevation relief
t
on ranges from 4,590 feet in the Blue
e dm Ridge Region to 0 feet along the
Pi Coastal Plain. The rivers dissect the
topography and drain
down-slope from headwaters in
n
l ai the mountainous Blue Ridge and
lP Piedmont, into the alluvial valleys
ta
o as of the Coastal Plain before
C draining into the Atlantic Ocean.

3
 Landforms
• Landforms are the individual topographic features exposed on the Earth’s surface.
• Landforms vary in size and shape and include features such as small creeks or sand dunes, or large
features.
• Landforms develop over a range of different time-scales. Some landforms develop rather quickly (over a
few seconds, minutes, or hours), such as a landslide, while others may involve many millions of years to
form, such as a mountain range.
• Landform development can be relatively simple and involve only a few processes, or very complex and
involve a combination of multiple processes and agents.
• Landforms are dynamic features that are continually affected by a variety of earth-surface processes
including weathering, erosion, and deposition.
• Earth scientists who study landforms provide decision makers with information to make natural
resource, cultural management, and infrastructure decisions, that affect humans and the environment.

Table Rock Mountain is a metamorphosed igneous intrusion exposed by

millions of years of weathering and erosion in South Carolina’s Piedmont Region.

Photo Source: SCGS

 Landforms and Scale:
Crustal Orders of Relief
• First Order of Relief:
– The broadest landform scale is divided into continental landmasses, which include all of the crust above
sea-level (30% Earth’s surface), and ocean basins, which include the crustal areas below sea-level (70% of
Earth’s surface)

• Second Order of Relief:

– The second order of relief includes regional-scale continental features such as mountain ranges,
plateaus, plains, and lowlands. Examples include the Rocky Mountains, Atlantic Coastal Plain, and
Tibetan Plateau.
– Major ocean basin features including continental shelves, slopes, abyssal plains, mid-ocean ridges, and
trenches are all second-order relief landforms.

• Third Order of Relief:

– The third order of relief includes individual landform features that collectively make up the larger
second-order relief landforms. Examples include individual volcanoes, glaciers, valleys, rivers, flood
plains, lakes, marine terraces, beaches, and dunes.
– Each major landform categorized within the third order of relief may also contain many smaller features
or different types of a single feature. For example, although a flood plain is an individual landform it may
also contain a mosaic of smaller landforms including pointbars, oxbow lakes, and natural levees. Rivers,
although a single landform, may be classified by a variety of channel types including straight,
meandering, or braided.
5
 Crustal Orders of Relief
I. First Order or Relief: II. Second Order of Relief:
Continental Landmasses and Ocean Basins Major Continental and Ocean Landforms

III. Third Order of Relief:

Genetic Landform Features

Beaches Rivers and Flood Plains Mountains

6
Images and Photos: SCGS
 Geomorphology
 The word “geomorphology" comes from the Greek roots
"geo,“ “morph,” and “logos,” meaning “earth,” “form,” and
“study,” respectively. Therefore, geomorphology is literally
“the study of earth forms.”
 Geomorphologists are concerned primarily with earth’s
surficial features, including their origin, history, composition,
and impact on human activity.
 Geomorphology concentrates primarily on Quaternary
(Pleistocene and Holocene) features.
 Earth’s landforms reflect the local and regional balance
between hydrologic, tectonic, aeolian, glacial, atmospheric,
and marine processes.
 Contd.
• Geomorphology defines the processes and conditions that influence
landform development, and the physical, morphological, and structural
characteristics of landforms.

• Geomorphologists who study landforms often seek to answer

fundamental questions that help them study landforms, such as:

– What is the physical form or shape of the landform?

– What is the elevation and topographic relief of the landform?
– How did the landform originate?
– What is the distribution of the landform and where else does it
occur?
– Are their any patterns associated with the landform or topography?
– What is the significance of the landform in relation to other
elements of the landscape or environment?
– Has the landform or geomorphology been altered by humans?
– Does the landform or geomorphology affect humans?
 Uniformitarianism
– Uniformitarianism is a common theory held by earth scientists that states “the present is the key to the
past”. Uniformitarianism implies that the processes currently shaping the Earth’s topography and
landforms are the same processes as those which occurred in the past.
– By studying geomorphology, we are better able to interpret the origin of landforms and infer their future
evolution within the landscape.
– Such applications are especially important for predicting, preventing, and mitigating natural hazards
impact to humans, and managing our natural resources for future generations.

The two images below illustrate the concept of uniformitarianism. On the left is an imprint of ripple marks
in sandstone, similar current ripple forms in the right image. If the present is the key to the past, we can infer
that the sandstone rock formed in a low energy, fluvial environment similar to the conditions in the right
image.

9
 Tools of Geomorphology
• Maps
– Topographic
– Surface Geologic
• Air photos
• Math Models
• Experiments
• Ground Truth
Godfrey Ridge East and Brodhead Creek, DWG, PA, , detail

Topics of Geomorphology
• Agents
– “that which acts or has the power to act”
– Water and ice, wind
• Subsurface Modifiers
– Tectonic compression, tension and shear
• Processes
– “progressive steps by which an end is attained”
– Weathering, erosion, transport, deposition
• Energy Sources
– Solar, geothermal, gravitational, chemical
 Importance of Geomorphology
• To understand geomorphological processes of various
environment.
• To detect natural and environmental hazards efficiently, e.g.
earthquake, flooding, landslide, tsunami, volcanism etc.
• To identify various landform features and landscapes
• To identify various landform features from satellite images
• Coastal and river research
• Vulnerability studies
• Used in Geology, Geography, Archeology, Engineering,
Planning, Mining, Construction, Urbanization …
 Rise of Geomorphic Thought
• Observation and hypothesis – Herodotus 450 BC
• Description – Hutton – 1700’s+
• Explanation 1800’s
– Agassiz – glacial landforms
– Powell (1834 -1902) – fluvial/structure
– Gilbert (1843 -1918) – All surfaces
• Correlation
– Davis (1850 -1934) – fluvial+
• Quantification and prediction – now a common goal

Geomorphology History flashcards

orn, cirque, col, rock slide, talus

 Herodotus (484 - 425 B.C.)
• Rocks on land in Egypt contained
marine fossils.
• Assumed that the
Nile Delta took
thousands of years
to form.
 Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.)

• Dry land can be submerged.

• Land can be raised from beneath the ocean.
• Described erosion by rivers, and deposition in
deltas.
• Lucretius (99-55 BC): Recognized weathering
processes on rocks.
• Seneca (3-65 AD): Observed erosion of valleys
by running water.
• Ibn-Sina (980-1037 AD): Concluded that
mountains could be uplifted, and later eroded.
 Renaissance Period

• Leonardo DaVinci (1452-1519) found marine

fossils on land
• G. Bauer [“Agricola”] (1494-1555)
hypothesized that mountains were sculpted by
weathering and mass movements
• Steno (1638-87) regarded water as the most
significant agent of erosion
 Landscape Creation vs.
Landscape Development

• Biblical interpretations hindered the

proliferation of non-catastrophic landform
evolution theories.
• Werner (1749-1817) theorized that all
mountains formed under water as layers of
sediment, , and were ultimately sculpted by
rapidly receding oceans.
 Catastrophic Theories
• Georges Cuvier: Great catastrophic
floods produced unconformities, and carved
Earth’s landscape.
 James Hutton (1726-97)
• Granites form through
heat & fusion deep
underground, and are
later uplifted and
exhumed.
• Landforms are
produced by slow,
continuous processes.
• Uniformatarianism
 Hutton (continued)
• Sediments are eroded from
landforms, only to be deposited
and later lithified into new rocks.
• There is neither an apparent
beginning nor end to landform
development.
 Hutton’s Proponents
• John Playfair (1748-1819)
– Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth (1802).
– Streams carve their own drainage systems.
– Stream reaches and maintains equilibrium, adjusted to
local gradient. CONCEPT OF “GRADED STREAM”
– The Earth is very ancient; ongoing processes
continue to change it.
• Charles Lyell (1797 - 1875)
The Principles of Geology (1833 - 1875)
A strong promoter of Uniformitarian theory
A vehement opponent of Catastrophism
 Other Nineteenth Century
European Contributions
• Venetz, and Bernardhi: Moraines and erratics
prove glaciations extended from polal
regions(1832)
• Louis Agassiz : Recognized glacial landforms in
Europe & N. Am.- introduced the concept of
Ice Ages (1837)
 Charles Darwin
• Recorded his observations during the voyage
of “the Beagle.”

• Suggested an origin for atolls

William Morris Davis 1850 -1934

• Davis' Cycle of erosion

An example from an arid clima

 Grove Karl Gilbert Process Geomorphology
• (1890) Recognized some Utah landscapes were formed by
Pleistocene Lake Bonneville. Great Salt Lake and Bonneville
salt flats are remnants, contributed to the understanding of
river incision, Identified lunar craters as caused by impacts,
and carried out early impact - cratering experiments
• Landforms are a balance between resisting framework and
the forces acting to alter the landscape
• Implies that time is one component of many that affect the
appearance of the Earth
• Inferred that the landscape was in equilibrium between
driving forces and resisting forces
 Davisian Geomorphology & TIME
• Davisian Geomorphology & TIME as the dominant factor
dominated the scientific literature until the 1960’s
• John Hack proposed landscape development occurred
similarly to the way Gilbert had espoused, recognizing
considerable variability in most geomorphic systems
• Most were in Dynamic Equilibrium
• 1930-1965 Rise of Quantitative Approaches to
Geomorphology
• Quantitative trends continue (computers, satellite, other
remotely sensed data, numerical methods, improved dating
techniques,…)
 Concepts of Equilibrium
• Equilibrium means balance.
• In geomorphology, it refers to no net change,
usually in terms of a balance between
deposition and erosion, uplift and
downcutting, or soil production and removal.
In short, Erosion, transportation and
deposition
• Equilibrium is strived for but seldom achieved.
• A change in one part of a system affects all
others.
 Fluvial Equilibrium
• Recent uplift in excess of erosional rates results in a
system that is out of equilibrium.
• Weathering and erosion dominate headland areas
with removed material being transported to a
depositional basin.
• As headlands recede, both erosional and
depositional rates decrease.
• If the region remains stable for an extended period,
equilibrium, where erosional and depositional rates
are equal, might be achieved.
 Base Level
• Base level is the level below which erosion
cannot occur and above which deposition
does not take place.
• Sea level is the ultimate base level
• Lakes and reservoirs provide temporary base
levels
• Changes in sea level can be eustatic or relative
• Changes in base level create and destroy
accommodation space
 Evolutionary Geomorphology
• William Morris Davis (1850-1934)
• Based on Darwinian Evolutionary Theory
• Landscapes evolve throughout time
• Stage of evolution can be determined by
examining the characteristics of the landscape
• Implies that TIME is the critical factor in
determining what the landscape looks like
Structure Process Resulting Time Landform
 Concepts in Geomorphology
• Systems
– “an assemblage of parts forming a whole”
– Fluvial, glacial, coastal,
– foreland basin, collisional mountains
• Climate
– Determines dominant agents
• Time
– Reshaping = "Evolution" of landforms/landscapes
• Systems can dominate large areas.
– Regions summarized as Physiography Maps
Concepts in Geomorphology
Concept 1:
‘The same physical processes
and laws that operate today
operated throughout geologic
time (present is key to the
past), although not necessarily
always with the same intensity
as now’ (Thornbury 1969).
Concept 2:

‘Geologic structure is a
dominant control factor in
the evolution of landforms
and is reflected in them’
(Thornbury 1969).
 Concept 3:
‘Geomorphic processes leave
their distinctive imprints upon
landforms and each
geomorphic process develops
its own characteristic
assemblage of land forms’
(Thornbury 1969).
 Concept 4:
‘As the different erosional
agents act upon the earth’s
surface there is produced an
orderly sequence of landforms
having distinctive
characteristics at the
successive stages of their
development’ (Thornbury
1969).
 Concept 5:
‘Geomorphic scale is a
significant parameter in the
interpretation of landform
development and landform
characteristics of geomorphic
systems. Landscape is function
of time and space’ (Singh
Savindra 2007).
 Concept 6:
A simple geomorphological
equation may be envisaged
as a vehicle for the
explanation of landform as
follows
F= f (PM) dt (Gregory 1977).
 Concept 7:

Complexity of geomorphic
evolution is more common
than simplicity (Thornbury
1969).
 Concept 8:
‘Little of the earth’s
topography is older than
Tertiary and most of it no
older than Pleistocene’
(Thornbury 1969).
 Concept 9:

‘An appreciation of world

climates is necessary to a
proper understanding of
the varying importance of
the different geomorphic
processes’ (Thornbury
1969).
I. Overview
B. Process Geomorphology:
1. concept of process….the action involved
when a force induces a change (either
chemical or physical) in the materials or
forms at the earth’s surface.
2. Loose definition: ”The study of landforms
and the methods by which the landforms
were(are) created”
II. The Basics of Process Geomorphology

A. A delicate balance or equilibrium exists between

landforms and process.
1. Geomorphic Systems
The balance between form and process is best
demonstrated by considering both factors as
systems or component of systems. A system is a
collection of related components
 II. The Basics of Process Geomorphology
A. A delicate balance or equilibrium exists
between landforms and process.
1. G.K. Gilbert – “dynamic
adjustment”

Landforms reflect the interaction between the dominant

process and the local geology
II. The Basics of Process Geomorphology
A. A delicate balance or equilibrium exists
between landforms and process.
2. William Morris Davis
“cycles of erosion”
II. The Basics of Process Geomorphology
A. A delicate balance or equilibrium exists
between landforms and process.
3. John Hack
“dynamic equilibrium”
II. The Basics of Process Geomorphology

A. A delicate balance or equilibrium exists

between landforms and process.
2. Defining Equilibrium and Time Scales
Schumm (1977)
II. The Basics of Process Geomorphology
B. The perceived balance between process
and form is created by the interaction of
energy, force, and resistance.
Process: (def) The action involved when a
force induces a change in the materials or
landforms at the Earth’s surface. OR
The method by which one thing may be
produced from something else.
 Agent, Process & products

Agents of Geomorphic Processes

• River -Humid Geomorphic Environment
• Wind - Arid Environment
• Glacier/ice - Polar Environments
• Wave - Coastal Environment
Geomorphic processes
• Erosion
• Transportation
• Deposition
Geomorphic products
• Erosional landform features
• Transportation
• Depositional landform features
 Constructive and Destructive Processes
• Constructive processes build landforms through tectonic and depositional
processes.
– Tectonic processes include movements at plate boundaries, earthquakes, orogeny,
deformation, and volcanic activity.
– Deposition is the accumulation or accretion of weathered and eroded materials.

• Destructive processes break down landforms through weathering, erosion,

and mass wasting.
– Weathering is the disintegration of rocks by mechanical, chemical, and biological
agents.
– Erosion is the removal and transportation of weathered material by water, wind,
ice, or gravity.
– Mass wasting is the rapid down-slope movement of materials by gravity.

• Other Agents and Processes that Affect Landform Development

– Climate: temperature, precipitation, water cycle, atmospheric conditions
– Time: fast and slow rates of change
– People: influences on natural resources and earth surface processes
 Constructive Processes
 Constructive processes are responsible for
physically building or constructing certain
landforms. Constructive processes include tectonic
and depositional processes and their landforms.
 Tectonic Landforms are created by massive earth movements due to tectonic and
volcanic activity, and include landforms such as: mountains, rift valleys, volcanoes, and
intrusive igneous landforms
 Depositional Landforms are produced from the deposition of weathered and eroded
surface materials. Depositional landforms include features such as: beaches, barrier
islands, spits, deltas, flood plains, dunes, alluvial fans, and glacial moraines.
The Stromboli Volcano erupting off the coast of Floodplain deposits at the confluence of
Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea. Mississippi and Arkansas Rivers.

52

Source: wikimedia commons Copyright ©Google Earth 200

 Destructive Processes
 Destructive processes create landforms through
weathering and erosion of surface materials facilitated by
water, wind, ice, and gravity. Mass-wasting events occur
in areas where weathering and erosion is accelerated.
 Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of rock at or near the Earth’s
surface by mechanical, chemical, or biological weathering processes.
 Erosion is the removal and transportation of weathered or unweathered materials by
water, wind, ice, and gravity.
 Mass-Wasting is a rapid period of weathering and erosion that removes and
transports materials very quickly and is often triggered by an environmental stimuli.
Mass wasting includes rock falls, landslides, debris and mud flows, slumps, and
creep.

 Landforms formed by destructive processes include

river and stream valleys, waterfalls, glacial valleys,
karst landscapes, coastal cliffs, and wave-cut scarps.
53
Geomorphic Processes:

 Physical processes which create and modify landforms on the

surface of the earth

 Endogenous (Endogenic) vs.Exogenous (Exogenic) Processes

 Rock Cycle 
 A. Endogenous Processes
Endogenous Processes are large-scale landform
building and transforming processes
– they create relief.

1. Igneous Processes

a. Volcanism: Volcanic eruptions  Volcanoes

b. Plutonism: Igneous intrusions

2. Tectonic Processes (Also called Diastrophism)

a. Folding: anticlines, synclines, mountains

b. Faulting: rift valleys, graben, escarpments
c. Lateral Faulting: strike-slip faults

Earthquakes  evidence of present-day tectonic activity

The forces coming from within the
earth are called as endogenetic forces
which cause two types of movements
in the earth, viz,
(i) Horizontal movements, and
(ii) Vertical movements.
Endogenetic forces introduce various
types of vertical irregularities which
give birth to many kinds of relief
features on the earth's surface, eg.,
mountains, plateaus, plains, lakes,
faults, folds, etc.
On an average, the origin of endogenetic
forces is related to thermal conditions of
the interior of earth. Generally, the
endogenetic forces and related horizontal
and vertical movements are caused due to
contraction and expansion of rocks'
because of varying thermal conditions and
temperature changes inside the earth. The
endogenetic forces and movements are
divided, on the basis of intensity, into two
major categories as in following chart:
•Diastrophic forces (ii) Sudden forces
Diastrophic Forces and Sudden
Forces take place mainly along
the plate boundaries, which are
the zones that are not stable.
Endogenetic processes cause
many major landform features.
 B. Exogenous Processes
Also called Gradational Processes, they comprise
degradation and aggradation – they modify relief

® a continuum of processes – Weathering  Mass

Wasting  Erosion  Transportation  Deposition
® these processes are carried through by Geomorphic
Agents: gravity, flowing water (rivers), moving ice
(glaciers), waves and tides (oceans and lakes), wind,
plants, organisms, animals and humans

1. Degradation Processes  Also called Denudation Processes

a. Weathering , b. Mass Wasting and c. Erosion
and Transportation
2. Aggradation Processes
a. Deposition – fluvial, eolian, glacial, coastal
 EARTH'S MOVEMENT OR FORCE

Endogenetic Forces Exogenetic Forces

Diastrophic Forces Sudden Forces

Epeirogenetic Forces Orogenetic Forces

Upward Movement Downward Movement
(Emergence) (Submergence)

Tensional Forces Compressional Forces

Crustal Fracture Crustal Bending

Cracking Faulting
(Faults)
Warping Folding
(Folds)
Up warping Down warping
i) Diastrophic Forces
• These forces include both vertical and
horizontal movements which are caused due to
forces deep within the earth. These diastrophic
forces operate very slowly and their effects
become discernable after thousands and
millions of years. These forces also termed as
constructive forces, affect larger areas of the
globe and Produce meso-level reliefs, for
example, mountains, plateau, plains, lakes, big
faults, etc. These diastrophic forces are further
subdivided into two groups, namely,
epeirogenetic movements and orogenetic
movements.
•  ii) Sudden forces

• Sudden forces are the result of long

period preparation deep within the
earth. Only their cumulative effects on the
earth's surface are quick and sudden.
Geologically, these sudden forces are
termed as 'constructive forces' because
these create certain relief features on the
earth's surface.
•
• (A)Epeirogenetic movements:
• Epeirogenetic word consists of two words,
viz: 'epiros' (meaning thereby continent)
and 'genesis' (meaning thereby original).
Epeirogenetic movement causes
upliftment and subsidence of continental
masses through upward movements are,
infact, vertical movements. These forces
and resultant movements affect larger
parts of the continents. These are further
divided into two types: upward movement
and downward movement.
• (B) Orogenetic movement:
• The word orogenetic has been derived from two
Greek words, ‘oros' (meaning thereby mountain)
and 'genesis' (meaning thereby origin or
formation). Orogenetic movement is caused due
to endogenetic forces working in horizontal
movements. Horizontal forces and movements
are also called as tangential forces. Orogenetic or
horizontal forces work in two ways, namely,
• (i) in opposite direction, and (ii) towards
each other. This is called 'tensional force' when
it operates in opposite directions. Such type of
forces and movements are also called as
divergent forces.
• Thus, tensional forces create rupture,
cracks, fracture and faults in the crustal
parts of the earth. The-force when
operates face to face, is called
compression force or convergent force.
Compressional force causes crustal
bending leading to the formation of fields
or crustal warping leading to local rise or
subsidence of crustal parts.
• Crustal bending: When horizontal forces
work face to face, the crustal rocks are
bent due to resistant compressional and
tangential forces.
• It is in two ways:
• (i) warping, and (ii) folding.
• The process of crustal warping affects
larger areas of the crust wherein the
crustal parts are either warped
(raised),upward or downward. The
upward rise of the crustal part due to
compressive force resulting from
convergent horizontal movement is called
upwarping. While the bending of the
crustal part downward in the form of a
basin or depression is called down
warping.
 Folding

 Folding is one of the endogenetic processes.

When two forces push towards each other from
opposite sides, the rock layers will bend into
folds. The process by which folds are formed are
due to compressional forces known as folding.
There are large-scale and small-scale folds. Large-
scale folds are found mainly along destructive plate
boundaries.
 Faulting

• Faulting is the fracturing and displacement of more brittle rock

strata along a fault plane either caused by tension or compression.
• A break in rock along which a vertical or horizontal rock movement
has occurred is called a fault.
• The process of forming a fault is faulting.
• The line of fault which appears on land surface is known as fault
line. These lines are often lines of weakness which allow molten
rock to rise up onto the earth surface when there is active
volcanic activity nearby.
• There are three types of fault which are caused by different
endogenetic forces:
• - Normal fault: Compressional force from the plate
• - Reverse fault:Tensional Force from the Plate
• - Tear fault:Diagonal Compressional force from the Plate

• Faulting forms two major landforms - block mountains and rift

valleys.
 • Sudden Forces
• Sudden movements, caused by sudden endogenetic forces coming
from deep within the earth, cause sudden and rapid events that these
cause massive distructions at and below the earth’s surfaces. Such
events, like volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, are called extreme
events and become disastrous hazards when they occur in densely
populated localities. These forces work very quickly and their results
are seen within minutes. It is important to note that these forces are
the result of long-period cumulative effects on the earth’s surface are
quick and sudden. Geologically, these forces are termed as
constructive forces because these create certain relief features on
the earth’s surface. For example, volcanic eruptions result in the
formation of volcanic cones and mountains while fissure flows of lavas
form extensive lava plateaux, such as Deccan plateau of India and
Columbia plateau of USA. Similarly, it forms the lava plains.
Earthquakes create faults, fractures, lakes, etc.
 Earthquake
• An earthquake is a vibration or oscillation of
the surface of the earth caused by sudden
release of enormous pressure.
 Vulcanicity
• Vulcanicity (also known as volcanic activity or
igneous activity) is one of the endogenetic
processes.
• Magma beneath the crust is under very great
pressure. When folding and faulting occur, cracks or
fractures which are lines of weakness. When these
lines of weakness develop downward in the crust and
reach the magma, they will release the pressure in
the magma.
• This allows magma to rise up along the lines of
weakness and intrude into the crust. Some magma
may even reach the earth's surface.
• There are two types of vulcanicity: intrusive
vulcanicity and extrusive vulcanicity.
• In the end, it can be concluded that the plates
are responsible for the endogenetic processes
and landforms, and glacier, river, wind,
atmospheric happenings, etc. are responsible
for the exogenetic process and landforms.
 Diastrophism
• Diastrophism is also called tectonism, large-
scale deformation of earth’s crust by natural
processes, which leads to the formation of
continents and ocean basins, mountain
systems, plateaus, rift valleys, and other
features by mechanisms such as plate
movement, volcanic loading, or folding.
• Internal forces active here
 Metamorphism
• Metamorphism is the change in rock
structure, minerals or geologic structure.
• It is a process of change in the physical
structure of rock as a result of long-term heat,
pressure and introduction of chemically active
fluids, especially a change that increases the
rock's hardness and crystalline structure.
• The change occurs primarily due to heat,
pressure, and the introduction of chemically
active fluids.
 Types of Exogenetic / Exogenous Processes
• Weathering
• Erosion/ Degradation
• Transportation
• Deposition/Aggradation
• Mass movement
 Denudation
• It means to make the things exposed.
• The processes by which the rocks on the earth’s surface are
broken into pieces through the application of external physical
forces and the debris are transported elsewhere is known as
denudation.
• This denudation work is performed through three processes
such as weathering, erosion and transportation.
• Denudation= Weathering + Erosion + Transportation
 Weathering
• The weathering is a process by which the
rocks on the surface of the earth is broken
mechanically into pieces due to snow or frost,
the variation of temperature and pressure or
due to chemical (dissolution) action on the
materials.
• Even the rocks are dislodged by the animals.
But the rocks weathered this way, are not
transported elsewhere.
 Erosion
• Erosion and transportation are accomplished
together.
• The process by which the rocks of the earth’s
crust are eroded by the river, wind, glacier,
ocean currents etc. are transported elsewhere
is known as erosion.
 Degradation
• Degradation is the lowering of a bottomland
surface through the process of erosion;
• Conceptually it is the opposite of the vertical
component of aggradation and is most
frequently applied to sediment removed from
a channel bed or other low-lying parts of a
stream channel.
 Deposition
• Deposition is the constructive process of
accumulation into beds or irregular masses of
loose sediment or other rock material by any
natural agent;
 Aggradation
• Aggradation is the raising or elevating of a
bottomland surface through the process of
alluvial deposition;
• Conceptually it is the vertical component of
accretion and is most frequently applied to
sediment deposition on a channel bed, bar or
other near-channel surfaces, flood plain, or,
less often, low-lying alluvial terrace.
 Sedimentation
• Sedimentation is the process by which
sediment is mechanically deposited from
suspension within a fluid, generally water, or
ice, thereby accumulating as layers of
sediment that are segregated owing to
differences in size, shape, and composition of
the sediment particles.
 Mass movement/Mass Wasting
• Mass movement is any downslope transfer, through
gravitational and generally water-facilitated (viscous)
processes, of near-surface soil and rock material;
which includes a wide range of ground movements,
such as rock fall, deep failure of slopes and shallow
debris flows, which can occur in offshore, coastal and
onshore environments.
• Rates of mass movement range from very slow creep
to nearly instantaneous slope failure.
 Modification of landforms results from the application
of energy.

Landforms represent the interaction between driving forces and

resistance.
 
Driving Forces: Climate, Gravity, Forces generated inside the earth
Resistance: Provided by the geologic framework

The link between these two components here is PROCESS

 Bank Stability – The Factor of Safety

Resisting Forces
Factor of Safety (Fs) =
Driving Forces

If Fs is greater than 1, bank is stable. If Fs is less than 1 bank will

fail. (We usually add a safety margin – Fs>1.3 is stable.)

Resisting Forces Driving Forces (gravity)

soil strength bank angle
vegetation weight of bank
reinforcement water in bank
 Force and Resistance
(Or what it takes to initiate movement (erosion) of material)

Think in terms of SPECIFIC PROCESSES

• On the stream bed
Force/resistance
• On the stream banks
Force/resistance
II. The Basics of Process Geomorphology
C. Changes in the balance between driving
and resisting forces may destabilize the
system. The system may cross a
threshold, and may initiate a new pattern
of equilibrium.
1. Thresholds
Changes in the geomorphic system when the
limits of equilibrium are exceeded
a. Extrinsic Thresholds: caused by external
controlling factors
b. Intrinsic Threshold: usually caused by
internal factors.
 Genetic Landform Classification
• The genetic landform classification system groups landforms by the dominant set of
geomorphic processes responsible for their formation. This includes the following
processes and associated landforms:
– Tectonic Landforms
– Extrusive Igneous Landforms
– Intrusive Igneous Landforms
– Fluvial Landforms
– Karst Landforms
– Aeolian Landforms
– Coastal Landforms
– Ocean Floor Topography
– Glacial Landforms

• Within each of these genetic classifications, the resulting landforms are a product of
either constructive and destructive processes or a combination of both.
• Landforms are also influenced by other agents or processes including time, climate,
and human activity. 89