SOLAR

RADIATION
“Sun is the primary source of all
renewable energy resources. The
technology based on solar energy are eco-
friendly with environment.”
 INTRODUCTION
 SOLAR RADIATION: The emission from the sun into every
corner of space appears in the form of electromagnetic (EM)
waves that carry energy at the speed of light.
 DIFFERENT SHAPES OF INCOMING IRRADIATION: Depending
on the geometry of the earth, its distance from the sun,
geographical location of any point on the earth, astronomical
coordinates, and the composition of the atmosphere,
radiations at any given point may take different shapes.
 THE SUN AS A SPHERE OF HOT GASES: It is a sphere of
intensely hot gaseous matter. The solar energy strikes our
planet after leaving the giant furnace, the sun which is 1.5 ×
1011 m away.
 INTRODUCTION Cont.
 SOLAR SPECTRUM AS A BLACK BODY: It is roughly equivalent
to a perfect black body. The temperature in the central region
is estimated at 8 × 106 to 40 × 106 K.
 SUN AS A REACTOR: It is a continuous fusion reactor in which
hydrogen is turned into helium. The sun’s total energy output
is 3.8 × 1020 MW. This energy radiates outwards in all
directions. Only a tiny fraction of the total radiation is
intercepted by our earth. It reaches the Earth’s surface at a
maximum flux density of about 1 kWm-2.
 SUN AS AN ORIGIN OF ENERGY: Basically, all the
forms
energy inofthe world are solar in origin.
 INTRODUCTION Cont.
 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY: It is used to heat and cool
buildings (both active and passive), to heat water for domestic
and industrial uses, to heat swimming pools, to power
refrigerators, to operate engines and pumps, to desalinate
water for drinking purposes, to generate electricity, even to
grow food or dry cloths, and many more.
 CATEGORIES OF THE SUN LIGHT: It may be split into three
categories:
a) Photovoltaic (PV): to produce electricity directly from the
sun’s light.
b) Photochemical (PC): to produce electricity or light & gaseous
fuels by means of non-living chemical processes, e.g.
degradation of plastics.
c) Photobiological (PB): to produce food & gaseous fuels by
means of living organism or plants.
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM
 SUN’S ACTIVE CORE & PASSIVE LAYERS: The reactions in the
active core of the Sun produce very high temperatures
( ~107𝐾 ) and an inner radiation flux of uneven spectral
distribution. This internal radiation is absorbed in the outer
passive layers which are heated to about 5800K and so become
a source of radiation with a relatively continuous spectral
distribution.
 VARIATION OF RADIANT FLUX: The radiant flux (W/m2) from
the Sun at the Earth’s distance varies through the year by
±4%. Moreover, the radiance also varies by perhaps ±0.3 per
cent per year due to sunspots.
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM Cont.
 EM AS WAVE & PARTICLE:
Wave and particle are two forms
of light or EM radiation.
 EM waves consist of electric and
magnetic fields, which are
perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of
travel as shown in Fig. 1. The
wavelength and frequency are Fig. 1: EM waves
related through the speed of
light, c, as: 𝜆𝑓 = 𝑐→→→ (1)
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM Cont.
 Particle nature of EM radiation exhibits properties as photons
(having mass) made up of packets of energy E, which is related to
frequency f as:
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 → (2)
where h is the Plank constant, h = 6.626×10−34 J.s.

ℎ𝑐
𝐸= 𝜆 → (3)
 THE SOLAR ENERGY SPECTRUM: It contains wavelengths that are
too long to be seen by the naked eye, and also wavelengths that are
too short to be visible. Thus the solar spectrum can be divided into
three main regions:
a) Ultraviolet region (λ < 0.4 µm); about 5% of the irradiance
b) Visible region (0.4 µm < λ < 0.7 µm); about 43% of the
irradiance
c) Infrared region (λ ˃ 0.7 µm); about 52% of the irradiance
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM Cont.
 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION: Figure 2
shows the spectral distribution of the
solar irradiance at the Earth’s mean
distance, uninfluenced by the
atmosphere.
 SOLAR CONSTANT: The area beneath
this curve is the solar constant G0 =
1367Wm−2. This is the RFD (Radiant
flux density) incident on a plane
directly facing the Sun and outside Fig. 2: Spectral distribution of
the atmosphere at a distance of 1.5 extraterrestrial solar irradiance.
× 1011 m from the Sun (i.e. at the
Earth’s mean distance from the Sun).
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM Cont.
 MAXIMUM SOLAR IRRADIANCE: As it can be seen from Fig. 2
that the maximum solar irradiance occurs at λ= 0.5 μm. The
proportions given in figure are received at the Earth’s surface
with the Sun incident at about 45°. The contribution to the
solar radiation flux from wavelengths greater than 2.5 µm is
negligible, and all three regions contributing to the irradiance
are classed as solar short wave radiation.
 WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW: According to the law, the
wavelength corresponding to the maximum of solar irradiance
from the sun can be obtained from:
λmaxT = 2897.6 µm K→→→ (4)
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM Cont.
 INTENSITY OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION (𝑮𝒆𝒙𝒕.):
 The orientation of the earth’s orbit around the sun-earth distance
varies slightly and since the solar radiation outside the earth’s
atmosphere at the mean sun-earth distance is nearly of fixed
intensities, so the RFD is considered constant throughout the year.
 However, this extraterrestrial radiation suffers variation due to the
fact that the earth revolves around the sun not in a circular orbit but
follows an elliptic path (Fig.3), with sun at one of the foci.
 The intensity of extraterrestrial radiation measured on a plane
normal to the radiation on the nth day of the year is given as :
360
1 + 0.033 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 → (5)
𝐺𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐺0
365
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION &
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM Cont.

Fig. 3
 RADIATION COMPONENTS
 DIRECT & DIFFUSE RADIATION:
Solar radiation incident on the
atmosphere from the direction of
the sun is the solar extraterrestrial
beam or direct radiation. Beneath
the atmosphere, at the Earth’s
surface, the radiation will be
observable from the direction of
the Sun’s disc as beam as well as Fig. 1: Origin of direct beam
diffuse radiation as shown in Fig. 1. and diffuse radiation.
 GENERATION OF DIFFUSE RADIATION:
Diffuse radiation is first intercepted
by the constituents of the air and
then released as scattered
radiation in many directions.
 RADIATION COMPONENTS Cont.
 CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFUSE RADIATION: Even on a cloudless,
clear day, there is always at least 10% diffuse irradiance from the
molecules in the atmosphere.
 DISTINCTION: The practical distinction between the two
components is that only the beam radiation can be focused. The
ratio between the beam irradiance and the total irradiance thus
varies from about 0.9 (on a clear day) to zero (on a completely
overcast day).
 TOTAL IRRADIANCE: The total irradiance on any plane is the sum
of the beam and diffuse components, so:
Gt = Gb + Gd
GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN
 GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN
 Latitude(𝝓) : The angular distance
(north or south of the earth's equator),
measured in degrees along a meridian
from the equator to a point on the earth’s
surface. Latitude is positive for points
north of the equator, negative south of
the equator. If C is the center of the Earth,
a point P on the Earth’s surface is
determined by its latitude.
 Longitude The angular
measured
(𝝍) : distance
(in degrees) from the prime
(solar noon) meridian through Greenwich Fig. 1: Sketch for latitude
(UK), west or east to a point on the earth’s and longitude
surface. By international agreement it is
measured positive eastwards
from
Greenwich.
GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN Cont.
 NOON SOLAR TIME: It is the
time when a local meridional plane
includes the sun (i.e. CEP includes
the sun) so that all points having
that longitude. It occurs once every
24 h.
 It represents the solar altitude at
noon above the horizon and
changes by 47° from 21 June to 21
December owing to change in
declination angle.
 GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN Cont.
 CIVIL TIME: It is the time that a larger part of a country (15° of
longitude) observe in order to share the same official zone.
 THE HOUR ANGLE 𝝎 : It is the angle through which the
Earth has rotated since solar noon. It is positive in the evening
and negative in the morning.
𝝎 = 𝟏𝟓°𝒉−𝟏 𝒕𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 − 𝟏𝟐𝒉
where 𝑡𝑠𝑜𝑎𝑙𝑟= 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦.
 DECLINATION ANGLE 𝜹 : The angle
between the line joining
the center of the sun and the earth & its projection on
the equatorial plane.

Fig. 1: View of declination angle.

GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN Cont.
GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN Cont.
GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND SUN Cont.
 It is due to the rotation of the earth, and varies from +23.5˚ (on
June, 21) to -23.5˚ (on December, 21). Analytically, it may be
calculated as:
360° 284 + 𝑛
𝛿 = 23.5 𝑛𝑖𝑠
365
where n is the day in the year (For example, n = 1 on 1 January).

Fig. 2: Variation of δ.
LATITUDE, SEASON AND DAILY
INSOLATION
LATITUDE, SEASON AND DAILY
INSOLATION Cont.
LATITUDE, SEASON AND DAILY
INSOLATION
LATITUDE, SEASON AND DAILY
INSOLATION Cont.
 GEOMETRY OF COLLECTOR & THE
SOLAR BEAM
 SLOPE (𝜷): It is the angle between the plane surface under consideration
and the horizontal. It is positive for the surface sloping or pitching towards
south and negative for the surface sloping towards north.
 ZENITH ANGLE 𝜽𝒛 : The angle b/w normal to H.P & beam radiation.
 SURFACE AZIMUTH ANGLE (𝜸): It is the angle between the line due
south and the projection of the normal to inclined plane in an H.P. For east of
south i.e. eastward orientation of the surface, it varies 0˚ to -180˚. For a
horizontal surface, it is 0˚ always.

Fig. 3: View of various angles.

 GEOMETRY OF COLLECTOR & THE
SOLAR BEAM Cont.
 SOLAR AZIMUTH ANGLE 𝜸𝒔 : It
is the angle in a horizontal plane
(H.P) between the line due south
and the projection of beam
radiation on the H.P.
 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE 𝜽𝒊 :
is the angle It
radiation
between on a surface & normal
beam
to that surface.
 SOLAR ALTITUDE ANGLE
𝜶𝒔 :
rayis the
It and angle
its between
projectiontheinsuna
horizontal plane. It is
complement to the zenith angle
(i.e. 𝛼𝑠 + 𝜃𝑧= 90°).
GEOMETRY OF COLLECTOR & THE
SOLAR BEAM Cont.
GEOMETRY OF COLLECTOR & THE
SOLAR BEAM Cont.
GEOMETRY OF COLLECTOR & THE
SOLAR BEAM Cont.
ANGLE BETWEEN BEAM AND
COLLECTOR

31.5204 N
Lahore
SUN PATH
OPTIMUM ORIENTATION OF
COLLECTOR
HOURLY VARIATION OF IRRADIANCE
HOURLY VARIATION OF IRRADIANCE
 LATITUDE, SEASON AND DAILY
INSOLATION Cont.
 EFFECT OF ZENITH ANGLE 𝜽𝒛
ON RADIATION: The zenith
angle 𝜃𝑧is given as:
cos 𝜃𝑧= cos(𝜙 − 𝛿) → (3)
 The location of the 𝜽𝒛
hence, plays an important role
place,
in the variation of 𝜃𝑧.
 The solar radiation is, actually,
attenuated in the atmosphere
depending upon the value of 𝜃𝑧.
The larger 𝜃𝑧 means larger
distance (𝐴𝐵 > 𝐴𝐶) covered
the solar radiation in the
by
atmosphere, and thus intensity
of attenuation increases with
increase in θz and vice versa.
EXAMPLE