SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY

SYSTEMS (406420)

Dr. Ahmed Amine Hachicha

Spring 2022/2023
IMPORTANCE
• Harnessing solar energy, converting it into
heat
• Main challenges:
• Increase the efficiency (output/input)
• Energy Storage
• Economy in conversion and storage

• Areas of potential improvements:

• Absorber materials (special alloys: density,
specific heat)
• Glazing (low emissivity, tempered glass)
• Insulation and space between absorber and
glazing 2
• PV integration with solar thermal applications
SOURCE OF SOLAR ENERGY
 The Sun
 Between the Sun and the Earth

 Solar Constant

 Position of the Sun

 Solar Time

 Solar Radiation and Intensity

 Solar Angles

 Measuring solar radiation

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THE SUN
 The sun is a sphere of hot gaseous matter with a
diameter of 1.39x109m, and on the average of 1.5x1011m
from the earth.
 The temperature in the central regions is estimated at
8x106 to 40x106K, and the density is 100 times of water.
 Energy produced (Interior of Sphere) Transferred Surface Radiated

Space

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SUN COMPOSITION AND ENERGY

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PARAMETERS
 Energy released by nuclear fusion
(hydrogen melted to helium).
 Mass loss is converted into energy,
E: Einstein’relativity: E= mc2
 Approx. 650 M t/s of hydrogen
converted into approx. 646 M t/s of
helium.
 Difference of approximately 4 M t/s
is converted into energy
 The photosphere is the source of
most solar radiation
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SOLAR ENERGY RELEASE
 Energy released within nucleus of sun is initially
transported by radiation to approx. 0.7 of solar
radius.
 Further transport to surface of sun takes place by
convection.
 Afterwards, the energy is released into space:
 Radiation of matter (α, β and γ): Deflected by earth’s
magnetic field
 Electromagnetic radiation: (photons + waves):
Blackbody radiation as short and long waves.

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SOLAR RADIATION NOMENCLATURE
 Solar irradiance or Insolation: rate at which solar
energy reaches a unit area on earth.
 Units of measure for irradiance (W/m2).
 Solar irradiance: instantaneous measure of rate
(varies over time).
 Maximum solar irradiance value used in system design
to determine peak rate of energy input into system. If
storage is included in a system design, the designer also
needs to know the variation of solar irradiance over time
in order to optimize the system design.

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SOLAR RADIATION NOMENCLATURE
• Designer of solar energy collection systems needs to
know how much solar energy has fallen on a collector
over a period of time such as a day, week or year.
• This summation (integration) of solar irradiance is
called solar radiation or irradiation. (∑ irradiance =
irradiation)
• Units of measure for solar radiation:
• Joules per square meter (J/m2)
• Watt-hours per square meter (Wh/m2).

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SOLAR RADIATION NOMENCLATURE
 Beam radiation: The solar radiation received from
the sun without having been scattered by the
atmosphere
 Diffuse radiation: The solar radiation received from
the sun after its direction has been changed by
scattering by the atmosphere.
 Total/Global solar radiation: The sum of the beam
and the diffuse solar radiation on a surface.

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BETWEEN THE SUN AND THE EARTH

 At a distance of one astronomical unit, 1.495 × 1011 m,

the mean earth-sun distance, the sun subtends an angle of
32’ (min of a degree)
 Radiant flux density at outer rim of earth
atmosphere is called solar constant 11
SOLAR CONSTANT
 Amount of incoming solar radiation per unit area
incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays.
 At a distance of one 1AU from the sun (roughly the
mean distance from the Sun to the Earth).
 Includes a range of wavelength (not just the visible
light).

Solar Constant 12
Entry point into atmosphere
Intensity ~ 1367W/m2
SOLAR RADIATION BUDGET (TO EARTH)

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WEAKENING OF RADIATION
 Atmospheric attenuation Mechanisms:
Absorption and Scattering
 Absorption: Selected spectral and wavelength ranges
of solar radiation absorbed by some gases existing
within the atmosphere: Ozone (O3), Oxygen (O2),
Carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O)
 Scattering : diversion of radiation from original
radiation angle without energy transfer (no loss of
energy in air molecules, water drops, ice crystals, and
aerosol particles)
o There is almost complete absorption of the short wave
radiation
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SOLAR RADIATION SPECTRUM

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AIR MASS
 The atmospheric attenuation is characterized by
the term called air mass
 Air mass is the ratio of the mass of atmosphere
through which beam radiation passes to the mass
it would pass through if the sun were at the
zenith (directly overhead)
 At sea level m = 1 when the sun is at the zenith

 m = 2 for a zenith angle Φ of 60°

1
𝑚𝑚 = for (0< Φ <70°)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐Φ
 For higher zenith angles, the effect of the earth’s
curvature becomes significant and must be taken 16

into account
BETWEEN THE SUN AND THE EARTH
• Elliptical orbit of earth around the sun
• Aphelion: max distance away from sun (1.52 AU)
• Perihelion: min distance to sun (1.47 AU)
Vernal Equinox
Winter Solstice
Summer Solstice

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Autumnal Equinox
EARTH TILT AND ELLIPTIC PLANE

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 POSITION OF THE SUN (VIEW FROM EARTH)

Knowledge of the sun’s path through

the sky is necessary:

 To calculate the solar radiation

falling on a surface

 The solar heat gain

 The proper orientation of solar

collectors
 The placement of collectors to
avoid shading, …..etc

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Apparent placement of the Sun in the northern hemisphere
SOLAR TIME
 In solar energy calculations, apparent solar time (AST)
must be used to express the time of day.
 AST is based on the apparent angular motion of the sun
across the sky.
 (The time when the sun crosses the meridian of the
observer is the local solar noon). It does not coincide
with the local clock time.
 To convert the local standard time (LST) to apparent
solar time, two corrections are applied
 The equation of time (ET)

 Longitude Correction. 20
SOLAR TIME
 Equation of time

Where

N days of the year, 1 ≤ N ≤ 365

The equation of time arises because the length of

a day, (the time required by the earth to complete
one revolution about its own axis with respect to
the sun) is not uniform throughout the year.
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SOLAR TIME
 Equation of time

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SOLAR TIME
 Longitude correction

Location east of Greenwich, the

sign of is minus (-),

Location west of Greenwich, the

sign is plus (+).

Since the sun takes 4 min to transverse 1° of longitude, a longitude

correction term of 4 x (Standard longitude - Local longitude)
should be either added or subtracted to the standard clock time of
the locality 23
EXAMPLE 1
 Find the equation of AST for the city of Nicosia, Cyprus
Standard Longitude (SL) for Cyprus is 30°E,
Local Longitude (LL) for Nicosia is 33.33° (east of Greenwich)
Solution

Longitude correction is – 4 x (30-33.33) = +13.32 min

Therefore, the AST equation for the city Nicosia can be written as

AST = LST + ET +13.32 (min)

 Find the LST of the highest position of the sun for today in
Sharjah (λ=55.39°, λ0=60°) 24
Solar Angles

Annual motion of the

earth about the sun

Annual Changes in the

sun’ position in the sky

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 Solar Angles
The solar position with respect to an
observer on earth can be fully
described by means of two
astronomical angles:

i. The solar altitude (α)

ii. The solar azimuth (z).

Before giving the equations of solar

altitude and azimuth angles,
The solar declination and hour angle Azimuth angle of the sun:
Often defined as the angle from due south in a
need to be defined. clockwise direction. (sometimes from north)

These are required in all other solar Zenith angle of the sun:
Defined as the angle measured from vertical
angle formulations. downward.

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 Solar Angles
δ Solar Declination,
The angular position of the sun at solar noon with respect to the plane of the equator,
north positive; −23.45◦ ≤ δ ≤ 23.45◦.

The angle between the sun-earth center line and

The projection of this line on the equatorial plane.

δ, in degrees for any day of the year (N)

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 Solar Angles
δ, in radians can be calculated by the
equation

Where Γ is day angle, given by

* The solar
declination during
any given day can
be considered
constant in
engineering
calculations

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 Solar Angles
h Hour Angle,
The angle through which the earth would turn to bring the meridian of the point directly
under the sun.

The hour angle of point, the angle between two planes:

1- containing the earth axis and the zeinth (meridian) 29

2- containing the earth axis and the given point.
 Solar Angles
h Hour Angle

The hour angle at local solar noon is zero, with 15o of longitude equal to 1h.

Where the plus sign applies to

afternoon hours and the minus
sign to morning hours.

The hour angle can be obtained also

from the apparent solar time (AST) 30
 Solar Angles
α Solar Altitude Angle,
The angle between the sun’s rays and a horizontal plane.

It is related to the solar zenith angle, Φ, which is the angle between the
sun’s rays and the vertical.

where L is local latitude

* Local latitude,
defined as Location north or south to
equator measured in degree from
equator.

Values NORTH of the equator are

positive and those SOUTH are
negative. 31
 Solar Angles
z Solar Azimuth Angle,
The angle of the sun’s rays measured in the horizontal plane from due south (true south)
for the Northern Hemisphere or due north for the Southern Hemisphere;

Displacements East of South are negative

and West of South are positive.

At solar noon, by definition, the sun is exactly

on the meridian, which contains the north-south
line, and consequently, the solar azimuth is 0°.
Therefore noon altitude αn becomes
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EXAMPLE-2
What are the maximum and minimum solar noon altitude angles for
a location at 40° latitude?

Solution

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Solar Angles
Sunrise and Sunset Times and day length, The sun is said to
rise and set when the solar altitude angle (α) is 0.

hss is positive at sunset

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 Solar Angles
Sunrise and Sunset Times and day length

Since, the hour angle at local solar noon is 0o, with each 15o of longitude
equivalent to 1 h, the sunrise and sunset time in hours from local solar noon is

where Hss is the time in hours at

sunset, taken as positive at sunset

The day length is twice the sunset hour, since the solar noon is at the middle
of the sunrise and sunset hours. Therefore, the length of the day in hours is

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 Example - 3
Find the solar altitude (α) and azimuth angles (z) at 2 h after local noon on June 15
for a city located at 40°N latitude. Also find the sunrise (hsr) and sunset (hss) hours
and the day length.

Solution

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Answers:
solar altitude (α) = 59.75o azimuth angles (z) = 65.67o
sunset (hss) = 7.4 = 7:24pm solar time day length = 14.83 h 36
sunrise (hsr) = 12 – 7.4 = 4.6 = 4:36am solar time
 Solar Angles
θ Incidence Angle, the angle between the sun’s rays and the normal on a surface. For a
horizontal plane, the incidence angle, θ, and the zenith angle, Φ, are the same.

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 Solar Angles
Incidence Angle, in special cases

1- For horizontal surfaces β = 0o

and θ = Φ the equation becomes:

2- For vertical surfaces β = 90o 38

the equation becomes:
 Solar Angles
Incidence Angle, in special cases

3- For a south-facing, tilted surface in

the Northern Hemisphere, Zs = 0o the
equation becomes:
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 Solar Angles
Incidence Angle, in special cases

4- For a north-facing, tilted surface in the southern

Hemisphere, Zs = 180o the equation becomes:
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 Solar Angles
Incidence Angle, in special cases (Summary)

1- For horizontal surfaces β = 0o

and θ = Φ the equation becomes:

2- For vertical surfaces β = 90o

the equation becomes:

3- For a south-facing, tilted surface

in the Northern Hemisphere, Zs = 0o
the equation becomes:

4- For a north-facing, tilted surface in the 41

southern Hemisphere, Zs = 180o the
equation becomes:
Solar Angles
OPTIMAL SLOPE OF A SURFACE AT NOON

 For solar noon ℎ=0 and south orientation 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 =0

𝜃𝜃 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝛽𝛽 − 𝛿𝛿

𝛽𝛽 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝛿𝛿
360
𝛿𝛿 = 23.45° sin (284 + 𝑛𝑛)
365
𝛽𝛽 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐿𝐿 (the whole year) 42
 Example - 4
A surface tilted 45° from horizontal and pointed 10°
west of due south is located at 35°N latitude. Calculate
the incident angle at 2 h after local noon on June 15.
Solution
Given: β = 45° zs = 10° west of due south L = 35°N
2 pm June 15. Required: θ ?

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 The Incidence Angle for a Moving Surface
Tracking systems can be classified by the mode of their motion. This can be about a single
axis or about two axes (Figure a).
In the case of a single-axis mode, the motion can be in various ways: east-west (Figure d),
north-south (Figure c), or parallel to the earth’s axis (Figure b).

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 The Incidence Angle for a Moving Surface
1- Full Tracking, θ = 0o
For a two-axis tracking mechanism, keeping the surface
continuously oriented to face the at all times, has an angle
of incidence, θ, equal to

The slope of this surface (β) is equal to the solar zenith

angle (Φ), and the surface azimuth angle (Zs) is equal to the
solar azimuth angle (z).

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 The Incidence Angle for a Moving Surface

2- Polar N-S axis with E-W

tracking (b)

3- Horizontal E-W axis with N-

S tracking (c)

4- Horizontal N-S axis with

E-W tracking (d)

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 Comparing the Incidence Angle for a Moving Surface
The mode of tracking affects the amount of incident radiation falling on the collector
surface in proportion to the cosine of the incidence angle.

The performance of the various modes of tracking is compared to the full tracking, which
collects the maximum amount of solar energy, shown as 100% in the Table.
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From this table it is obvious that the polar and the N-S horizontal modes are the most
suitable for one-axis tracking, since their performance is very close to the full tracking.
 Sun path diagram
For practical purposes, instead of using the preceding equations, it is convenient to
have the sun’s path plotted on a horizontal plane, called a sun path diagram. and to
use the diagram to find the position of the sun in the sky at any time of the year.

The solar altitude angle, α, and the solar azimuth angle, z, are functions of latitude,
L, hour angle, h, and declination, δ.
Different sun path diagrams plotted for different latitudes. Such diagrams show the 48
complete variations of hour angle and declination for a full year.
SUN PATH

 Shading effect (obstruction altitude and azimuth 49

respect to the sun path)
Shadow Determination
To determine the shading, it is necessary to know the shadow cast as a
function of time during every day of the year.
The objective to determine whether a position suggested for the
placement of collectors is suitable or not.

Shadow determination is facilitated by the determination of a surface

oriented solar angle, called the solar profile angle.

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 Shadow Determination
The solar profile angle, p, is the angle between the normal to a
surface and the projection of the sun’s rays on a plane normal to the
surface.
In terms of the solar altitude angle, α,
solar azimuth angle, z,

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and the surface azimuth angle, Zs,
the solar profile angle p is given by the
equation

A simplified equation is obtained when the

surface faces due south, i.e., Zs = 0°, given by

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MEASURING SOLAR RADIATION
• Instruments available to measure short and long-
wave radiation fluxes through atmosphere:
• Relative and absolute instruments are generally
differentiated:
• Absolute: incident solar energy has to be converted
into a measurable parameter first
• Relative instrument: used to calibrate absolute
instruments (Michelson-Marten Actinometer)

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MEASURING GLOBAL HORIZONTAL
RADIATION

 The incident solar radiation at a site can be

measured using a pyranometer, which
measures the global solar irradiation
 A thin absorbing surface is shielded from heat
losses and connected to thermocouples
 The surface temperature reached is proportional
to the incident flux

𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡,ℎ = 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏,𝑛𝑛 cos Φ + 𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑,ℎ

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 INSTALLATION
• Pyranometers are aligned horizontally.
• To measure short-wave radiation fluxes, hemispheres
made of silica glass are used.
• To measure long and short-wave radiation fluxes,
spherical caps made of polyethylene.

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MEASURING DIFFUSE RADIATION
 In order to obtain a measure of the diffuse
radiation at a site, a shadow-band
pyranometer can be used, which blocks the
Sun’s beam to measure only diffuse radiation

 This allows calculation of the beam radiation

intensity: 55
𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡,ℎ − 𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑,ℎ
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏,𝑛𝑛 =
cos Φ
MEASURING DIRECT SOLAR
RADIATION
• Using pyrheliometer:
• One of two equal, blackened thin Manganin
(copper, manganese and nickel) surfaces exposed to
direct solar radiation which heats it up.
• Other surface (without incident solar
radiation) is heated with electrical energy to
same temperature as exposed surface.
• Production of heat is proportional to square of
electric current. Thus the electric current is
equivalent to the absorbed radiation energy.
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RESEARCH GRADE PYRHELIOMETER

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 PYRHELIOMETER
• Pyrheliometer on a
solar tracker which
keeps instrument
pointed at sun.
• Black shadow band
keeps pyranometer
shaded, so that it
measures diffuse
radiation only.
• Global solar radiation is
calculated from direct
and diffuse radiation 58
GLOBAL SOLAR RADIATION

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DIRECT NORMAL IRRADIANCE DNI

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ANNUAL, DAILY AND HOURLY CURVES OF MEASURED GLOBAL RADIATED
POWER BASED ON AN
EXEMPLARY SITE IN NORTH GERMANY

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 ANNUAL CURVES

Guess 62