CHAPTER 6: Solar Energy Fundamentals

Introduction

only 51% of solar radiation is available at the

Earth's surface to do work. This energy is
used to heat the Earth's surface and lower
atmosphere, melt and evaporate water, and
run photosynthesis in plants. Of the other
49%, 4% is reflected back to space by the
Earth's surface, 26%
is scattered or reflected to space by clouds
and atmospheric particles, and 19%
is absorbed by atmospheric gases, particles,
and clouds.
 CHAPTER 6: Solar Energy Fundamentals
Radiation Heat Transfer Review
Solar Energy depends on the characteristics of energy from the sun and the response of
the surface to that energy
Thermal Radiation is the transport of photons or propagation of an electromagnetic
wave
For propagation of radiation in a medium, the frequency and wavelength are related as
Radiation Heat Transfer Review
The electromagnetic continuum (Spectrum) is divided into different regimes as a
function of the wavelength

Thermal radiation is the wavelength range 10-1< λ< 102 μm

The visible part of the spectrum is in the range 0.4 < λ< 0.7 μm
Radiation Heat Transfer Review
Characteristics of a blackbody
Blackbody is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. It absorbs all incident
radiation.
No surface can emit more energy than blackbody for a given temperature and wave
length.
Blackbody emits radiation uniformly in all directions – no direction distribution – its
diffuse
Radiation Heat Transfer Review
Characteristics of a blackbody
The spectral emissive power density of a blackbody is given by the Plank distribution
Characteristics of a blackbody
Figure shown presents a graphical study of the blackbody spectral emissive power
density for several different temperatures.
T=5800 K is one of the temperatures
considered because the spectral distribution of
thermal radiation from the sun is close to that of
a blackbody at 5800 K.
Radiation is a continuous function of
wavelength
Magnitude increases with temp.
At higher temps, more radiation is at shorter
wavelengths.
Solar radiation peak is in the visible range.
Characteristics of a blackbody
For many radiation heat transfer considerations, the fraction of energy contained
between a wavelength interval is needed. The basis of obtaining such fractions is the
blackbody radiation function. Using the Planck distribution, the fraction of thermal
energy in the wave length range zero to λ is cast as follows:

The figure shown illustrates

the concept graphically.
Characteristics of a blackbody
Example 6.1
For a blackbody at 5800 K, what is the percentage of
energy contained in the visible part of the spectrum?
Contrast this with the percentage of energy
contained in the visible spectrum for a blackbody at
3000 K.
Solution using Equation 6.5 and Mathcad.
SOLAR ENERGY FUNDAMENTAL
The sun is located 1.5×1011m from the earth and has
diameter of 1.39×109m
The solar constant defined as the flux of the solar
energy incident on surface oriented normal to the rays
of the sun, has mean value of 1353 W/m2
The solar constant is the flux incident at the outer
edge of the atmosphere
The solar flux incident on the surface of the
earth is much lower than the solar constant
Solar flux passes the atmosphere is attenuated by
gases in the atmosphere (O2, O3, H2O, CO2)
As the solar flux traverses the atmosphere, both the
magnitude and directional distributions are altered. These
alternations are .due to absorption and scattering
SOLAR ENERGY FUNDAMENTAL

The portion of the radiation that has penetrated the atmosphere without having been scattered
(or absorbed) is in the direction of the zenith angle and is termed the direct radiation.

The scattered radiation is incident from all directions is called the diffuse radiation

The total thermal radiation is the sum of the direct and the diffuse radiation

On a clear day the diffuse radiation may account for only 10% of the total radiation, while on
a cloudy day, it is essentially 100% of the total radiation.
SOLAR ENERGY FUNDAMENTAL
Emission from non-blackbody can have directional and spectral characteristics
Consider the a hemisphere surrounding an elemental area dA that is emitting thermal radiation.
The spectral intensity Iλ,e of is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is emitted at the wave
length λ per unit area of the emitting surface normal to this direction.
The spectral directional emissivity ελ,θ(λ,θ,φ,T) is defined as the ratio of the emitted radiation
intensity in a given direction at a given wavelength divided by the radiation intensity of a
blackbody:

Last equation provides a process for computing the actual

emission in reference to that of a blackbody if ελ,θ(λ,θ,φ,T) is
known. If the spectral directional intensity is integrated over
0≤ φ≤ 2π and 0≤ θ≤ π/2, the spectral hemispherical emissivity
ελ(λ,T) results and is defined as
SOLAR ENERGY FUNDAMENTAL

If the spectral hemispherical emissive power is integrated overall wavelengths, the total
hemispherical emissive power E(T) is recovered and appears as
SOLAR ENERGY FUNDAMENTAL
Radiation incident on a surface is called irradiation and denoted by G.

The spectral irradiation (the irradiation at a given wave length) is denoted Gλ

Three things happen to thermal radiation incident on a surface:

1. Some is absorbed
2. Some is reflected
3. Some is transmitted
SOLAR ENERGY FUNDAMENTAL
Any surface has three properties
associated with irradiation
1. Absorptivity: for the absorbed
irradiation
2. Reflectivity: for the reflected
irradiation
3. Transmissivity: for the transmitted
irradiation
For Conservation of energy

For Opaque Surface, a surface that

does not transmit thermal radiation, the
Transmissivity is zero
Example 6.2
A wall at Ts=500 K has the spectral emissivity
illustrated as shown.
Determine the total emissivity and the emissive
power of the surface.
1T = 1.5 × 500 = 750
2T = 10 × 500 = 5000
From table 6.2
F(0-1T) = F(0-750)= 5.933×10-6 by interpolation
F(0-2T) = F(0-5000) = 0.6336
Sub values into the following equation:

 = (0.1× 5.933×10-6) + [0.5 × (0.6336 – 5.933×10-6)]+(0.8 × (1-0.6336))= 0.6099

Blackbody emissive power:

Total emissive power per unit area:

PROBLEM 1
A radiator on a solar-powered satellite must dissipate heat being generated with the satellite by radiating the
heat into space. The radiator surface has a solar absorptivity of 0.5 and an emissivity of 0.95. What is the
surface temperature when the required dissipation is 1500 W/m2 for the following two conditions:
(a) The radiator is facing the sun, and the solar irradiation is 1353 W/m2.
(b) The radiator is shielded from the sun, and the solar irradiation is negligible.

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PROBLEM 2

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SOLUTION

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 SOLUTION

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 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation
Earth’s Orbit
When viewing the solar system from above (“Plan View”),
The EARTH rotate around the SUN in counterclockwise orbits.
Earth rotates counterclockwise around its own axis

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 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation

Quantifying time and position on EARTH

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 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation
Latitude
What is latitude?

Latitude is a geographical coordinate that

specifies the north-south position of a point
on the Earth’s surface.

Lines of constant latitude run east-west and

are measured in degrees. Latitude ranges
from -90° (South Pole) to +90° (North Pole)
[-90° ≤ l ≤ +90°]

Where is the logical place for the lines of 0° latitude?

Answer: The equator!

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 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation
Longitude
What is longitude?
Longitude is a geographical coordinate that
specifies the east-west position of a point on the
Earth’s surface.
Lines of constant longitude run north-south and
are measured in degrees. Longitude ranges from
-180° to +180°
[-180° ≤ L ≤ +180°]

Where is the logical position for 0° longitude?

Answer: As is turns out, there is no logical location of 0° longitude. 0° longitude (also

called the “Prime meridian”) passes through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich,
England.
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This is for historical reasons.
 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation
Longitude
Lines of positive longitude are east of the prime meridian
Lines of negative longitude are west of the prime meridian
Facts about longitude:

• Are known as “meridians”

• Run in a north-south direction
• Measure distance east or west of the prime meridian
• Are farthest apart at the equator and meet as the
poles
• Cross the equator at right angles
• Lie in the planes that pass through the Earth’s axis
• Are equal in length
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 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation
Time zones
Besides being 0° latitude, what other significance do you think the prime meridian has?
The prime meridian is used as the primary time standard by which the whole world
regulates their clocks and time! This is called Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) and the
time zone at the prime meridian is denoted UTC-00:00

Time zones to the east of the prime meridian are offset by a positive number. That is, 2pm
at UTC-00:00 is 3pm at UTC+01:00
Time zones to the west of the prime meridian are offset by a negative number. That is,
2pm32at UTC-00:00 is 1pm at UTC–01:00
 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation
Time zones Prime Meridian
0º Longitude

UTC–11:00

UTC–10:00 UTC–08:00 UTC–06:00 UTC–04:00 UTC–02:00 UTC-00:00 UTC+02:00 UTC+04:00 UTC+06:00 UTC+08:00 UTC+10:00 UTC+12:00
UTC–09:00 UTC–07:00 UTC–05:00 UTC–03:00 UTC–01:00 UTC+01:00 UTC+03:00 UTC+05:00 UTC+07:00 UTC+09:00 UTC+11:00
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 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation

Solar Position

Predicting the location of the in the

 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation

Earth’s tilt

What is the Earths axial tilt relative to its orbital plane?

Answer: Earth is tilted off-axis 23.45° relative to its own orbital plane
 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation
Solar Time
Several solar parameters are used to describe the position of the sun at a specified location, date and
time. Solar calculations are based on solar time ST which is related to motion of the sun across the sky.
ST is different from local clock time LT. Local time LT can be converted to sun time ST as follows:

ST = LT + EOT ± 4(SL-LL) - DS
Where
SL = Standard meridian of local time zone
LL = Local Longitude
Minus sign (-) = if location is East of Greenwich
Plus sign (+) = if location is West of Greenwich
DS = 60 min from end of March to end of October and = 0 otherwise.
EOT = Equation of Time in minutes, given by:
EOT = 9.87sin (2B)-7.53cos (B)-1.5sin (B)

n is the day number during the year with the first of January set as n = 1. [1, 2]
 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation
Solar Declination
Solar declination is the angle between the sun’s rays and a plane passing through the equator. This is
illustrated in Figure 4. The solar declination depends only on the day of the year. The declination is
positive when the sun is directly overhead north of the equator (December 21 through June 21) and it is
negative when the sun is directly overhead south of the equator (June 21 through December 21). The
solar declination can be calculated from the equation:

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 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation
Solar Hour Angle h
it is a measure of the position of the sun relative to solar noon at a given time at any given location on
the earth. The hour angle, h, is zero when the sun is directly overhead (local solar noon). It is negative
before local solar noon and is positive in the afternoon. The hour angle changes by 15o each hour or
one degree in 4 minutes. Solar hour can be calculated from the following equation:

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 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation

Solar Altitude Angle: 

is the vertical angle of the sun with respect to the horizon

(positive above the horizon)
When the sun is just rising or setting, the altitude angle is zero.
When the sun is directly overhead, the altitude angle is 90o.
The solar altitude angle, , can be calculated for any location
and time from the latitude, L, solar declination, δ, and solar
hour angle, h, using the following equation:
sin  = sin L sin d + cos L cos d cos h

Zenith angle Φ is the angle between sun’s ray and vertical

Therefore Φ + α = 90o

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 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation

Solar Azimuth Angle: as

The position of the sun can be described at any time by the
altitude and azimuth angles. The azimuth angle, as, is the
angle between a due south line and the projection of the site
to the sun line on the horizontal plane. For the azimuth angle,
the sign convention used is positive if west of south and
negative if east of south.

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 6.3 Sun Path Description and Calculation

Sunset hour angle and sunrise hour angle

In some solar calculation, values for the sunset hour angle and sunrise hour angle
are needed. The solar altitude angle, , will be zero for both sunset and sunrise,
so an equation for sunrise and sunset hour angles can be found by setting  equal
to zero in  equation [sin  = sin L sin d + cos L cos d cos h] and solving for
h. The angle will be negative for sunrise and positive for sunset. This results in
the following two equations:
Sunrise angle = hsr = - cos-1[-(tan L) (tan δ)]
Sunset angle = hss = cos-1[-(tan L) (tan δ)]

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PROBLEM 3

What is the solar time corresponding to 5:00 PM local time on August 20 at Al-Hofuf .
Latitude: 25.38° N
Longitude: 49.58° E
Standard Longitude: 45° E
B= (232-81)× 360/364 = 149.34°

EOT = 9.87sin (2B)-7.53cos (B)-1.5sin (B)

EOT = 9.87sin (2×149.34)-7.53cos (149.34)-1.5sin (149.34) = -2.95 min

ST = LT + EOT ± 4(SL-LL) - DS

ST = 5:00 + (-2.95) - 4(45-49.58) – 60 = 5:00 – 44.63 = 4:15.37 PM

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TABLE OF ORDINAL DAY
NUMBER FOR VARIOUS
CALENDAR DATES.
(After February, add 1 on
leap years).

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TABLE OF ORDINAL DAY
NUMBER FOR VARIOUS
CALENDAR DATES.
(After February, add 1 on
leap years).

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 PROBLEM 4

a) Find the Solar Hour Angle h corresponding to 5:00 PM local time on August 20 at Al-Hofuf.
b) Find the Solar Declination angle δ
SOLUTION

a) First find the solar time ST corresponding to 5:00 PM.

From problem 3, ST= 4:15.37 PM= 4.256 hr PM = 16.256 hr

h= (16.256 – 12)× 15 = 63.84°

b) For 20/8 n= 232.

δ= 23.45 sin [(360/365)×(284 + 232) = 12.1°

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 PROBLEM 5
Find the position of the sun corresponding to 5:00 PM local time on August 20 at Al-Hofuf.
SOLUTION
the sun position is determined by finding the Solar Altitude Angle , and Solar Azimuth Angle as
From previous problems h=63.84° and δ=12.1° and L=25.38°
sin  = sin L sin d + cos L cos d cos h
sin  = sin 25.38 sin 12.1 + cos 25.38 cos 12.1 cos 63.84 = 0.479
α = sin−1 0.479 = 28.64°

𝑐𝑜𝑠12.1𝑠𝑖𝑛63.84
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑠 = = 0.99997 → 𝑎𝑠 = sin−1 0.99997 = 89.6°
𝑐𝑜𝑠28.64

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 PROBLEMS 6
Find the Sunset hour angle and sunrise hour angle corresponding to 5:00 PM local time on
August 20 at Al-Hofuf.

Sunrise angle = hsr = - cos-1[-(tan L) (tan δ)]

hsr = -cos-1[-tan 25.38 tan 12.1] = -95.84°
Sunset angle = hss = cos-1[-(tan L) (tan δ)]
hss = 95.84°

−95.84
Sunrise hour = + 12 = 5.61 ℎ𝑟
15

95.84
Sunset hour = + 12 = 18.39 ℎ𝑟
15

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 PROBLEM 7
Develop a figure showing the sun path line for Al-Hofuf on August 20.
SOLUTION

Altitude
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
-150.00 -100.00 -50.00 -10.000.00 50.00 100.00 150.00

Azimuth

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Solar Incidence Angle θ
The solar incidence angle is very useful, as it allows a relatively simple calculation of the
radiation incident on a surface. It is an angle between sun’s ray incident on plane surface and
normal to that surface as shown.

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Solar Incidence Angle θ
The orientation and the tilt of the surface is determined with two angles:
1- The surface azimuth angle (γ) 2-The slope (β).
Surface azimuth angle (γ) is the angle between the south and the projection of the surface
normal in the horizontal plane. This angle is taken positive if the normal is west of south and
negative if east of south.

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Solar Incidence Angle θ
The orientation and the tilt of the surface is determined with two angles:
1- The surface azimuth angle (γ) 2-The slope (β).
Slope is the angle at which the surface is inclined from horizontal and is taken positive for
south-facing surfaces.

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Solar Incidence Angle
The angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface
cos(θ) = sin(L) sin(δ) cos(β)
‐cos(L) sin(δ) sin(β) cos(γ)
+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)cos(β)
+sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) sin(β) cos(γ)
+cos(δ) sin(h) sin(β) sin(γ)

• For horizontal surfaces: β=0o and θ=Φ, therefore general equation reduces to equation for α.
cos(θ) = sin(L) sin(δ) +cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)

• For vertical surfaces: β=90o and general equation becomes:

cos(θ)=‐cos(L) sin(δ) cos(γ)+sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) cos(γ)+cos(δ) sin(h) sin(γ)

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Solar Incidence Angle
The angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface
cos(θ) = sin(L) sin(δ) cos(β)
‐cos(L) sin(δ) sin(β) cos(γ)
+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)cos(β)
+sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) sin(β) cos(γ)
+cos(δ) sin(h) sin(β) sin(γ)

• For south facing tilted surface in the northern hemisphere: γ =0o and
general equation reduces to:
cos(θ)=sin(L) sin(δ) cos(β)‐cos(L) sin(δ) sin(β)+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h) cos(β)
+sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) sin(β)
which can be further reduced to:
cos(θ)=sin(L‐β) sin(δ)+cos(L‐β) cos(δ) cos(h)

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Solar Incidence Angle
The angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface
cos(θ) = sin(L) sin(δ) cos(β)
‐cos(L) sin(δ) sin(β) cos(γ)
+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)cos(β)
+sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) sin(β) cos(γ)
+cos(δ) sin(h) sin(β) sin(γ)

• For a north facing tilted surface in the southern hemisphere: γ =180o and general equation
reduces to:
cos(θ)=sin(L+β) sin(δ)+cos(L+β) cos(δ) cos(h)

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PROBLEM 8
Calculate the angle of incidence for a flat plate solar collector that faces 14° west of south
and has a slope of 40° (L = 37° 58΄) on May 20 at 13.00 h solar time.
SOLUTION
cos(θ) = sin(L) sin(δ) cos(β) On May 20, n = 140
‐cos(L) sin(δ) sin(β) cos(γ)
+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)cos(β)
+sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) sin(β) cos(γ)
+cos(δ) sin(h) sin(β) sin(γ) δ= 23.45 sin [(360/365)×(284 + 140)
= 19.93°
cos(θ) = sin(37.97) sin(19.93) cos(40)
The hour angle h, is:
‐cos(37.97) sin(19.93) sin(40) cos(14)
h =15 × (13−12) =15°
+cos(37.97) cos(19.93) cos(15)cos(40)
+sin(37.97) cos(19.93) cos(15) sin(40) cos(14)
+cos(19.93) sin(15) sin(40) sin(14) = 0.943
θ = 19.42°
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PROBLEM 9
Calculate the angle of incidence of direct radiation at 11:00 solar time on July 20 at AL-Hofuf
on surfaces with the following orientation:
a. Horizontal
b. Tilted to south at slope of 35°
H = (11-12) × 15 = -15°
c. At slope of 35°, but facing 25° east of south
d. Vertical, facing south For Al-Hofuf, Latitude L= 25.38° N
SOLUTION Part a: horizontal surface
cos(θ) = sin(L) sin(δ) +cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)
On July 20, n = 201
cos(θ) = sin(25.38) sin(20.64) +cos(25.38)
cos(20.64) cos(-15) = 0.96777

δ= 23.45 sin [(360/365)×(284 + 201) θ = cos-1(0.96777) = 75.4°

= 20.64°
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SOLUTION

Part b: Tilted to south at slope of 35° cos(θ) = sin(L) sin(δ) cos(β)

‐cos(L) sin(δ) sin(β) cos(γ)
L= 25.38° N +cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)cos(β)
δ= 20.64° +sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) sin(β) cos(γ)
Β=35° +cos(δ) sin(h) sin(β) sin(γ)
γ=0
h=-15
cos(θ) = sin(25.38) sin(20.64) cos(35)
‐cos(25.38) sin(20.64) sin(35) cos(0)
+cos(25.38) cos(20.64) cos(-15) cos(35)
+sin(25.38) cos(20.64) cos(-15) sin(35) cos(0)
+cos(20.64) sin(-15) sin(35) sin(0) = 0.83231

θ = cos-1(0.83231) = 33.66°
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SOLUTION cos(θ) = sin(L) sin(δ) cos(β)
Part c: At slope of 35° but facing 25° east ‐cos(L) sin(δ) sin(β) cos(γ)
of south +cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)cos(β)
+sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) sin(β) cos(γ)
+cos(δ) sin(h) sin(β) sin(γ)
L= 25.38° N
δ= 20.64° cos(θ) = sin(25.38) sin(20.64) cos(35)
Β=35° ‐cos(25.38) sin(20.64) sin(35) cos(-25)
γ=-25 +cos(25.38) cos(20.64) cos(-15) cos(35)
h=-15 +sin(25.38) cos(20.64) cos(-15) sin(35) cos(-25)
+cos(20.64) sin(-15) sin(35) sin(-25) = 0.887314

θ = cos-1(0.887314) = 27.46°
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SOLUTION

Part d: Vertical, facing south cos(θ) = sin(L) sin(δ) cos(β)

‐cos(L) sin(δ) sin(β) cos(γ)
+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)cos(β)
+sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) sin(β) cos(γ)
+cos(δ) sin(h) sin(β) sin(γ)
L= 25.38° N
δ= 20.64° cos(θ) = sin(25.38) sin(20.64) cos(90)
Β=90° ‐cos(25.38) sin(20.64) sin(90) cos(0)
γ=0 +cos(25.38) cos(20.64) cos(-15) cos(90)
h=-15 +sin(25.38) cos(20.64) cos(-15) sin(90) cos(0)
+cos(20.64) sin(-15) sin(90) sin(0) = 0.068967

θ = cos-1(0.068967) = 86.05 °
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