Introduction to Geography: People,

Places, and Environment

CGEO106 — Week 2
Weather, Climate, and Climate Change
Learning Outcomes (1 of 2)

« Describe the difference between weather and climate.

+ List the ways that solar energy varies in time and space,
and how it affects the weather.
« Discuss convection and its relationship to weather.
» Describe fronts, including the difference between a cold
front and a warm front.
Learning Outcomes (2 of 2)

+ Describe the general circulation patterns of the

atmosphere.
+ Describe oceanic circulation patterns.

« Explain the purpose of classifying climates, and major

climate types.
» Describe three major causes of climate change.
Weather and Climate

« Weather: day-to-day variations in temperature and

precipitation
+ Climate: statistical summary of weather conditions through
time
Solar Energy

« Solar energy drives our weather

+ Radiant energy a by-product of the Sun’s combining
hydrogen atoms into helium
+ Small portion intercepted by Earth
+ Powers circulation of atmosphere and oceans
«= Supports life on Earth
Insolation

+ Amount of energy intercepted by Earth

+ Depends on two factors
— Intensity of solar radiation determined by angle of
incidence
— Variation in duration of sunlight by season
 Variations in Angle of Incidence

« Daily and seasonal variation

+ Seasonal angle dependent on latitude
+ Tilt of Earth's axis = 23.5°

Long Description:
The Equator, tropic of cancer at 23.5 degrees, the tropic of Capricorn at 23.5
degrees, 30 north, 60 degrees north, 30 degrees south, and 60 degrees south
latitude lines are exhibited. Solar radiation falling near the tropic of Capricorn
spreads into a smaller area. Solar radiation falling near the poles spreads into
a larger area. This area has a comment attached to it that states, "Same
amount of radiation cover a larger surface area near the poles."
 Total Insolation

+ Total amount of solar radiation from seasonal changes in

— Length of daylight
— Distance from the Sun
— Tropical areas
— High latitudes

Equinoxes Summer solstice

March, September 5

Long Description:
The 60 degrees north, 30 degrees
Capricorn, 30 degrees south, and
images. The first image is labeled
second image, the earth is hailed
is labeled as summer solstice June.
north, tropic of cancer, equator, tropic of
60 degrees south are exhibited in both
as equinoxes in March, September. In the
at 23.5 degrees towards the Sun's rays and
 Earth’s Orbit Around the Sun

March 21
Vernal equinox

i K
June 21 3 ' A / A December 22
Summer § Winter
solstice Circle | solstice

September 23
Autumnal equinox

Long Description:
The rotation of Earth around the sun in its orbit. The position of the earth and
Solstice, equinox dates are labeled with its position. In the short distance in
march 21 and September 23, is labeled as Vernal equinox and Autumnal
equinox respectively. The longest distance on June 21 and December 22, is
labeled as Summer Solstice and Winter Solstice respectively. On the Autumnal
equinox, the north pole faces the sun, and at the Vernal equinox, the equator
is facing the sun. In the middle of June 21 to September 23, the distance of the
earth from the sun is labeled as 152,000,000 Kilometers. In the middle of
March 21 to December 22, the distance of the earth from the sun is labeled as
147,000,000 Kilometers.
 Variation in Solar Radiation
600
90° latitude
66.5° latitude fi

Average Insolation (watts per square meter)

[2]
I=]
=)
I=]
I=)
'S
[=
w
o
[=]
n
S
I=]
I=)

Long Description:
The vertical axis is labeled as average insolation (0 to 600) and the horizontal
axis is labeled as the month from January to December, six curve lines are
connected with each other in this graph which is 90 degrees, 66.5 degrees, 60
degrees, 40 degrees, 20 degrees, 0 degrees, and the 0 degree curve line is
the equator.

10
Storage of Heat

+ Variable ability to store heat depends on material.

+ Water absorbs and releases more heat than land does.
+ Therefore...
— Greater seasonal difference in temperatures in mid-
continent areas in high latitudes (Asia, North America)
— Moderate climates near water

11
 World Temperatures—January

Long Description:
A dotted line around the earth running through the point on each meridian with
the highest average temperature and there is a thermometer line at the left
corner of the graph which shows temperature.

12
 World Temperatures—July

1
18
5
2
9
6
3
0
5
12
18
TE TTY
EEE

Long Description:
A dotted line around the earth running through the point on each meridian with
the highest average temperature and there is a thermometer line at the left
corner of the graph which shows temperature.

13
Atmosphere-to-Earth Heat Transfer

+ Radiation (radiant energy): energy transmitted by

electromagnetic waves (heat, light, radio, television)
+ Wave length: distance between successive waves
« Some waves are reflected and some are absorbed.

14
Wavelengths

«= Shortwave (.2 to 5 microns):

— Insolation
— Most passes through atmosphere
« Longwave (5 to 30 microns):
— Energy reradiated from Earth
— Most blocked by atmosphere (greenhouse effect)

15
Greenhouse Effect (1 of 2)

+ Few gases are transparent to shortwave radiation but

absorb longwave radiation.

« Greenhouse gases:
Carbon dioxide (CO,)
Ozone (0,)
Methane (CH,)
Water vapor
+ Human activities are increasing the amount of (CO,) and
methane in the atmosphere.

16
 Greenhouse Effect (2 of 2)

Long Description:
A wavy line is coming from the sun to the earth, which is labeled as Incoming
short wave radiation and some curvy lines are exhibited which are labeled as
outgoing longwave radiation. These waves represent energy absorption and
transfer within the atmosphere.

17
 Latent Heat Exchange

» Latent heat is stored in water and water vapor.

+ Transfer of water by latent heat exchange equals 40% of
solar energy absorbed by the surface.

Long Description:
It illustrates latent heat transfer occurs when water evaporates from a moist
land surface or open water. The heat moves from the surface to the
atmosphere.

18
 Urban Heat Islands

Long Description:
"The first picture exhibits a curve line which absorbs energy from the earth and
transfers it to the atmosphere which is named longwave radiation and the
wavy line is coming from the sun to the earth, which is named short wave
radiation. The second picture shows the evaporation of water from the surface
of the ocean. The water vapor rises in the atmosphere and is converted to
water (rain) or ice (snow).”

19
Atmospheric Circulation

+ Evaporation of water from surface of the oceans

+ Water vapor rises in the atmosphere.
+ Converted to water (rain) or ice (snow)
» Powered by convection: movement of fluid when heated
» Advection = horizontal movements of air (wind)

20
Condensation

+ Conversion of water from vapor to liquid

+ Capacity of air to hold water vapor:
— Depends on temperature
— Measured by pressure of water-vapor molecules
* Maximum = saturation vapor pressure

21
Relative Humidity

+ Relative humidity: actual water content of air, expressed

as percentage of what air could hold
+ Cooling air causes increase in relative humidity.
+ Cooling beyond saturation results in condensation
(clouds).

22
Three Types of Precipitation

+ The movement of air causes precipitation in three ways:

— Convection—in which air warmer than its surroundings
rises, expands, and cools
— Orographic uplift—in which wind forces air up and over
mountains
— Frontal uplift—in which air is forced up a boundary
(front) between warm and cold air masses

23
Convectional Precipitation

+ Adiabatic cooling: cooling of warmed air as it rises (1°C

per 100 meters; 5.5°F per 1,000 feet)
+ Saturation, cloud formation
+ Condensation, releasing latent heat
+ Responsible for large portion of precipitation

24
 Adiabatic Cooling
10000

Long Description:
The vertical axis is labeled as elevation in meters from 0 to 9000, and the
horizontal axis is labeled as the temperature in degree Celsius from negative
80 to 40. A dotted horizontal line is graphed at the point (0, 1500) which is
labeled as Condensation Level. Three lines labeled as rising air, environment,
and dry adiabatic are graphed from the point (0, 20), and have a height of
more than 9000 meters. The line rising air is at the temperature of negative 30
degrees Celsius, the environment is at negative 57 degrees Celsius, and the
line dry adiabatic has a temperature of negative 78 degrees Celsius.

25
Orographic Precipitation

« Air forced to rise over mountains

+ Adiabatic cooling from expansion
« Descent on leeward side
+ Decrease in relative humidity
+ Leeward side of mountains much drier

26
 Rain Shadow

Long Description:
Two graphs illustrate the precipitation and elevation profile of the Cascade
mountains. In the first graph, the vertical line represents precipitation
centimeters from 0 to 300, and the horizontal line represents longitude. The
precipitation starts at the height of 110 centimeters from 123.3 degrees west
and rises to the height of 200 centimeters at 122.55 degrees west. From here
it sinks to 25 centimeters at 121.3 degrees west passes through 120.8
degrees west, 120.3 degrees west, 119.8 degrees west, till 119.3 degrees west
keeping the height under 50 centimeters. Some dots are plotted around the
line. In the second graph, the vertical line represents the elevation in feet and
the horizontal line represents the longitude. At 123.3 degrees west longitude
the elevation height is 1250 feet, at 122.3 degrees west, its height is 4800 feet,
at 121.8 degrees west it has the highest height of 7732 feet, at 121.3 degrees
west it has a height of 2500 feet, at 119.8 degrees west it has a height of 4900
feet, and at 119.3 degrees west it has a height of 5100 feet.

27
Frontal Precipitation

+ Front: boundary between two large air masses

+ In North America
— Continental polar air (cold)
— Maritime tropical air (warm)
» Dense, cold air below warm, less-dense air above
— Cold air advancing = cold front
— Warm air advancing = warm front

28
 Fronts

fon
7
(20.0001) Wi =
a, Gentle lifting pe
o] Pram
+1000)
— lids ar lle

1000 kilometers.

Long Description:
Two images depict the cold front and warm front. A cold front occurs in the
ground when a mass of comparatively colder air from the water body moves
into where warmer air is present. The colder air forms a steeply sloping
boundary under the warmer air at the surface and lifts that air. This leads to
cloud formations at the height of 30000 feet. The whole process ensues under
the height of 20000 feet and a distance of 400 kilometers. A warm front occurs
in the water body when a warm air mass moves into where cold air is present.
The warm air mass moves gently towards the sky from the surface. A warm
front is represented by a solid line with semicircles pointing towards the colder
air and in the direction of movement. This whole process crop up under the
height of 20000 feet and a distance of 1000 kilometers.

29
 Fronts and Weather

Long Description:
A mid-latitude storm is illustrated on a map of North America. L is labeled as
the center of low pressure. Five wind directional arrows are converging on
point L. A curve representing cold from there from the Pacific Ocean to point L
and a curve representing warm front are exhibited from the Atlantic Ocean to
point L. A line is stretched between pointsA and B. The lower part of the
diagram represents line A B and is labeled as cross-section A B. The cold air
comes from pointA, ends at the cold front, and warm air is generated from the
warm front and goes to point B. Some warm air goes straight up to the sky.
Cold air circles back below the warm air.

30
Atmospheric Pressure

+ Varies with altitude—higher at lower altitudes

+ World standard is the average atmospheric pressure at
sea level.
« Measured with a barometer
« Difference between two adjacent areas creates a pressure
gradient.
«= Wind blows away from high pressure, toward low
pressure.

31
 Wind Movement by Pressure Alone

TOP VIEW
<== High Low =

\ Vv
~— High ||W

Long Description:
The top view exhibits four outward-facing arrows that represent high wind
movement and four inward-facing arrows that represent low wind movement.
The side view illustrates five downward-facing arrows that represent high wind
movement towards the soil and is labeled as descending, diverging, and five
upward-facing arrows that represent low wind movement in the sky and is
labeled as ascending, converging.

32
Coriolis Effect (1 of 2)

+ Deflection of wind above rotating Earth

— Northern Hemisphere: to the right
— Southern Hemisphere: to the left
+ Cells rotating clockwise and counterclockwise

33
 Coriolis Effect (2 of 2)

Long Description:
The image exhibits three graphical representations of the Coriolis effect.
Figure 1. Two men are playing handball on a truck. The truck is moving
forward. The motion of the ball is perpendicularto the motion of the truck.
Figure 2. Coriolis effect in rotational motion is illustrated. In the first diagram,
two men are playing handball on a roundabout. The roundabout is rotated in
an anti-clockwise direction. The motion of the ball is in a clockwise direction.
Figure 3. Two views of the earth are illustrated. In the side view, the equator is
exhibited. The rotation of the earth is from left to right. In the top view, the
equator and meridian are exhibited. The rotation of the earth is in the anti-
clockwise direction. A curve starting from the north pole and bending towards
the clockwise direction is exhibited.

34
 Wind Movement with Coriolis Effect

(b)

Long Description:
Wind movement with the Coriolis effect is illustrated with two diagrams. In the
first diagram, wind deflects from the top of high pressure to the right side
towards the bottom of low pressured wind. This is labeled as the northern
hemisphere. In the second diagram, wind deflects from the bottom of high
pressure to the left towards the top of low pressure. This is labeled as the
southern hemisphere.

35
Global Atmospheric Circulation

+ Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

+ Trade winds
+ Subtropical high-pressure zones
« Westerlies
* Mid-latitude low pressure zones
« Polar easterlies
= Polar high-pressure zones

36
 General Circulation in the
Atmosphere

Long Description:
Aline is exhibited in the middle across the globe that represents an
intertropical convergence. A note is added to the line that states, "Convection
caused by high rates of isolation, causing rising air and precipitation." The
circulations of wind above this line are divided into six forms: polar high:
descending air in the cold polar region, polar easterlies: blowing toward the
mid-latitude low, mid-latitude low: a frequent storm with rising air move from
west to east along the boundary between the cold polar air and warmer
subtropical air, westerlies: wind blows generally from west to east, with
precipitation occurring in association with low-pressure systems moving
through the mid-latitude low-pressure zone, subtropical high: descending air,
high pressure is generally strongest in the eastern oceans, leading to aridity
that extends over the continents, Trade winds: blow from the subtropical high
toward the intertropical convergence. The circulations below the intertropical
convergence are labeled as Trade winds, subtropical high, westerlies, mid-
latitude low, polar easterlies, and polar high.

37
 Worldwide Pressure and Winds
(January)

Long Description:
A curved line that represents an intertropical convergence goes through the
middle of the map separating the north and south poles. The line has a note
that states, "The | T C Z is generally at about 5 degrees to 10 degrees south
latitude." There are seven high-pressure points, represented by "H" and 10
low-pressure points, represented by "L" exhibited on the map. The high-
pressure point on Asia has a comment that states, "The Northern Hemisphere
has a high-pressure region in eastern Asia." The high-pressure point on the
Indian Ocean and low-pressure point on Africa has a comment that states,
"The Southern Hemisphere, where it is summer in January, generally has high
pressure over the oceans and low pressure over land." The low-pressure point
on the Arctic ocean has a comment that states, "In the midlatitudes, a series of
low-pressure regions in the Northern Hemisphere appear, mainly over
oceans." The high-pressure points on the Atlantic Ocean near Europe and
Africa have a comment that states, "High-pressure cells dominate in the
subtropical regions just north and south of the | T C Z, especially over the
subtropical oceans." The low-pressure point on the Southern Ocean has a
comment that states, "The midlatitude low-pressure zone is much more
consistent in the Southern Hemisphere, because of the absence of land
between 40 degrees and 70 degrees." Arrows representing wind direction are
exhibited. These arrows are diverging from point H and converging toward

38
point L.

38
 Worldwide Pressure and Winds (July)

Long Description:
A curved line that represents an intertropical convergence goes through the
middle of the map separating the north and south poles. There are six high-
pressure points, represented by "H" and six low-pressure points, represented
by "L" exhibited on the map. The curved line has a comment attached to it that
states, "The | T C Z, which was south of the equator in January, is almost
entirely in the Northern hemisphere during July, as far north as 30 degrees
north latitude in southern Asia. the low-pressure point in Asia has a comment
that states, "Low pressure dominates over Asia. " The high-pressure points on
the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean have a comment that states, "The
subtropical highs are still present over the oceans, although they are
strengthened in the Northern Hemisphere and weakened in the Southern
Hemisphere." Arrows representing wind direction are exhibited. These arrows
are diverging from point H and converging toward point L.

39
Storms

+ Areas of concentrated convection, with precipitation and

sometimes strong winds
« Cyclones are large storms that can affect areas thousands
of kilometers across.
+ Two types
— Tropical cyclones
— Mid-latitude cyclones

40
Tropical Cyclones

« Intense, rotating convectional systems that develop over

warm ocean areas in the tropics and subtropics in the
warm season
* Hurricanes, typhoons, cyclones
+ Form over eastern portion of oceans within trade wind belt
+ Winds exceed 74 mph.
+ Storm surge
+ Greatest threat to coastal areas

41
 Hurricane Katrina

ne
Vy »
28 Aug 20:45 CD 3
T T T
95°W 90°W 85°W 80°W 5 10 15 0 30 60 90
NOAA GOES-12 Infrared wave height (m) sea level (cm)

Long Description:
The left graph illustrates the Simulation of Wave-Current interactions of
Hurricane Katrina. Conditions Using a reading graph, the vertical axis shows
degrees, and the horizontal axis shows west directions. The time zone is noted
28 August, 20:45 C DT. The left graph in the right depicts the wave height,
which gradually increases from bottom to top along with the vertical axis. The
right graph in the right depicts impacts on sea level Waves, which has
uncertainty, but has an increment at the end from bottom to top manner.

42
Mid-latitude Cyclone

« Centers of low pressure that develop along the polar front

+ Move west to east along the front
+ May produce violent storms, tornadoes
* More common and less intense than tropical cyclones

43
Tornadoes

+ Extreme form of weather created when energy conditions

in the atmosphere are such that extremely intense
convection occurs
» Destruction is immense but localized.

44
Climate

+ Summary of weather over a long period

+ Changes over time
+ Two measures determine climate type:
— Precipitation
— Temperature

45
Air Temperature

+ Changes with elevation (6.4°C per 1000 meters; 3.5°F

per 1,000 feet)
+ Affected by:
— Topography
— Proximity to oceans
— Water availability

46
 Vertical Climate Zones

Vertical Climate Zones

Tierra Helada
(below 20°F ) (below -70°C)
14,000 feet (4,267 m) Snow Line

rra Fria
(55°-65°F) (13°-18°C) (

6,000 feet (1,829 m)

Tierra
o

Long Description:
Zone 1 is sea level at the bottom. Zone 2. Tierra Caliente (75 degrees to 80
degrees Fahrenheit) (24 degrees to 27 degrees Celsius): just above the sea
level where bananas, cacao, sugarcane, rice, oil palms, cotton, and pineapple
grows. Zone 3. Tierra Templada (65 degrees to 75 degrees Fahrenheit) (18
degrees to 24 degrees Celsius), 3000 feet (914 meters) above sea level where
coffee, citrus fruit, and field crops grow. Zone 4. Tierra Fria (55 degrees to 65
degrees Fahrenheit) (13 degrees to 18 degrees Celsius) 6000 feet (1829
meters) above sea level where potatoes, cereals, apples, vegetables grow.
Zone 6. Puna (20 degrees to 55 degrees Fahrenheit) (minus 70 degrees to 13
degrees Celsius) 10000 feet (3048 meters) above sea level where grazing and
tree lines appear. Zone 6. Tierra Helada (below 20 degrees Fahrenheit) (below
minus 70 degrees Celsius) 14,000 feet (4267 meters) above the sea level
where the snow line appears. The zones are from bottom to top.

47
Precipitation

+ Extreme variability over time and space

+ Importance of regularity of rainfall
+ Rain and snow total collected, along with snow texture

48
 Average Annual Precipitation
Worldwide

Average Annual Precipitation |

inches.

Ps |
=
Er |
“ANTARCTICA =

Long Description:
Different shades represent different levels of precipitation. From darkerto
lighter shades, they represent 200 or more, 150 to 199, 100 to 149, 50 to 99,
2510 49, and less than 25 centimeters of precipitation. From darkerto lighter
shades, they represent 80 or more, 60 to 79, 40 to 59, 20 to 39, 10 to 19, and
less than 10 inches of precipitation. Antarctica has the lowest precipitation
value. Upper regions of Africa have mostly the lowest precipitation values,
whereas the lower regions have a combination of larger values. Lower parts of
Asia have the highest precipitation values, whereas the upper regions, mostly
have the bottom third and fourth level of precipitation. Europe, mostly has the
third level of precipitation. The Middle region of South America has the highest
level of precipitation and as going outwards, the values decrease. North
America, mostly has a second and third level of precipitation. Verbal scale with
1 inch equals 3,000 miles and 1 centimeter equals 3,000 kilometers.

49
Water Availability

+ Transpiration: water that plants take up, use, and release

through leaves as water vapor
+ Potential evaporation (POTET): amount of water that
could evaporate from damp soil and from plant
transpiration if it were available
+ Greater POTET in warm than in cold climates

50
Classifying Climates

* Include temperature and precipitation, effects of

temperature on water availability to plants
« Wladimir Képpen, German climatologist (1918)
+ Koppen used distribution of plants to draw boundaries
between climate regions.
«A vegetation approach has more meaning than arbitrary
temperature and precipitation levels.

51
Koppen Climate Classification (1 of 5)

Table 2.1 Major Climate Types and Their Képpen Equivalents

Tropical: climates that are warm all year

Climate Type Climate Characteristics

Humid tropical

Af Tropical, constantly warm and humid, with no dry season

Tropical, constantly warm and humid, but with a short dry
Am
season
Seasonally humid
tropical
Tropical, constantly warm and humid, but with a
Aw
pronounced dry low-sun season and wet high-sun season

52
Koppen Climate Classification (2 of 5)

Table 2.1 Major Climate Types and Their Képpen Equivalents (continued)

Dry climates

Climate Type Climate Characteristics

Desert
BWh Hot desert climate

BWk Cool desert climate

Semiarid
BSh Hot semiarid (steppe) climate

BSk Cool semiarid (steppe) climate

53
Koppen Climate Classification (3 of 5)

Table 2.1 Major Climate Types and Their Képpen Equivalents (continued)

Midlatitude climates with warm summers and cool winters

Climate Type Climate Characteristics

Humid subtropical

Cfa Humid, warm subtropical climate, with hot summers and no dry season

Cw Humid, warm subtropical climate, with hot summers and dry season

Marine west coast

Cfb Marine west coast climate, with warm summers and no dry season

Cfc Marine west coast climate, with cool summers and no dry season

Mediterranean

Cs Mediterranean climate, with dry, warm summers and cool, wet winters

54
Koppen Climate Classification (4 of 5)
Table 2.1 Major Climate Types and Their Képpen Equivalents (continued)

Midlatitude climates with warm summers and cold winters

Climate Type Climate Characteristics

Humid continental
Humid continental climate, with hot summers, cold winters, and no dry
Dfa
season

Dwa Humid continental climate, with hot summers and dry, cold winters

Humid continental climate, with warm summers, cold winters, and no dry
Dfb
season
Dwb Humid continental climate, with warm summers and dry, cold winters

Subarctic
Moist subarctic climate, with cool summers, very cold winters, and no dry
Dfc
season

Dwe Moist subarctic climate, with cool summers and very cold, dry winters
Dfd Moist subarctic climate, with cool summers, frigid winters, and no dry season
Dwd Moist subarctic climate, with cool summers and frigid, dry winters

55
Koppen Climate Classification (5 of 5)
Table 2.1 Major Climate Types and Their Képpen Equivalents (continued)

Polar climates

Climate Type Climate Characteristics

Tundra
ET Tundra climate, with very cool, short summers and frigid winters
Icecap and ice
sheets

EF Ice cap climate, with temperatures consistently below freezing

Note: In mountainous areas, large differences in climate occur over short distances, causing detailed climatic patterns that
cannot be shown on a world map. These areas are mapped as H, or highlands.

Source: Courtesy Institute for International Economics.

56
 World Climates

Long Description:
The shades represent humid low latitude climates, dry climates, warm
midlatitude climates, cold midlatitude climates, polar climates, and highland.

57
Humid Low-Latitude Tropical
Climates (A) (1 of 2)

+ Located within 10° (possibly 20°) of the equator

+ Under ITCZ, include tropical rain forests
* Warm and humid all year
» Heavy precipitation
* High POTET all year, may have wet and dry seasons

58
 Humid Low-Latitude Tropical
Climates (A) (2 of 2)

©
(109 [ Temperature
0 Precipitation 20
250
Temperature (5

wl 1 20

precipitation (nm)
0)
@[ 1
10 [ i 100
4
22L 4 B)
30 Mi 0
2 J FMAMIIASOND
Months.

Long Description:
The data inferred in the map for Singapore are as follows: Singapore - A f
Humid tropical; Precipitation - 241.3 centimeter; Temperature range - 2
degrees Celsius; Latitude - 1 degree 10 prime North and Longitude - 103
degrees 51 prime East. The bar graph depicts the Months versus Precipitation
in millimeter (25.4 millimeter equals 1 inches). The horizontal axis represents
the Months ranging between January and December. The vertical axis on the
right side represents the Precipitation in millimeter ranging between 0 and 350.
The data inferred for the Precipitation in millimeter are as follows: January -
250; February - 170; March - 190; April - 180; May - 170; June - 170; July -
165; August - 180; September - 175; October - 210; November - 260 and
December - 265. The horizontal axis represents the Months ranging between
January and December. The vertical axis on the left side represents the
Temperature in degrees Celsius (degrees Fahrenheit) ranging between
negative 30 degrees Celsius (negative 22 degrees Fahrenheit) and 40 degrees
Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit). The Temperature at 25 degrees Celsius (73
degrees Fahrenheit) is gradually increases from the month January to
February. From the month February to April, the temperature remains
constant. The temperature gradually ascends from the month April and
descends to the month June. From the month June to December, the
temperature remains constant. The above mentioned values are approximate.

59
Dry Climates (BW and BS)

«= Cover 35% of Earth, 10% of population

+ North and south of humid tropical climates
+ Defined by formula relating average annual temperature
to average annual rainfall
+ Divided into
— Warm (BWh, BSh)
— Cool (BWK, BSK)

60
 Dry Climates

Long Description:
Cairo is categorized as B W h dessert. Its precipitation is 3 centimeters, the
temperature range is 14 degrees Celsius, and the coordinate is 30 degrees 1
minute north and 31 degrees 14 minutes east. The verbal scale is 1 inch
equals 1,000 miles and 1 centimeter equals 1,000 kilometers. Cairo is
pinpointed on a globe in the top right corner of the image. Other dessert areas
are shown on the map marked as B W h. A dual-axis chart is exhibited below
the map. The left vertical axis represents temperature in degrees Celsius and
Fahrenheit. The right vertical axis represents precipitation in millimeters. A
note is added that states, "25.4 millimeters equal 1 inch." The data is plotted
between 12 months of the year from January to December with their initials
plotted on the horizontal axis. The values are approximate. The precipitation
levels from Januaryto December are: 3, 10, 3,0,0,0,0,0,0, 0, 3,10. The
temperature rises from 15 degrees Celsius or 59 degrees Fahrenheit from
January, reaches its peak in July and August with 28 degrees Celsius or 83
degrees Fahrenheit and then decreases down to 15 degrees Celsius or 59
degrees Fahrenheit in December.

61
Warm Mid-Latitude Climates (C) (1 of 3)

+ Mid-latitude
+ Seasonal variation
+ Summer: more insolation than tropics
* Winter: less insolation, less evaporation
+ Life restricted to forms that can survive cold season
« Weather related to fronts, temperature

62
 Warm Mid-Latitude Climates (C) (2 of 3)

Precipitation (mm)
Temperature

Long Description:
New Orleans is categorized as C f a humid subtropical. Its precipitation is
161.5 centimeters, the temperature range is 15 degrees Celsius, and the
coordinate is 30 degrees 0 minutes north and 90 degrees 5 minutes west. The
verbal scale is 1 inch equals 1,000 miles and 1 centimeter equals 1,000
kilometers. Cairo is pinpointed on a globe in the top right corner of the image.
A dual-axis chart is exhibited below the map. The left vertical axis represents
temperature in degrees Celsius and Fahrenheit. The right vertical axis
represents precipitation in millimeters. A note is added that states, "25.4
millimeters equal 1 inch." The data is plotted between 12 months of the year
from January to December with their initials plotted on the horizontal axis. The
values are approximate. The precipitation levels from January to December
are: 130, 100, 170, 135, 135, 140, 180, 160, 145, 90, 100, and 120. The
temperature rises from 12 degrees Celsius or 53 degrees Fahrenheit from
January, reaches its peak in June to 28 degrees Celsius or 83 degrees
Fahrenheit and then decreases down to 13 degrees Celsius or 56 degrees
Fahrenheit in December.

63
 Warm Mid-Latitude Climates (C) (3 of 3)

Precipitation (mm)
per

Fr {im
“4 | Er
.
Lo]
inal
JFMAMJJASOND
,

Long Description:
Edinburgh is categorized as C f b marine west coast. Its precipitation is 65.8
centimeters, the temperature range is 12 degrees Celsius, and the coordinate
is 55 degrees 57 minutes north and 3 degrees 12 minutes west. The verbal
scale is 1 inch equals 1,000 miles and 1 centimeter equals 1,000 kilometers.
Edinburgh is pinpointed on a globe in the top right corner of the image. A dual-
axis chart is exhibited below the map. The left vertical axis represents
temperature in degrees Celsius and Fahrenheit. The right vertical axis
represents precipitation in millimeters. A note is added that states, "25.4
millimeters equal 1 inch." The data is plotted between 12 months of the year
from January to December with their initials plotted on the horizontal axis. The
values are approximate. The precipitation levels from January to December
are 49, 35, 34, 34, 49, 48, 90, 92, 49, 50, 56, and 75. The temperature rises
from 3 degrees Celsius or 37.4 degrees Fahrenheit from January, reaches its
peak in June to 15 degrees Celsius or 59 degrees Fahrenheit and then
decreases down to 5 degrees Celsius or 41 degrees Fahrenheit in December.

64
Cold Mid-Latitude Climates (D) (1 of 4)

+ Humid continental climates (Dfa, Dwa, Dfb, Dwb)

+ Strong seasonal temperature variations
+ Less variation in rainfall
+ Located far from oceans
+ Warm summers from long hours of daylight

65
 Cold Mid-Latitude Climates (D) (2 of 4)

4 30

3
8s
Temperature5

Precipitation (mm)
3:
B.

Long Description:
Chicago has been categorized as D f a humid continental. Its precipitation is
80.8 centimeters, the temperature range is 26 degrees Celsius, and the
coordinate is 41 degrees 45 minutes north and 87 degrees 40 minutes west.
The verbal scale is 1 inch equals 1,000 miles and 1 centimeter equals 1,000
kilometers. Chicago is pinpointed on a globe in the top right corner of the
image. A dual-axis chart is exhibited below the map. The left vertical axis
represents temperature in degrees Celsius and Fahrenheit. The right vertical
axis represents precipitation in millimeters. A note is added that states, "25.4
millimeters equal 1 inch." The data is plotted between 12 months of the year
from January to December with their initials plotted on the horizontal axis. The
values are approximate. The precipitation levels from January to December
are 47, 45, 60, 59, 75, 75, 73, 75, 77, 55, 51, and 49. The temperature rises
from negative 3 degrees Celsius or 27 degrees Fahrenheit from January,
reaches its peak in July with 23 degrees Celsius or 73 degrees Fahrenheit and
then decreases down to negative 1 degrees Celsius or 30 degrees Fahrenheit
in December.

66
Cold Mid-Latitude Climates (D) (3 of 4)

+ Subarctic climates (Dfc, Dwc, Dfd, Dwd)

+ Warm season too short and temperatures too cold for
agriculture
«= Only plants that can survive extreme cold
= Conifers (boreal forest)

67
 Cold Mid-Latitude Climates (D) (4 of 4)

Churchill®

8
3
(mm)
Temperature

8
Precipitation
§

Long Description:
Churchill is categorized as D f ¢ subarctic. Its precipitation is 44.3 centimeters,
the temperature range is 40 degrees Celsius, and the coordinate is 58 degrees
45 minutes north and 94 degrees 5 minutes west. The verbal scale is 1 inch
equals 1,000 miles and 1 centimeter equals 1,000 kilometers. Chicago is
pinpointed on a globe in the top right corner of the image. A dual-axis chart is
exhibited below the map. The left vertical axis represents temperature in
degrees Celsius and Fahrenheit. The right vertical axis represents precipitation
in millimeters. A note is added that states, "25.4 millimeters equal 1 inch." The
data is plotted between 12 months of the year from Januaryto December with
their initials plotted on the horizontal axis. The values are approximate. The
precipitation levels from Januaryto December are 25, 25, 30, 35, 40, 48, 45,
60, 50, 45, 48, and 35. The temperature rises from negative 30 degrees
Celsius or negative 22 degrees Fahrenheit from January, reaches its peak in
July and August to 11 degrees Celsius or 52 degrees Fahrenheit and then
decreases down to negative 22 degrees Celsius or negative 8 degrees
Fahrenheit in December.

68
Polar Climates (E) (1 of 3)

+ Characterized by two important features

— Low average temperature
— Extreme seasonal variability
» Occur at and around the poles
+ Differentiated by temperature alone
— Tundra climates (ET)
— Ice cap climates (EF)

69
 Polar Climates (E) (2 of 3)

EE

Precipitation (mm)

Long Description:
Barrow is categorized as E T tundra. Its precipitation is 11 centimeters, the
temperature range is 32 degrees Celsius, and the coordinate is 71 degrees 28
minutes north and 15 degrees 60 minutes east. The verbal scale is 1 inch
equals 1,000 miles and 1 centimeter equals 1,000 kilometers. Chicago is
pinpointed on a globe in the top right corner of the image. A dual-axis chart is
exhibited below the map. The left vertical axis represents temperature in
degrees Celsius and Fahrenheit. The right vertical axis represents precipitation
in millimeters. A note is added that states, "25.4 millimeters equal 1 inch." The
data is plotted between 12 months of the year from Januaryto December with
their initials plotted on the horizontal axis. The values are approximate. The
precipitation levels from Januaryto December are 5, 5, 3, 3, 3, 8, 15, 25, 10,
9, 3, and 3. The temperature rises from negative 28 degrees Celsius or
negative 18 degrees Fahrenheit from January, reaches its peak in July with 4
degrees Celsius or 39 degrees Fahrenheit and then decreases down to
negative 25 degrees Celsius or negative 13 degrees Fahrenheit in December.

70
 Polar Climates (E) (3 of 3)

Temperature ©

Precipitation (mm)
2 —————r——r—r————

Long Description:
Barrow is categorized as an E F ice cap. Its precipitation is 0 centimeters, the
temperature range is 21 degrees Celsius, and the coordinate is 70 degrees 0
minutes south and 170 degrees 0 minutes east. The verbal scale is 1 inch
equals 1,000 miles and 1 centimeter equals 1,000 kilometers. Chicago is
pinpointed on a globe in the top right corner of the image. A dual-axis chart is
exhibited below the map. The left vertical axis represents temperature in
degrees Celsius and Fahrenheit. The right vertical axis represents precipitation
in millimeters. A note is added that states, "25.4 millimeters equal 1 inch." The
data is plotted between 12 months of the year from Januaryto December with
their initials plotted on the horizontal axis. The values are approximate. The
precipitation levels from Januaryto December are 0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0, 0,0, 0,
and 0. The temperature decreases from negative 5 degrees Celsius or 23
degrees Fahrenheit from January, reaches its lowest point in September with
negative 25 degrees Celsius or negative 13 degrees Fahrenheit and then
increases to negative 5 degrees Celsius or 23 degrees Fahrenheit in
December.

71
Climate Change over Geologic Time

+ Quaternary Period (most recent 2 million years)

+ Alternating cool and warm periods
+ Pleistocene glaciations
«= Melting of last ice sheets ¢. 7000 B.C.
* Recent change (last 1,000 years)
* Medieval Warm Period (A.D. 800-1000)
+ Little Ice Age (1500-1700)

72
Natural Causes of Climate Variation

+ Astronomic factors
— Variations in Earth’s revolution around the Sun
— Sun spots
+ Geologic processes
— Geological hypotheses
— Continental drift
— Shifting of ICTZ and other wind/pressure bands
— Formation of mountain ranges

73
 Human Causes of Climate Variation

+ Human modification
— Altering the atmosphere
— Removing vegetation

400

Age of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

350
Parts per Million

[00 44900 400g 4g phe ttiees ail alt VR

T T
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Year

Long Description:
The levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are plotted on a graph. The
vertical axis is labeled as parts per million and it ranges from 250 to 400. The
horizontal axis is labeled as year and it ranges from 0 to 2000. The average
level of carbon dioxide ranges near 275 parts per million from 0 to the year
1800. From 1800 to 2000, there is an exponential growth in the presence of
carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. The graph is labeled as the age of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

74
 Global Warming (1 of 2)

+ Twentieth-century warming: 1°C (1.8°F)

+ Link with increased carbon dioxide (CO,)
06

World surface temperature history

Temperature anomaly (°C)

-0.6 1 1 i" 1 1 1 L
1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year

Long Description:
The graph illustrates world surface temperature history. The vertical line
represents temperature anomaly in degree Celsius from negative 0.6 to 0.6,
and the horizontal axis represents year from 1850 to 2010. In the year 1850,
the temperature anomaly is at negative 0.3 degrees Celsius, in 1880 the
temperature anomaly is at 0 degree Celsius, in 1890 and 1900 the
temperature anomaly is at negative 0.2 degrees Celsius. In 1910 the
temperature anomaly is at negative 0.5, from 1940 to 1980 the temperature
anomaly residue under 0.1 degrees Celsius. From here the temperature
anomaly inclines to just above 0.5 degrees Celsius in 2000. In the year 2010,
the temperature anomaly exhibits at 0.5 degrees Celsius.

75
Global Warming (2 of 2)

+ Evidence of global warming

— Computer models
— Historic climate data
— Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
+ Consequences of global warming
— Rise in sea level
— Decrease in water supply in some regions
— Tipping points and uncertainties

76
Dealing with Global Warming

» Developing means to adapt

* Reducing carbon emissions
«Active measures to counteract effects

77
Chapter Summary

+ Energy and Weather

— Solar radiation, insolation, energy transfer
* Precipitation
— Convection, fronts
« Circulation Patterns
— Global patterns, ocean surface circulation
+ Climate
— Classification based on temperature, precipitation, and
vegetation
+ Climate Change

78