SOLAR ENERGY

DEFINITION OF SOLAR RADIATION

The energy emitted by the Sun as an electromagnetic wave is called Solar radiation.

BASIC PRINCIPLES
How much solar radiation enters the Earth's surface is influenced by several factors, including
(i) The time of the day,
(ii) The season,
(iii)Geographical location,
(iv) Local weather, and
(v) landscape.
EARTH'S SHAPE
The Sun hits the Earth at varying angles because it is round. It ranges from 0° (above the horizon) to 90°
(directly overhead).
The Sun's rays become scattered and diffuse when they enter the Earth because the rays are slanted, and
they travel in the atmosphere for longer. But when the Sun's rays are vertical, the Earth's surface gets all the
energy.
EARTH'S REVOLUTION
Because of the Earth's revolution around the Sun, there is part of the year where a section of the Earth is
closer. When this happens, more solar energy is received by the area directly hit by the Sun's rays.
EARTH'S TILTING
A more significant factor determining how much sunlight strikes the Earth is the 23.5° tilt in the Earth's axis
of rotation.

EARTH'S ROTATION
Likewise, the Earth's rotation also influences the hourly variation of the amount of sunlight that reaches the
ground. The peak time for solar energy to enter the Earth is around noon each day.
TERMS USED IN SOLAR ENERGY: IRRADIANCE, IRRADIATION & INSOLATION:
Solar radiance: This is the instantaneous power density in the units of kilowatt per square meter (KW/m2).
Its SI units are kilo watts per square mete
Solar Irradiance: is the rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface per unit area (W/m2) and is
represented by the symbol G.
 Or
This is the amount of electromagnetic radiation received from the sun per unit area (usually square meters.
Its SI units are watts per square meter(W/m2)
Solar Irradiation: is the incident energy per unit area (J/m2) on a surface -determined by integration of
irradiance over a specified time, usually an hour or a day.
Solar Insolation: is a term used to indicate ‘Solar Energy Irradiation’. (An abbreviation for ‘Incident
Solar Radiation’)
While solar irradiance is most commonly measured, a more common form of radiation data, solar
Insolation is the total amount of solar energy received at a particular location during a specified time period,
often in units of (kWh/ m2).
Extra Terrestrial &Terrestrial Solar Radiation:
While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere which is known as Extraterrestrial Solar
Radiation is relatively constant, the radiation at the Earth’s surface which is known as Terrestrial Solar
Radiation varies widely due to:
• Atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering.
• Local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapor, clouds, and pollution.
• Latitude of the location
SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION:
INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE SOLAR RADIATION.
We will study three such important instruments which measure solar radiation for setting up of Solar
Radiation Data bases (i) Pyranometer: Total (direct and diffuse) radiation (ii) Pyrheliometer: Direct
radiation at normal incidence (iii) Shading-ring pyranometer: Diffuse radiation
Pyranometer: This instrument measures the total radiation arriving from all directions, including both
direct and diffuse components i.e., it measures all of the radiation that is of potential use to a Solar Energy
collecting system. This instrument also known as solarimeter is generally mounted in a horizontal position
away from tall objects so that the 2π field of view of the instrument covers the entire sky. It responds equally
to the energy in all wavelengths. The most important part of a pyranometer (or pyrheliometer) is the detector
that responds to incoming radiation. The most accurate detectors use a stack of thermocouples, called a
thermopile, to measure how much hotter a black surface becomes when exposed to sunlight relative to a
White surface.
Shading-ring pyranometer: A ring-shaped hoop sunshield is added to a pyranometer to exclude direct
sunlight and thereby permits measurement of the diffuse components. When this reading is subtracted from
that of a standard pyranometer, the result is the direct solar radiation. To keep the obstruction of the sky
small, the ring is made narrow, shading only about 5°, and the position of the ring is changed every few days.
Pyrheliometer: The pyrheliometer has a small field of view, around 6°, and tracks the sun continuously
and thus measures the direct normal beam radiation. Since the field of view is larger than the 0.53°
subtended by the solar disk, the reading is higher than the true direct flux by a few percent. Data collected by
pyrheliometers are especially important for focusing collectors since their solar resource is pretty much
restricted to just the beam portion of incident radiation. Hence Pyrheliometer measurements are also needed
to predict the performance of tracking concentrator photovoltaic systems. Pyrheliometer stations are
relatively rare.

Pyrheliometer

.
 DIRECT SOLAR RADIATION
This Solar radiation penetrates the atmosphere and reaches the surface without dispersing all the way.
DIFFUSE SOLAR RADIATION
Diffuse solar radiation, also known as diffuse sky radiation, is the radiation that reaches the Earth's surface
after being scattered in the atmosphere.
Diffuse solar radiation is measured by a Solarimeter, and Pyrheliometer. The two components of diffuse
solar radiation are Global Diffuse Irradiance and Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI).
Global radiation is the sum of direct and diffuse solar radiation
REFLECTED SOLAR RADIATION
The Albedo effect is a phenomenon where the Earth's surface reflects solar radiation.
The Solar radiation reflects off objects such as cars, buildings, or any other solar panel reflector.

INFRARED RAYS
This type of light has a longer wavelength than visible light, reflecting more than UV and Visible Light.
This has a wavelength of less than 700 and provides 49.4% of solar energy, and can be easily absorbed by
water and carbon dioxide molecules and converted to heat energy.
VISIBLE RAYS
Visible solar radiation or visible light includes light colors visible to the human eye.
 ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
Ultraviolet solar radiation or Ultraviolet Light has shorter wavelengths than visible light and can be harmful
to humans and other living things if exposed for a long time.
It can be separated into
Three types based on its wavelength ranges:

➢ UV-A can pass through the Earth's surface quickly. It has a wavelength of 320-400 nanometer
(nm). This is also known as backlight, which causes fluorescence in some objects.

➢ UV-B cannot penetrate the atmosphere easily but still reaches the Earth's surface and is
responsible for skin damage and impairment of photosynthesis in many plants. It has a wavelength of 280-
320 nm.

➢ UV-C cannot get through the atmosphere since the Earth's Ozone Layer absorbs it. It has
wavelengths ranging between 100 and 280 nm.

IMPORTANCE OF SOLAR RADIATION

➢ It provides light.
➢ It balances the temperature of the Earth, providing its heat.
➢ It gives out energy that can be stored and converted into electricity.
➢ It is needed for photosynthesis.
DRAWBACKS OF SOLAR RADIATION
➢ Solar radiation can be harmful to human skin, especially when exposed for too long.
➢ It is found to alter the immune response.
➢ It causes eye problems.
➢ It is detrimental to microscopic life.
Properties of solar radiation
➢ Transmission
➢ Reflection
➢ Absorption
Solar radiation maybe transmitted through the object, the object may reflect it, the object may absorb it
 SOLAR THERMAL ELECTRICITY (STE)
This is a renewable energy source which is converted from solar energy to thermal energy in form of heat .it
produces hot water for your daily requirements with the energy of the sun
TEMPERATURE SOLAR COLLECTORS
Solar collectors are used to collect the solar energy and convert the incident radiations into thermal energy
by absorbing them. This heat is extracted by flowing fluid (air or water or mixture with antifreeze) in the tube
of the collector for further utilization in different applications.
TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTORS
• Non concentrating collectors

• Concentrating (focusing) collectors

Non-Concentrating Collectors
In these collectors the area of collector to intercept the solar radiation is equal to the absorber plate and has
concentration ratio of 1.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS
➢ low temperature collectors
➢ medium temperature collectors
➢ high temperature collectors

LOW TEMPERATURE COLLECTORS

FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR

These are heat exchangers which convert solar energy to heat energy or A flat plate collector is a heat
exchanger that uses solar radiation to heat a working fluid the working fluid is usually liquid or air
The flat plate is used at low temperatures and absorbs both direct and diffuse radiation. A flat plate collector
consists of absorber plate made up of copper or aluminium coated with a black which absorb the heat from
the sun, tubes attached to an absorber plate with foam and wool glass as an insulating material to maintain
temperature around the tubes. In flat plate collectors there is no optical concentration of sunlight and they are
generally stationary.
Flat Plate Collectors (Glaze Type) Flat plate collector is most important part of any solar thermal energy
system. It is simplest in design and both direct and diffuse radiations are absorbed by collector and converted
into useful heat. These collectors are suitable for heating to temperature below 100oC.
The main advantages of flat plate collectors are:
• It utilizes the both the beam as well as diffuse radiation for heating.
• Requires less maintenance.
 Disadvantages
(i) Large heat losses by conduction and radiation because of large area.
(ii) No tracking of sun.
(iii)Low water temperature is achieved.

THE CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR IS GIVEN BELOW

Insulated Box: The rectangular box is made of thin G.I sheet and is insulated from sides and bottom using
glass or mineral wool of thickness 5 to 8 cm to reduce losses from conduction to back and side wall. The box
is tilted at due south and a tilt angle depends on the latitude of location. The face area of the collector box is
kept between 1 to 2 m2.

Transparent Cover: This allows solar energy to pass through and reduces the convective heat losses from
the absorber plate through air space. The transparent tampered glass cover is placed on top of rectangular box
to trap the solar energy and sealed by rubber gaskets to prevent the leakage of hot air. It is made of
plastic/glass but glass is most favorable because of its transmittance and low surface degradation. However,
with development of improved quality of plastics, the degradation quality has been improved. The plastics
are available at low cost, light in weight and can be used to make tubes, plates and cover but are suitable for
low temperature application 70-120oC with single cover plate or up to 150oC using double cover plate. The
thickness of glass cover 3 to 4 mm is commonly used and 1 to 2 covers with spacing 1.5 to 3 cm are
generally used between plates. The temperature of glass cover is lower than the absorber plate and is a good
absorber of thermal energy and reduces convective and radiative losses of sky.
Absorber Plate: It intercepts and absorbs the solar energy. The absorber plate is made of copper,
aluminum or steel and is in the thickness of1 to 2 mm. It is the most important part of collector along with the
tube’s products passing the liquid or air to be heated. The plate absorbs the maximum solar radiation incident
on it through glazing (cover plate) and transfers the heat to the tubes in contact with minimum heat losses to
atmosphere. The plate is black painted and provided with selective material coating to increase its absorption
and reduce the emission. The absorber plate has high absorption (80-95%) and low transmission/reflection.
 Tubes: The plate is attached to a series of parallel tubes or one serpentine tube through which water or other
liquid passes. The tubes are made of copper, aluminum or steel in the diameter 1 to 1.5 cm and are brazed,
soldered on top/bottom of the absorber water equally in all the tubes and collect it back from the other end.
The header pipe is made of same material as tube and of larger diameter. Now-a-days the tubes are made of
plastic but they have low thermal conductivity and higher coefficient of expansion than metals.
Copper and aluminum are likely to get corroded with saline liquids and steel tubes within hibitors are used at
such places.
Removal of Heat: These systems are best suited to applications that require low temperatures. Once the heat
is absorbed on the absorber plate it must be removed fast and delivered to the place of storage for further use.
As the liquid circulates through the tubes, it absorbs the heat from absorber plate of the collectors. The heated
liquid moves slowly and the losses from collector will increase because of rise of high temperature of
collector and will lower the efficiency. Flat-plate solar collectors are less efficient in cold weather than in
warm weather. Factors affecting the Performance of Flat Plate Collector.
The Different Factors Affecting the Performance of System Are:

Incident Solar Radiation: The efficiency of collector is directly related with solar radiation falling on it
and increases with rise in temperature.
Number of Cover Plate: The increase in number of cover plate reduces the internal convective heat losses
but also prevents the transmission of radiation inside the collector. More than two cover plate should not be
used to optimize the system.
Spacing: The more space between the absorber and cover plate the less internal heat losses. The collector
efficiency will be increased. However, on the other hand, increase in space between them provides the
shading by side wall in the morning and evening and reduces the absorbed solar flux by 2-3% of system. The
spacing between absorber and cover plate is kept 2-3 cm to balance the problem.
Collector Tilt: The flat plate collectors do not track the sun and should be tilted at angle of latitude of the
location for an average better performance. However, with changing declination angle with seasons the
optimum tilt angle is kept Φ ± 15o.
Selective Surface: Some materials like nickel black (α= 0.89, ε= 0.15) and black chrome (α= 0.87, ε=
0.088), copper oxide (α= 0.89, ε= 0.17) etc. are applied chemically on the surface of absorber in a thin layer
of thickness 0.1 μm. These chemicals have high degree of absorption (α) to short wave radiation (< 4 μm)
and low emission (ε) of long wave radiations (> 4 μm). The higher absorption of solar energy increases the
temperature of absorber plate and working fluid. The top losses reduce and the efficiency of the collector
increases. The selective surface should be able to withstand high temperature of 300-400oC, cost less, should
not oxidize and be corrosive resistant. The property of material should not change with time.
 Inlet Temperature: With increase in inlet temperature of working fluid the losses increase to ambient. The
high temperature fluid absorbed the less heat from absorber plate because of low temperature difference and
increases the top loss coefficient. Therefore, the efficiency of collector get reduced with rise in inlet
temperature.
Dust on cover Plate: The efficiency of collector decreases with dust particles on the cover plate because
the transmission radiation decreases by 1%. Frequent cleaning is required to get the maximum efficiency of
collector.
These are heat exchangers that transform solar radiation into internal energy of a medium transported
through them.
The function of the collector is to absorb the incoming solar radiation, convert it into heat and transfer this
heat to a fluid (usually air, water or heat transfer oil) flowing through the collector. The energy collected is
thus carried from the circulating fluid and can be used either directly (for hot water or space thermal load) or
stored in in a thermal energy storage tank from which it can be drawn whenever required. i.e., during night
and /or cloudy days
How does a flat plate collector work?
A flat plate collector works by converting solar radiation into thermal energy. The dark coating on the plate
absorbs the incoming sunlight and heats up the plate
When radiation strike the absorber plate, the absorber plate absorbs the heat from radiation since the tubes
are attached to the absorber plate, the tube will heat up hence heating up the water or the fluid inside the hot
tube and that water is used for domestic use. The process repeats as long as there is enough solar radiation
and the temperature difference between the collector and the tank or heat exchanger.
APPLICATIONS OF A FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR
o Solar water heating systems for residence, hotels, industry.

o Desalination plant for obtaining drinking water from sea water.

o Solar cookers for domestic cooking.

o Drying applications.

o Residence heating.

MAINTENANCE OF FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR:

o Daily cleaning

o Seasonal maintenance (cleaning, touch-up paint)

o Yearly overhaul (change of seals, cleaning after dismantling)

Domestic hot water

 Concentrating
Sun tracking concentrating solar collector usually has a concave reflecting surfaces which focus the sun’s
beam radiation to a smaller receiving area, thereby increasing the radiation flux. Concentrating collectors are
suitable for high temperature applications
These collectors are used for medium (100-300o C) and high-temperature (above 300oC) applications such
as steam production for the generation of electricity. The high temperature is achieved at absorber because of
reflecting arrangement provided for concentrating the radiation at required location using mirrors and lenses.
These collectors are best suited to places having a greater number of clear days in a year.
The area of the absorber is kept less than the aperture through which the radiation passes, to concentrate the
solar flux. These collectors require tracking to follow the sun because of optical system. The tracking rate
depends on the degree of concentration ratio and needs frequent adjustment for system having high
concentration ratio. The efficiency of these collectors lies between 50-70%. The collectors need more
maintenance than FPC because of its optical system. The concentrating collectors are classified on the basis
of reflector used; concentration ratio and tracking method adopted.
 FPC with Reflectors
The mirrors are placed as reflecting surface to concentrate more radiations on FPC absorber. The fluid
temperature is higher by 30oC than achieved in FPC. These collections utilize direct and diffuse radiation.
LINEAR FRESNEL SYSTEMS
Similar to parabolic troughs, linear Fresnel systems use rows of mirrors with a parallel absorber that carries
a heat transfer fluid. The biggest distinguishing factor between these two technologies is that parabolic
troughs remain stationary, while linear Fresnel systems use trackers systems on the mirrors to maximize the
amount of thermal energy concentrated and reflected towards the absorber.

Compound Parabolic Collectors

These collectors are line focusing type. The compound parabolic collectors have two parabolic surfaces to
concentrate the solar radiation to the absorber placed at bottom.
These collectors have high concentration ratio and concentrator is moving to track the sun.
Cylindrical Parabolic Collectors
The troughs concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube, placed along the focal line of the trough. The
temperature at the absorber tube is obtained at nearly 400o C. The absorber in these collectors is moving to
receive the reflected radiations by reflector, while the concentrators (trough) remain fixed. Because of its
parabolic shape, it can focus the sun at 30 to 100 times its normal intensity (concentration ratio) on a
receiver. The heat transfer medium carries the heat at one central place for further utilization.
Parabolic Dish Collector
The collectors have mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at the focal point. These collectors are point
focusing type. The concentrating ratio of these collectors is 100 and temperature of the receiver can reach up
to 2000o C. These collectors have higher efficiency for converting solar energy to electricity in the small-
power plant. In some systems, a heat engine, such as a Stirling engine, is connected to the receiver to
generate electricity
Parabolic trough
 Long, U-shaped mirrors reflect sunlight towards a tube that runs along their Centre, parallel to the mirrors.
Inside the tube is a heat transfer fluid that gets heated as sunlight is reflected towards the tube. Once hot, this
liquid runs to a central power generator that will use the heat to produce electricity.

Advantages of concentrating collector over flat collector

• The size of the absorber can be reduced that gives high concentration ratio.

• Thermal losses are less than FPC. However small losses occur in the concentrating collector because of its
optical system as well as by reflection, absorption by mirrors and lenses.
• The efficiency increases at high temperatures.

• In these collectors the area intercepting the solar radiation is greater than the absorber area.
• These collectors are used for high-temperature applications.

• Reflectors can cost less per unit area than flat plate collectors.
 • Focusing or concentrating systems can be used for electric power generation when not used for heating or
cooling
• Little or no anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber in a concentrator system whereas the entire solar
energy collection surface requires anti-freeze protection in a flat plate collector
Disadvantages

• Out of the beam and diffuse solar radiation components, only beam component is collected in case of
focusing collectors because diffuse component cannot be reflected and is thus lost.
• In some stationary reflecting systems, it is necessary to have a small absorber to track the sun image; in
others the reflector may have to be adjustable more than one position if year-round operation is desired; in
other words, costly orienting systems have to be used to track the sun.
• Additional requirements of maintenance particular to retain the quality of reflecting surface against dirt,
weather, oxidation etc.
• Non –uniform flux on the absorber whereas flux in flat-plate collectors in uniform.

• Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss and the intercept loss, so they introduce additional
factors in energy balances.
• High initial cost.
SOLAR AIR HEATERS

Air stream is heated by the back side of the collector plate in flat plate collector. Fins attached to the plate
increase the contact surface. The back side of the collector is heavily insulated with mineral wool or some
other material. If the size of collector is large, a blower is used to draw air into the collector and transmit the
hot air to dryer.
The most favorable orientation of a collector for heating only is facing due south at an inclination angle to
the horizontal equal to the latitude plus 150. The use of air as the heat transport fluid eliminates both freezing
and corrosion problems and small air leaks are of less concern than water leaks
Types of Air Heaters

1. Non porous absorber in which air stream does not flow through the absorber plate

2. Porous absorber that includes slit and expanded material, transpired honey comb and over lapped
glass plate
 Non-porous absorber plate type collectors: A non-porous absorber may be cooled by the air stream
flowing over both sides of the plate. In most of the designs, the air flows behind the absorbing surface. Air
flow above the upper surface increases the convection losses from the cover plate and therefore is not
recommended if the air inlet temperature rise at the collector are large.
Transmission of the solar radiation through the transparent cover system and its absorption is identical to
that of a liquid type flat-plate collector. To improve collection efficiency selective coating may be applied
provided there is no much cost.
Due to low heat transfer rates, efficiencies are lower than liquid solar heaters under the same radiation
intensity and temperature conditions. Performance of air heaters is improved by:
Roughening the rear of the plate to promote turbulence and improve the convective heat transfer coefficient
Adding fins to increase heat transfer surface. Usually, turbulence is also increased which enhances the
convective heat transfer. Absorption of solar radiation is improved due to surface radioactive characteristics
and the geometry of the corrugations, which help in trapping the reflected radiation.
Collectors with porous absorbers: The main drawback of the non-porous absorber plate is the necessity of
absorbing all incoming radiation over the projected area from a thin layer over the surface, which is in the
order of a few microns. Unless selective coatings are used, radiative losses from the absorber plate are
excessive, therefore, the collection
 efficiency cannot be improved. Too many surfaces and too much restriction to air flow will require a
larger fan and a larger amount of energy to push the air through. The energy required for this cancel out
saving from using solar energy, particularly if fan is electrical and if the amount of energy which is burned at
the power plant to produce the electrical energy is included.
Applications of Solar air heaters

• Heating buildings.

• Drying agricultural produce and lumber.

• Heating green houses.

• Air conditioning building subtilizing desiccant beds or an absorption refrigeration process.

• Heat sources for a heat engine such as a Brayton or Stirling cycle.

Heat collection and exchange:

More energy is contained in higher frequency light based upon the formula of E = hu, where h is the Planck
constant and v is frequency. Metal collectors down convert higher frequency light by producing a series of
Compton shifts into an abundance of lower frequency light. Glass or ceramic coatings with high transmission
in the visible and UV, effective absorption in the IR (heat blocking) trap metal absorbed low frequency light
from radiation loss. Convection insulation prevents mechanical losses transferred through gas. Once collected
as heat, thermos containment efficiency improves significantly with increased size. Unlike Photovoltaic
technologies that often degrade under concentrated light, Solar Thermal depends upon light concentration
that requires a clear sky to reach suitable temperatures.
Heat in a solar thermal system is guided by five basic principles: heat gain; heat transfer; heat storage; heat
transport; and heat insulation. Here, heat is the measure of the amount of thermal energy an object contains
and is determined by the temperature, mass and specific heat of the object. Solar thermal power plants use
heat exchangers that are designed for constant working conditions, to provide heat exchange. Copper heat
exchangers are important in solar thermal heating and cooling systems because of copper’s high thermal
conductivity, resistance to atmospheric and water corrosion, sealing and joining by soldering, and mechanical
strength. Copper is used both in receivers and in primary circuits (pipes and heat exchangers for water tanks)
of solar thermal water systems.
Heat gain is the heat accumulated from the sun in the system. Solar thermal heat is trapped using the
greenhouse effect; the greenhouse effect in this case is the ability of a reflective surface to transmit short
wave radiation and reflect long wave radiation. Heat and infrared radiation (IR) are produced when short
wave radiation light hits the absorber plate, which is then trapped inside the collector. Fluid, usually water, in
the absorber tubes collect the trapped heat and transfer it to a heat storage vault.
Heat is transferred either by conduction or convection. When water is heated, kinetic energy is transferred
by conduction to water molecules throughout the medium. These molecules spread their thermal energy by
conduction and occupy more space than the cold slow-moving molecules above them. The distribution of
energy from the rising hot water to the sinking cold water contributes to the convection process. Heat is
transferred from the absorber plates of the collector in the fluid by conduction. The collector fluid is
circulated through the carrier pipes to the heat transfer vault. Inside the vault, heat is transferred throughout
the medium through convection.
 Heat storage enables solar thermal plants to produce electricity during hours without sunlight. Heat is
transferred to a thermal storage medium in an insulated reservoir during hours with sunlight, and is
withdrawn for power generation during hours lacking sunlight. Thermal storage mediums will be discussed
in a heat storage section. Rate of heat transfer is related to the conductive and convection medium as well as
the temperature differences. Bodies with large temperature differences transfer heat faster than bodies with
lower temperature differences.
Heat transport refers to the activity in which heat from a solar collector is transported to the heat storage
vault. Heat insulation is vital in both heat transport tubing as well as the storage vault. It prevents heat loss,
which in turn relates to energy loss, or decrease in the efficiency of the system.

A solar power has low density (kW/m2), therefore large area on the ground is covered by collectors. Flat
plate collectors are used for low temperature applications. For achieving higher temperature of transport
fluid, the sun rays must be concentrated and focused.
Concentration Ratio (CR):

solar radiation surfaces (kW/m2)

CR = solar radiation at focus on surfaces of collector (kW/m2)

CR = For flat plate collectors, CR = 1. Using heliostats with sun-tracking in two planes, we obtain CR of
the order of 1000. CR up to 100 can be achieved by using parabolic trough collectors with sun tracking in
one plane.
The performance of a collector is evaluated in terms of its collector efficiency which is given as constant
solar radiation (kW/m2), the collector efficiency decreases with the increasing difference between the
collector temperature and the outside temperature.
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
solar PV systems are power systems that convert sunlight into electricity by utilizing the photovoltaic
effect (a process that generates voltage or electric current in a photovoltaic cell when exposed to sunlight)
or photovoltaics is a technology involving the direct conversion of solar radiation (insolation) into
electricity using solar cells
TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
➢ Stand alone
➢ Grid connected
➢ Hybrid
stand-alone PV system:
 In a stand-alone system, solar is the only source of energy being used to supply the loads
Important features:
• Stand-alone Solar systems are designed to operate independent of the electric utility grid, and are
generally designed and sized to supply certain DC and/or AC electrical loads.
• PV panels are connected in series/parallel to obtain the desired DC voltage and also to sustain the
connected load while simultaneously charging the batteries to give the required backup power.
• The charge controller regulates the current output and prevents the voltage level from exceeding the
maximum value for charging the batteries. ∙ During the sunshine hours, the load is supplied with DC power
while simultaneously charging the battery.
• Battery bank sizing depends on a number of factors, such as the duration of an uninterrupted power supply
required to the load when there is less or no radiation from the sun.
• The battery bank while giving back up facility results in around 20–30 % power loss due to heat when in
operation.
• When designing a solar PV system with a battery backup, the designer must take this loss into account
and also should plan a location with adequate space and ventilation for safe housing of the battery racks.
• Normally when Grid is close by, people will not go for a Standalone system with full battery backup
since utility supply on Grid itself will serve as power backup when there is no adequate Sunshine. Only a
small battery backup is normally provided as contingency to support essential loads.
• But in case of remote locations where nearby Grid access is not there Standalone PV systems must have
battery backup except for direct online systems.

Figure 3: Illustration of Stand-alone System

 Grid interactive PV systems:
These are connected to the grid through inverters and do not require batteries because the grid can accept
all of the electricity that a PV generator can supply
Important features:
∙ A Grid-connected Photo Voltaic (PV) system is a Solar PV Power generating system that is connected
to the utility Grid. A grid-connected PV system consists of a Grid Interface system apart from the normal
solar panels, Inverters and a power conditioning unit. They range from small residential and commercial roof
top systems to large utility-scale Solar Power Stations. A grid connected system will include an integrated
battery system as well but of a very small capacity to serve as a backup for essential monitoring and control
functions.
∙ Grid-connected or utility-interactive PV systems are designed to operate in parallel and interconnected
with the electric utility grid.
In Uganda the several plants (of total capacity of about 60 MW as by the end of 2020) feed the grid. Some
of these plants include;
• Bufulubi Power plant in Mayuge district that that produces 10MW
• Access Solar plant in Soroti district that produces 10MW
• Tororo Solar North plant in Tororo district that produces 10MW
• Tororo PV Power project in Tororo that produces 10 MW
• Kabulasoke Solar north in Gomba district that produces 20MW
HYBRID SYSTEMS
This is where there is both solar and another source of energy being used to supply the loads either
simultaneously or concurrently
 HOW DOES A PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM PRODUCE ELECTRICITY
A photovoltaic system contains PV cells that absorbs sunlight and convert solar energy into electricity
.These cells are made up of semiconductor that transmits energy .when the semiconductor in the
photovoltaic panels absorb the sun light, this knocks the electrons free from their place and can now flow
through the semiconductor .These dislodged electrons , each carrying a negative charge , flow across the cell
towards the front surface , creating an imbalance in charge between the front and the back .photovoltaic cells
produce electricity because of this imbalance which in turn creates a voltage potential like the negative and
positive terminals of a battery .The current is then collected on wires and then used immediately or stored by
batteries
COMPONENTS OF A SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
This is a thin semiconductor made of two layers generally made of highly purified silicon that convert
sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity.
 A number of semiconductor materials are suitable for the manufacture of solar cells. The most common
types using silicon semiconductor material (Si) are:
Single crystalline (Mono Crystalline) silicon cells:
They are manufactured by drawing small seed crystals slowly in molten silicon with required ‘p’ type of
dopants added thus forming small P type Silicon Semiconductors. The manufacturing process is slow and
energy intensive, resulting in high raw material cost

Mono crystalline Silicon Panel

Merits and demerits of Mono crystalline Solar Panels:
Merits:
• Efficiency is high in the range of 15-24% as they are fabricated from the highest-grade silicon, making
them cost effective in the long-term
Demerits:
• High initial cost and Fragility.
• Mono crystalline silicon is produced using the Czochralski process, which involves significant silicon
wastage

Multi (Poly) crystalline silicon cells:

One way to avoid the above costly Single-Crystal Czochralski (CZ) Silicon is based on carefully cooling
and solidifying a crucible of molten silicon, yielding a large, solid rectangular ingot. They are cut into
smaller, more manageable blocks, which are then sliced into silicon wafers using either the saw or wire-
cutting
This is relatively a fast and low-cost process to manufacture thick crystalline cells. Instead of drawing
single crystals using seeds, the molten silicon is cast into ingots. In the process, it forms multiple crystals and
hence the name Multi crystalline or Poly Crystalline. The conversion efficiency is lower, but the cost is much
lower, giving a net reduction in cost per watt of power.
 Polycrystalline Silicon Panel
The major advantage is the production process is simple, cost-effective, and reduces silicon waste
compared to single crystal panels
The major disadvantage is lower conversion efficiency compared to mono crystalline panels due to the use
of low purity silicon and faster fabrication technology
Applications of Polycrystalline Solar Panels:
Polycrystalline solar panels are the most commonly used PV panels on the Earth. They are offered in a
wide range of power ratings, from 5 W to 250 W or more, for use in both residential and commercial
installations.
PV Modules and Arrays:
PV Modules: An individual cell produces about one watt of power at about 0.5 V and they are of no
practical use. Typically, it is a few square inches in size. Hence the basic building block for PV applications
is a module consisting of a number of pre-wired cells in series, all encased in tough, weather-resistant
packages in an area of several square feet. Such an encased panel is called a Solar Module.
Most solar PV panels have 30 to 36 cells connected in series. Each cell produces about 0.5 V in sunlight, so
a panel produces 15V to 18 V. These panels are designed to charge 12-V batteries. A 30-cell panel (15 V)
can be used to charge the battery without a controller, but it may fail to charge the battery completely.
A 36-cell panel (18 V) will do better, but needs a controller to prevent overcharging. The current depends
on the size of each cell, and the solar radiation intensity. Most cells produce a current of 2 A to 3 A in bright
sunlight. The current is the same in every cell because the cells are connected in series. For cells wired in
series, their voltages at any given current add. A typical module will have 36 cells.
Arrays: Multiple modules, in turn, can be wired in series to increase voltage and in parallel to increase
current, the product of which is power.
An important aspect in PV system design is deciding how many modules should be connected in series and
how many in parallel to deliver the required energy. Such combinations of modules are referred to as an
array. An array is a collection of panels.
ARRAY DESIGN

The major factors influencing the electrical design of the solar array are as follows:
 • The sun intensity

• The sun angles

• The load matching for maximum power

• The operating temperature

These factors are discussed in the following subsections.

SUN INTENSITY:

The magnitude of the photocurrent is maximum under a full bright sun (1.0 sun). On a partially sunny day,
the photocurrent diminishes in direct proportion to the sun intensity. At a lower sun intensity, the I-V
characteristic shifts downward as shown above. On a cloudy day, therefore, the short-circuit current
decreases significantly. The reduction in the open-circuit voltage, however, is small. The photo conversion
efficiency of the cell is insensitive to the solar radiation in the practical working range. This means that the
conversion efficiency is the same on a bright sunny day as on a cloudy day. We get a lower power output on
a cloudy day only because of the lower solar energy impinging on the cell.
SUN ANGLE:

The cell output current is given by I = Iocosθ, where Io is the current with normal sun (reference), and θ is
the angle of the sun line measured from the normal. This cosine law holds well for sun angles ranging from 0
to about 50°. Beyond 50°, the electrical output deviates significantly from the cosine law, and the cell
generates no power beyond 85°, although the mathematical cosine law predicts 7.5% power generation.
 SHADOW EFFECT:

The array may consist of many parallel strings of series-connected cells. Two such strings are
shown in Figure 9.13. A large array may get partially shadowed due to a structure interfering
with the sun line. If a cell in a long series string gets completely shadowed, it loses the photo-
voltage but still must carry the string current by virtue of its being in series with all other cells
operating in full sunlight. Without internally generated voltage, the shadowed cell cannot
produce power. Instead, it acts as a load, producing local I2R loss and heat. The remaining
cells in the string must work at higher voltage to make up the loss of the shadowed cell
voltage.
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS:

With increasing temperature, the short-circuit current of the cell increases, whereas the open-
circuit voltage decreases. The effect of temperature on PV power is quantitatively evaluated
by examining the effects on the current and the voltage separately.
MOUNTING STRUCTURE
The PV module should be designed in such a way that it can withstand rain, hail, wind and
other adverse conditions. The common aspects to be taken care of in the design and selection
of the mounting structures are (i) Durability of the design (ii) Tilt angle (iii) Orientation and
(iv) PV array shading. Correct and optimum Tilting angle maximizes the efficiency of the
solar PV module. Hence a well-designed mounting structure apart from giving strength and
capability to withstand high winds also serves as a PV module tilting structure which tilts the
PV arrays at an angle determined by the latitude of the site location, to maximize the solar
insolation falling on the panels.
Photovoltaic Panel is a collection of photovoltaic modules physically and electrically
grouped together on a support structure
Cables and Protection Devices
The main purpose of cabling is to allow a safe passage of current. Appropriate cable sizing
allows the current to be transferred within an acceptable loss limit to ensure optimal system
performance. In order to establish connection between solar PV modules, charge controller,
battery, Inverter and finally the Load, cables are needed. The size of the cable is determined
based on the transmission length, voltage, flowing current and the conductor material. The
cable in installation sites should be sized correctly. An undersized cable can lead not only to
lower efficiency but also to fire hazards. In addition to the appropriate sizing, selection of
relevant type of wire is also important in the case of solar PV application. For outdoor
applications UV stabilized cable must be used, while normal residential wires/cables can be
used indoors. This ensures the long term and safe functioning of the cable and hence
reduction in the system ongoing maintenance.
Batteries:
In off-grid (Stand-alone systems) and critical applications (such as back up in Grid connected
systems), for storing the energy output from Solar PV systems energy storage systems are
required. The most common medium of storage in PV systems are batteries or a battery bank
depending upon the backup duration /capacity requirements of the specific system. There are
many types of batteries suitable for use in a PV system for energy storage like lead acid
batteries, alkaline batteries, nickel‒cadmium batteries, and sealed batteries the most common
type being lead acid batteries. One of the most expensive subsystems in the Stand-alone PV
system is the batteries. Presently a lot of R&D work is going on in the field of batteries and
other Energy storage systems for their effective and efficient use not only in Solar PV
Systems but also in wind energy systems and Electric vehicles.
The primary functions of batteries in a PV system:
• Energy Storage Capability and Autonomy: to store electrical energy when it is
produced by the PV array and to supply energy to electrical loads as needed or on
demand.
• Voltage and Current Stabilization: to supply power to electrical loads at stable
voltages and currents, by suppressing or ‘smoothing out’ transients that may occur in
PV systems.
• Supply Surge Currents: to supply surge or high peak operating currents to electrical
loads or appliances.
•
IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF BATTERIES IN PV SYSTEM:

• Sizing: Batteries play a vital role in terms of total plant efficiency, performance and
maintenance cost of standalone (OFF Grid) systems and at the same time take a
substantial portion of the total cost of a Standalone Solar power plant. Lower sizing
results in reduction of battery life due to higher Depth of Discharge (DOD %). Hence
their sizing must be carried out carefully optimizing both cost and performance.
• Selection: Selecting the suitable battery for a PV application and further their
effective use depends on many factors and requires a comprehensive knowledge on
the various types of batteries, their merits & demerits from the point of view of
quality, reliability, charge discharge characteristics, expected nominal life and finally
cost. Considerations in battery subsystem design also include the number of batteries
in series and parallel, over-current and disconnect requirements. In the case of lead
acid batteries, when used for high energy storage as a big bank, storage with proper
ventilation is also to be addressed from safety point of view.
• Charge discharge rates: A higher current discharge than the rating will dramatically
reduce the battery life. This can be avoided by carefully sizing the battery according
to the ‘C-rating’. It signifies the maximum amount of current that can be safely drawn
from the battery to provide adequate back up and without causing any damage. A
discharge rate more than the C-ratings, may cause irreversible capacity loss due to the
fact that the rate of chemical reactions taking
 • place in the batteries cannot keep pace with the current being drawn from them. For
such effective use and better performance, the batteries are charged and discharged
using charge controllers.
Charge controllers:
• A charge controller, charge regulator or battery regulator limits the rate at which
electric current is added to or drawn from electric batteries. It prevents overcharging
and overvoltage, which can reduce battery performance or lifespan, and may also pose
a safety risk. To protect battery life, charge controller prevents battery from deep
discharging or it will perform controlled discharges, depending on the battery
technology. The terms “charge controller” or “charge regulator” may refer either to a
stand-alone device, or to a control circuitry integrated within a battery pack, battery-
powered device, or battery charger.
• Solar Charge Controllers are controllers which regulate the power output or the DC
output voltage of the solar PV panels to the batteries. Charge controllers take the DC
output voltage as the input voltage and convert into same DC voltage but at a level
required for battery charging. These are mostly used in off grid scenario and use
Maximum Power Point Tracking scheme to maximize the output efficiency of the
Solar PV Panel.
• Working Principle: A solar-charge controller monitors voltage across the battery and
disconnects the battery from the PV array or diverts the power away from the battery
when it is fully charged. This can be achieved by short circuiting the PV array (shunt
regulator) or by disconnecting the positive and negative terminals. (Open-circuited
series regulator) In addition to a shunt/series regulator, an auto cut off switch is also
provided, which disconnects the electrical load for very low battery voltage. This is
referred to as a “low-voltage disconnect function.”
INVERTERS
Based on size: Based on the size of the Solar Plant the solar PV inverters can be classified
into (i) Centralized inverters (ii) String inverters (iii) Multi string inverters and (iv) Module
integrated inverter.
Centralized Inverters:
In this category, a single large inverter is connected to many PV modules wired in series to
form strings with up to 600 V/1,000 V of open-circuit voltage. All the solar PV modules are
connected in strings, generating a sufficient high voltage to avoid further amplification and
the strings are then connected in parallel to support high power to output
The conversion efficiency of many central inverters is 95 % or higher, and they feature a
relatively low unit cost per watt. However, central inverters have multiple drawbacks.
String Inverters: This topology is introduced into the market relatively recently and is
suitable for small loads. With such a single string load current would be limited
Multi-string Inverters: The above-mentioned current limitation can be overcome in this
configuration. DC-DC converter is implemented for each string for MPP tracking and power
combination of different string to a DC bus. The multi-string inverter is useful when PV
strings of different rated power, different orientation are combined.
Module Integrated Inverter/Micro-inverters: Micro inverters are complete,
environmentally protected integrated units consisting of solar cells, inverter, and other
components, designed to generate AC power with a single unit. The micro-inverter, also
called AC module is the integration of PV and inverter into one electrical device. In an AC
module, a micro-inverter is directly integrated with a PV panel, yielding a module that
natively generates grid-compatible AC power.
Inverters are used to convert DC to AC. There are two types of inverters: stand- alone and
grid-connected. The two types have several similarities, but are different in terms of control
functions.
A stand-alone inverter is used in off-grid applications with battery storage. With backup
diesel generators (such as PV–diesel hybrid power systems), the inverters may have
additional control functions such as operating in parallel with diesel generators and
bidirectional operation (battery charging and inverting). Grid-interactive inverters must
follow the voltage and frequency characteristics of the utility-generated power presented on
the distribution line. For both types of inverters, the conversion efficiency is a very important
consideration
FUSE BOXES
The first thing to know is that fuses and circuit breaker are primarily used to protect the
system wiring from fires in case of any short circuit
Parallel / combiner box fusing
In parallel system a combiner box is used to hold the fuses to each panel and when sizing this
combined fuse /breaker, first determine the worst-case current that will flow based on our
specific panels
Charger controller to battery fuse /breaker
With a pulse width modulated charger controller, the worst-case amps flowing to and from
the controller are the same, so the fuse a wire size can match
MPPT charger controller, on the other hand, are both lower the voltage and increase the
current flowing between the charger controller and the battery bank, so the exact size and
fuse size must be obtained from charger controller manual
Battery fuse /breaker to inverter
The wiring and fusing from the battery to an AC/DC inverter is of critical importance
because this is where the most current will likely to flow
Limitations/Drawbacks of Solar Energy generation techniques
Intermittency: Energy is only generated while the sun is shining. Therefore night time
and cloudy days can interrupt supply. This shortage is being overcome by energy storage
though the cost of storing the excess energy that may be generated by the sun is also high.
Land use
They take up a significant amount of land and cause land degradation or habitat loss for
wildlife. While solar PV systems can be fixed to already existing structures, larger utility-
scale PV systems may require up to 3.5 to 10 acres per megawatt and CSP facilities require
anywhere from 4 to 16.5 acres per megawatt. However, the impact can be reduced by placing
facilities in low-quality areas or along existing transportation and transmission corridors.
Scarcity of Materials
Certain solar technologies require rare materials in their production. This, however, is
primarily a problem for PV technology rather than CSP technology. Also, it is not so much a
lack of known reserves as much as it is the inability of current production to meet future
demand: Many of the rare materials are by products of other processes rather than the focus
of targeted mining efforts. Recycling PV material and advances in nanotechnology that
increase solar-cell efficiency could both help boost supply, but perhaps finding material
substitutes that exist in greater abundance could play a role.
An Environmental Downside
The one environmental downside to solar technology is that it contains many of the same
hazardous materials as electronics. As solar becomes a more popular energy, the problem of
disposing the hazardous waste becomes an additional challenge. However, assuming the
challenge of proper disposal is met, the reduced greenhouse gas emissions that solar energy
offers makes it an attractive alternative to fossil fuels.
Site dependency: Not all areas receive the same amount solar radiation. And as such not all
areas are best suited for solar energy generation most especially on a large scale.
Cost: The initial cost of investment to set up a utility
FACTORS AFFECTING POWER FROM SOLAR PV PLANTS
• Cloud cover and any other shading.
• Orientation of the solar PV module.
• Solar radiation intensity received
• Relative Humidity
• Temperature
• Cable thickness
ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY
• The sun is existent and free. The source of energy for photovoltaics is abundant
compared to other sources.
• The technology is mature. Photovoltaic installations can work for many years with
little maintenance costs.
• Good energy conversion efficiency. It is possible to avoid power losses from long
transmission cables since long distance transmission may not be necessary.
 • Decreased carbon emissions. Photovoltaics are pollution free.
• Applicable for use in remote locations such as in satellites where it would not be
possible to use other sources.
• It is possible to generate energy where it is desired to be used.
• Power output can easily be increased by adding modules to the existing ones.

DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY

• The sun is intermittently available.
• Requires storage in standalone systems.
• System costs are still considerably high especially where storage is inclusive. Storage
costs are as high as 50% the total capital cost.
• Disposal of waste panels poses and environmental challenge.
• In case of a large power production plant, a relatively large area maybe required for
deployment.
• An additional cost for inverters is required to convert the DC to AC for transmission

FINANCIAL BENEFITS OF USING SOLAR ENERGY

POWER RELIABILITY
Consumers place a high value of reliability of their electricity supply hence spending less on
other energy fuels like paraffin
SOLAR IS RENEWABLE
Solar energy is free no payments included
LOW INITIAL COST
Low initial cost of investment is required to use solar energy
.