MS3321 Reading Assignment

Muhammad Raihan Dyaska 13117220

The sun generates immense power in the form of radiant energy. Only an extremely small
fraction of it is intercepted by earth which still accounts to a huge quantity of 1.8 x 10^14 KW.
Although solar energy resources at the moment has lower energy density compared to other
sources, such as fossil fuels or nuclear power plants; with advancing solar energy technology
development, there would come a point where it can replace most of the other non-renewable
energy sources.
Availability
Solar energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation that includes ultraviolet, visible, and
infrared. Most of them is concentrated in the visible and near-infrared wavelength range.
Incident solar radiation (insolation) is measured as irradiance. The amount of solar radiation that
falls on a surface normal to the sun rays at mean Earth-Sun distance (D) is the solar constant, Io =
1377 W/m2.
Earth-Sun Relationship

Since the earth revolves around the sun at an oval pathway, the extraterrestrial solar radiation
varies through the years due to the variation of distance between the earth and the sun. The
insolation then becomes I = Io (D/Do) 2.

The term (D/Do)2 is equal to 1.00011+0.034221cos(x)+0.00128sin(x)+0.000719cos(2x) +

0.000077sin(2x) when referred to the image above. Where x = 360(N-1)/365o and N is the day
number beginning with 1st of January as 1. The axis of the earth is at a 23.45 o tilt to the plane of
the oval path around the sun. The angle between this plane and the earth’s equator is the solar
declination, This is represented with

23.45sin360284N365
The image above illustrates the relative motion of the sun around the earth. There includes the
solar altitude angle,  and the solar azimuth angle, The position of the sun is described by
them.

Solar Time

The angles above are found from the knowledge we have of solar time which is not local time.

Solar Time = LST + ET + 4 (Lst – Lloc)

Where, LST: local standard time

ET: equation of time (in minutes)

= 9.87sin2B – 7.53cosB – 1.5sinB ; B = 360(N-81)/365o

Lst: standard time meridian The angle and are found from:

Lloc: local longitude

And l = latitude angle

Solar Radiation on a Surface

There are two types of solar radiation that reaches the surface of the earth. There are direct/beam
normal radiation, IbN, and diffuse radiation, Id.

IbN is the radiation that reaches the earth surface without a change in direction.

Id is the radiation that was scattered by molecules in the atmosphere that reaches the surface.

With this formula, IbN can be calculated. Where z is the solar zenith angle.
This formula is modified to

Where Cn is the Clearness Number which varies between 0.85 and 1.15.

Solar Radiation on a Horizontal Surface

Given by the formula

Where C is the sky diffuse factor.

Solr Radiation on a Tilted Surface

More complicated to calculate than the horizontal surface.

This uses the formulas:

is
the reflectivity of surroundings. Typically a ground or grass is around 0.2 whereas when
covered by snow it becomes 0.8.

Solar Radiation Measurements

Two types of instruments used for measuring solar radiation are pyranometer and pyrheliometer.
The former is used to measure global solar radiation, which can be used to measure the diffuse
radiation. While the latter only measures the direct solar radiation.

Solar Thermal Energy Conversion

Applications along with space and water heating include industrial process heat, refrigeration
and air-conditioning, drying and curing of agricultural products, and electric power production
by solar thermal conversion.

 Solar thermal collectors: able to achieve temperatures as high as 1000 oC or higher. Design
depends on the desired temperature and economics of application.
 Flat plate collectors: use liquids or air as the heat-transfer fluid. Special attention in material
choices for glazing and absorber required.
 Glazing: purpose is to transmit shorter-wavelength solar radiation and block longer-
wavelength reradiation from the absorber plate, reduce heat loss from convection of the plate.
 Absorbers: Most commonly used material is copper due to its high thermal conductivity and
high corrosion resistance.

Collector Thermal Performance

Where

From the Hottel-Whillier-Bliss equation:

Where FR is the collector heat-removal factor

 Solar ponds: combines collector and energy storage in one unit. By increasing the density
of the water, more heat can be absorbed, hence a method is used is the addition of salt
(salt gradient solar pond).

Solar Water-Heating Systems

Consists of two types of water-heating systems:

1. Natural circulation (passive) solar system

Does not require pump for war water circulation. Storage tank is located above the
collector, with high temperature water rising setting up a circulation loop.
2. Forced circulation (active) solar system
Unlike the previous system, this includes pump for water circulation. There are the open
loop, closed loop, closed loop with drain back type systems.

 Industrial process heat systems: for temperatures of up to 100oC, forced circulation

system is used.
 Space-heating systems: either active or passive systems can be used.

Solar Thermal Power

Thermodynamic power cycles available for use can be Rankine, Stirling, and Brayton cycles.
The solar thermal power systems are:

1. Parabolic trough systems: most developed commercially due to its simplicity. Combined
with natural gas turbine power plant to achieve efficiency as high as 60%.
2. Central receiver system: can operate at very high temperature, hence can have higher
efficiency than parabolic trough system. But it can only be economical at larger
capacities of at least 100 MW.
3. Parabolic dish systems: can achieve very high temperature.