Unit-2

Solar Thermal Energy

 Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of energy and a technology for harnessing solar

energy to generate thermal energy for use in industry, and in the residential and
commercial sectors. Solar heat' or 'solar thermal energy' means the conversion of solar
energy into a technically usable heat.

For example, the figure at the left shows how a heat exchanger on the roof and heat storage in a
house can help with hot water.

 Solar thermal systems are a way to satisfy heating needs by capturing the thermal energy
of the sun for heating applications such as buildings, hot water or swimming pools.
Tremendous amounts of energy currently go in to traditional heating applications that
could be satisfied by solar thermal power. In domestic situations, for example, heating
water accounts for approximately one-third of total energy use. Using solar energy for
domestic hot water could save significant amounts of energy annually, meaning lower
bills for homeowners and fewer emissions from traditional hydrocarbon-based grid
power.
Solar radiation

 A solar radiation sensor measures solar energy from the sun.

 Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion reaction that
creates electromagnetic energy. The spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a black
body with a temperature of about 5800 K. About half of the radiation is in the visible
short-wave part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The other half is mostly in the near-
infrared part, with some in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum.

 The units of measure are Watts per square meter.

 The device is typically used in agricultural applications, and is used in the calculation of
Evapotransportation. Evapotransportation is the potential for evaporation of moisture
from the soil (or the reverse of rainfall) and is a function solar energy, wind and
temperature.

 Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of solar
radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to:

A. Geographic location B. Time of day C. Season D. Local landscape

E. Local weather
 As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered, and
reflected by: Air molecules, Water vapor, Clouds, Dust, Pollutants, Forest fires and
Volcanoes. This is called diffuse solar radiation. The solar radiation that reaches the
Earth's surface without being diffused is called direct beam solar radiation. The sum of
the diffuse and direct solar radiation is called global solar radiation. Atmospheric
conditions can reduce direct beam radiation by 10% on clear, dry days and by 100%
during thick, cloudy days.
  Scientists measure the amount of sunlight falling on specific locations at different times
of the year. They then estimate the amount of sunlight falling on regions at the same
latitude with similar climates. Measurements of solar energy are typically expressed as
total radiation on a horizontal surface,or as total radiation on a surface tracking the sun.

 Radiation data for solar electric (photovoltaic) systems are often represented as kilowatt-

hours per square meter (kWh/m2). Direct estimates of solar energy may also be expressed
as watts per square meter (W/m2).

 Radiation data for solar water heating and space heating systems are usually represented

in British thermal units per square foot (Btu/ft2).

Flat Plate Collectors and Their Materials

The flat plate collectors forms the heat of any solar energy collection system designed for
operation in the low temperature range, from ambient to 60 or the medium temperature,
form ambient to 100. A well engineered flat plate collector is delivers heat at a relatively
low cost for a long duration. The flat plat collectors is basically a heat exchanger which
transfer the radiant energy of the incident sunlight to the sensible heat of a working fluid-
liquid or air. The term ‘flat plate’ is slightly misleading in the sense that the surface may
not be truly flat-it may be combination of flat, grooved or of other shapes as the
absorbing surface, with some kind of heat removal device like tubes or channels. Flat
plate collectors is used to convert at much solar radiation as possible into heat at the
highest attainable temperature with the lowest possible investment in material and labour.

Flat plate collector have the following advantage over other types of solar energy
collectors:

(i)          Absorb direct, diffuse and reflected components o solar radiation,

(ii)       Are fixed in tilt and orientation and thus, there is no needed of tracking the Sun,

(iii)     Are easy to make and are low in cost,

(iv)     Have comparatively low maintenance cost and Long lie, and

 (v)       Operate at comparatively high efficiency.

Solar Flat Plate Collector on Roof

A solar flat plate collector typically consists of a large heat absorbing plate, usually a large sheet
of copper or aluminium as they are both good conductors of heat, which is painted or chemically
etched black to absorb as much solar radiation as possible for maximum efficiency.

This blackened heat absorbing surface has several parallel copper pipes or tubes called risers,
running length ways across the plate which contain the heat transfer fluid, typically water.

These copper pipes are bonded, soldered or brazed directly to the absorber plate to ensure
maximum surface contact and heat transfer. Sunlight heats the absorbing surface which increases
in temperature. As the plate gets hotter this heat is conducted through the risers and absorbed by
the fluid flowing inside the copper pipes which is then used by the household.

The pipes and absorber plate are enclosed in an insulated metal or wooden box with a sheet of
glazing material, either glass or plastic on the front to protect the enclosed absorber plate and
create an insulating air space. This glazing material does not absorb the suns thermal energy to
any significant extent and therefore most of the incoming radiation is received by the blackened
absorber.
Performance

Typical Flat Plate Collector

 A typical flat-plate collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic cover (called glazing)
on top.  Small tubes run through the box, carrying the water or other fluid, such as
antifreeze, to be heated. The tubes are mounted on a dark-colored metal absorber plate.
Absorber plates are commonly painted with "selective coatings," which absorb and retain
heat better than ordinary black paint. Absorber plates are usually made of metal—
typically copper or aluminum—because the metal is a good heat conductor. The sides and
bottom of the collector are usually insulated to minimize heat loss.

 Sunlight passes through the glazing and strikes the absorber plate, which heats up,
changing solar energy into heat energy. The heat is transferred to liquid passing through
pipes attached to the absorber plate.

 Flat-plate collectors heat the circulating fluid to a temperature considerably less than that
of the boiling point of water and are best suited to applications where the demand
temperature is 30-70°C (86-158°F) and/or for applications that require heat during the
winter months.
Applications of Flat-plate collectors
Focussing of collectors and their materials
Parabolic Trough (Line Focusing Collectors): Parabolic trough concentrator (PTC) having a
cylindrical concentrator, of parabolic cross-sectional shape, and a circular cylindrical receiver
located sideways with the focal line of the parabola. It reflects direct solar radiation onto a
receiver tube located in the focal line of the parabola. Since the collector aperture area is bigger
than the outer. The collector of a parabolic trough is an assembly of curved shaped reflectors
arranged on a structural steel framework. The reflectors are arranged so as to give a parabolic
shape and reflect the incident solar radiation onto to a tubular receiver.
Paraboloidal Dish Collector (Point Focusing Collector)

A paraboloidal dish collector brings all the solar radiations to focus at a point. The dish can be
turned automatically about two axes so that the sun is always kept in a line with the focus and the
base of the paraboloidal dish. The absorber, located at the focus, is the cavity made up of a
zirconium-copper alloy with a selective coating of black chrome. The collector of Dish is an
assembly of mirrors of high reflectivity arranged on a structural steel framework. The mirrors are
arranged in a fresnelized manner to give a parabolic shape and thus reflect the incident solar
radiation to a common point.

Performance

Focusing collector is a device to collect solar radiation with high intensity of solar radiation on
the energy-absorbing surface. A focusing collector is a special form of flat plate collector by
introducing a reflecting surface (collector) between the solar radiation and the absorber.

Thus, a focusing collector consists of a focusing device, a receiver, and a tracking arrangement.
Theoretically, temperature as high as limited by the temperature of sun’s photosphere may be
attained. However, in practice, these units are capable of heat delivery at many hundreds. The
current technology includes single axis tracking concentrators.
The radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel. They are reflected by
parabolic reflector and focused on a vessel full of water. The water gets heated by utilizing solar
radiation. Sometimes, the temperature becomes high; the water gets evaporated to form steam.

Limitations of Focussing of collectors

Applications of Focussing of collectors

Solar thermal power plants 

Solar thermal power plants are electricity generation plants that utilize energy from the Sun to

heat a fluid to a high temperature. This fluid then transfers its heat to water, which then becomes
superheated steam. This steam is then used to turn turbines in a power plant, and this mechanical
energy is converted into electricity by a generator. This type of generation is essentially the same
as electricity generation that uses fossil fuels, but instead heats steam using sunlight instead
of combustion of fossil fuels. These systems use solar collectors to concentrate the Sun's rays on
one point to achieve appropriately high temperatures.

There are two types of systems to collect solar radiation and store it: passive systems and active
systems. Solar thermal power plants are considered active systems. These plants are designed to
operate using only solar energy, but most plants can use fossil fuel combustion to supplement
output when needed.
Types of Plants

Despite the fact that there are several different types of solar thermal power plants, they are all
the same in that they utilize mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight on a point. At this point
the solar energy is collected and converted to heat energy, which creates steam and runs a
generator. This creates electricity.

a. Parabolic Troughs

These troughs, also known as line focus collectors, are composed of a long, parabolic
shaped reflector that concentrates incident sunlight on a pipe that runs down the trough.
The collectors sometimes utilize a single-axis Solar tracking system to track the Sun
across the sky as it moves from east to west to ensure that there is always maximum solar
energy incident on the mirrors. The receiver pipe in the center can
reach temperatures upward of 400°C as the trough focuses Sun at 30-100 times its normal
intensity. These troughs are lined up in rows on a solar field. A heat transfer fluid is
heated as it is run through the pipes in the parabolic trough. This fluid then returns to heat
exchangers at a central location where the heat is transferred to water, generating high-
pressure superheated steam. This steam then moves a turbine to power a generator and
produce electricity. The heat transfer fluid is then cooled and run back through the solar
field.
b. Parabolic Dishes

These are large parabolic dishes that use motors to track the Sun. This ensures that they
always receive the highest possible amount of incoming solar radiation that they then
concentrate at the focal point of the dish. These dishes can concentrate sunlight much
better than parabolic troughs and the fluid run through them can reach temperatures
upwards of 750°C. In these systems, a Stirling engine coverts heat to mechanical energy
by compressing working fluid when cold and allowing the heated fluid to expand
outward in a piston or move through a turbine. A generator then converts this mechanical
energy to electricity.

c. Solar Towers

Solar power towers are large towers that act as a central receiver for solar energy. They
stand in the middle of a large array of mirrors that all concentrate sunlight on a point in
the tower. These large number of flat, sun tracking mirrors are known as heliostats. In the
tower, there is a mounted heat exchanger where the heat exchange fluid is warmed. The
heat concentrated to this point can be 1500 times as intense as incident sunlight. The hot
fluid is then used to create steam to run a turbine and generator, producing electricity.
One drawback with these towers is they must be very large to be economical.
Thermal energy storage for solar heating and cooling

Thermal energy storage (TES) is achieved with widely different technologies. Depending on

the specific technology, it allows excess thermal energy to be stored and used hours, days,
months later, at scales ranging from the individual process, building, multiuser-building, district,
town, or region. Usage examples are the balancing of energy demand between daytime and
nighttime, storing summer heat for winter heating, or winter cold for summer air conditioning
(Seasonal thermal energy storage). Storage media include water or ice-slush tanks, masses of
native earth or bedrock accessed with heat exchangers by means of boreholes,
deep aquifers contained between impermeable strata; shallow, lined pits filled with gravel and
water and insulated at the top, as well as eutectic solutions and phase-change materials.

Other sources of thermal energy for storage include heat or cold produced with heat
pumps from off-peak, lower cost electric power, a practice called peak shaving; heat from
combined heat and power (CHP) power plants; heat produced by renewable electrical energy that
exceeds grid demand and waste heat from industrial processes. Heat storage, both seasonal and
short term, is considered an important means for cheaply balancing high shares of
variable renewable electricity production and integration of electricity and heating sectors in
energy systems almost or completely fed by renewable energy.
 Solar thermal energy in this system is stored in the same fluid used to collect it. The fluid
is stored in two tanks—one at high temperature and the other at low temperature. Fluid from the
low-temperature tank flows through the solar collector or receiver, where solar energy heats it to
a high temperature, and it then flows to the high-temperature tank for storage. Fluid from the
high-temperature tank flows through a heat exchanger, where it generates steam for electricity
production. The fluid exits the heat exchanger at a low temperature and returns to the low-
temperature tank.

Two-tank direct storage was used in early parabolic trough power plants (such as Solar
Electric Generating Station I) and at the Solar Two power tower in California. The trough plants
used mineral oil as the heat-transfer and storage fluid; Solar Two used molten salt.

Thermal energy storage is like a battery for a building’s air-conditioning system. It uses standard
cooling equipment, plus an energy storage tank to shift all or a portion of a building’s cooling
needs to off-peak, night time hours. During off-peak hours, ice is made and stored inside
IceBank energy storage tanks. The stored ice is then used to cool the building occupants the next
day.
Thermal energy storage for space cooling, also known as cool storage, chill storage, or cool
thermal storage, is a relatively mature technology that continues to improve through
evolutionary design advances. Cool storage technology can be used to significantly reduce
energy costs by allowing energy-intensive, electrically driven cooling equipment to be
predominantly operated during off-peak hours when electricity rates are lower. In addition,
some system configurations result in lower first costs and/or lower operating costs compared
to non-storage systems.

Advantages of Thermal Energy Storage

 Wide range of melting points available

 No toxicity

 No corrosive effect

 Non hygroscopic

 Chemically stable

 High latent heat

 Congruent melting

 Negligible super-cooling

Disadvantages / Limitations of Thermal Energy Storage

 High cost which has led some researchers to investigate technical grade organic

 Low density

 Low thermal conductivity

 Density variation upon melting (the material detaches from the container when freezing,
which affects heat transfer efficiency).

 Flammability