The Photovoltaic Effect | Direct Conversion to Electricity

Solar Thermal | Converting Sun Radiation to Heat

The conversion of solar radiation to thermal energy (heating up water or air) is based on the greenhouse
effect. Sun radiation in the visible wavelength goes through a transparent layer (glass or plastic), then
absorbed in a black layer (black coated material) and heat it up. The black sheet absorber radiates the
absorbed energy in the infrared wavelengths (what we humans feel as heat) toward the glass layer. Glass
however is not transparent to infrared and the heat is trapped and can be delivered to water or air.

For home energy applications, solar thermal principles are used in solar hot water heaters, in
solar pool heaters and in solar space heating.

Big electrical Power Plants use solar energy to generate steam, high temperature/high pressure
water vapors to run steam electrical generators.

Bio-Chemical Sun Light Conversion

Utility Scale Power Plants

Utility scale power plants use types of solar energy such as optical concentrated solar (photoelectric
technology) or Heliostats. Heliostats are mirrors that track the sun and reflect the sunlight onto a central
collector. Heliostats are usually arranged in an array around a tower. The collector is mounted on the
tower and produce steam at high temperature and high pressure to operate a steam turbine.

What Are the Different Methods of Solar Power Generation?

"The sun's energy can be captured to generate electricity or heat through a system of panels or
mirrors.

 Solar, or photovoltaic, cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Most photovoltaic
cells are made primarily of silicon, the material used in computer semiconductor chips,
and arranged on rectangular panels. When sunlight hits a cell, the energy knocks
electrons free of their atoms, allowing them to flow through the material. The resulting
DC (direct current) electricity is then sent to a power inverter for conversion to AC
(alternating current), which is the form in which electric power is delivered to homes and
businesses.

 Solar thermal collectors use heat-absorbing panels and a series of attached circulation
tubes to heat water or buildings.

 Solar concentration systems use mirrors - usually arranged in a series of long, parabolic
troughs, a large round dish, or a circle surrounding a 'power tower' - to focus the sun's
reflected rays on a heat-collecting element. The concentrated sunlight heats water or a
heat-transferring fluid such as molten salt to generate steam, which is then used
conventionally to spin turbines and generate electricity.
  Passive solar design is the creative use of windows, skylights and sunrooms, building site
and orientation, and thermal construction materials to heat and light buildings, or to heat
water, the natural way."

Passive Solar Design

Buildings can be designed to collect, store, and distribute solar energy as heat. Referred to as
passive solar buildings, they maximize absorption of sunlight through south-facing windows and
use dark-colored, dense materials in the building to act as thermal mass - they store the sunlight
as solar heat (light colors are less effective for heat storage)…
Solar Thermal
Active solar thermal systems collect solar radiation to heat air and/or water for domestic,
commercial, or industrial use. The collector for a solar hot water system is typically a 4 ft. x 8 ft.
box structure that has a glass top with a black absorber underneath it to circulate water. As the
water is pumped through the collector, it is warmed and then circulated through a large, insulated
tank inside a building. The warmed water can then be used to provide heat or hot water to the
building. A solar hot water system can comprise one or more solar collectors, which are mounted
on either a pitched, south-facing roof or on the ground."

"Concentrating solar power (CSP) is a power generation technology that uses mirrors or lenses to
concentrate the sun’s rays and, in most of today’s CSP systems, to heat a fluid and produce
steam. The steam drives a turbine and generates power in the same way as conventional power
plants…

CSP plants can be broken down into two groups… Line-focusing systems include parabolic
trough and linear Fresnel plants and have single-axis tracking systems. Point-focusing systems
include solar dish systems and solar tower plants and include two-axis tracking systems to
concentrate the power of the sun…

The parabolic trough collectors (PTC) consist of solar collectors (mirrors), heat receivers and
support structures. The parabolic-shaped mirrors are constructed by forming a sheet of reflective
material into a parabolic shape that concentrates incoming sunlight onto a central receiver tube…
A heat transfer fluid (HTF) is circulated through the absorber tubes to collect the solar energy
and transfer it to the steam generator…

Solar tower technologies use a ground-based field of mirrors to focus direct solar irradiation onto
a receiver mounted high on a central tower where the light is captured and converted into heat.
The heat drives a thermo-dynamic cycle, in most cases a water-steam cycle, to generate electric
power."

The function of a solar collector is simple; it intercepts incoming insolation and changes it into a
useable form of energy that can be applied to meet a specific demand. In the following text, we
will develop analytical understandings of flat-plate and concentrating collectors, as used to
provide heat or electricity. Each type is introduced below.
Flat-plate thermal solar collectors are the most commonly used type of solar collector. Their
construction and operation are simple. A large plate of blackened material is oriented in such a
manner that the solar energy that falls on the plate is absorbed and converted to thermal energy
thereby heating the plate. Tubes or ducting are provided to remove heat from the plate,
transferring it to a liquid or gas, and carrying it away to the load. One (or more) transparent
(glass or plastic) plates are often placed in front of the absorber plate to reduce heat loss to the
atmosphere. Likewise, opaque insulation is placed around the backside of the absorber plate for
the same purpose. Operating temperatures up to 125oC are typical.

Flat plate collectors have the advantage of absorbing not only the energy coming directly from
the disc of the sun (beam normal insolation) but also the solar energy that has been diffused into
the sky and that is reflected from the ground. Flat plate thermal collectors are seldom tracked to
follow the sun's daily path across the sky, however their fixed mounting usually provides a tilt
toward the south to minimize the angle between the sun's rays and the surface at noontime.
Tilting flat-plate collectors toward the south provides a higher rate of energy at noontime and
more total energy over the entire day.

Flat-plate photovoltaic collectors contain an array of individual photovoltaic cells, connected in a

series/parallel circuit, and encapsulated within a sandwich structure with the front surface being
glass or plastic. Solar energy falls directly upon the photovoltaic cell front surface and produces
a small direct current voltage, providing electrical energy to a load. Unlike thermal collectors
however, the backside of the panel is not insulated. Photovoltaic panels need to loose as much
heat as possible to the atmosphere to optimize their performance.

Like flat-plate thermal collectors, flat-plate photovoltaic collectors (panels) absorb both energy
coming directly from the sun's disc, and diffuse and reflected energy coming from other
directions. In general, flat-plate photovoltaic panels are mounted in a fixed position and tilted
toward the south to optimize noontime and daily energy production. However, it is common to
see flat-plate photovoltaic panels mounted on mechanisms that track the sun about one tilted
axis, thereby increasing the daily output of the panels.

air mass (sometimes called air mass ratio) — Equal to the cosine of the zenith angle-that angle from
directly overhead to a line intersecting the sun. The air mass is an indication of the length of the path solar
radiation travels through the atmosphere. An air mass of 1.0 means the sun is directly overhead and the
radiation travels through one atmosphere (thickness).

azimuth angle — The angle between true south and the point on the horizon directly below the sun.

concentrating photovoltaics (CPV) — A solar technology that uses lenses or mirrors to

concentrate sunlight onto high-efficiency solar cells.

concentrating solar power (CSP) — A solar technology that use mirrors to reflect and
concentrate sunlight onto receivers that convert solar energy to heat. This thermal energy is then
used to produce electricity with a steam turbine or heat engine driving a generator.
solar constant — The average amount of solar radiation that reaches the earth's upper atmosphere on a
surface perpendicular to the sun's rays; equal to 1353 watts per square meter or 492 Btu per square foot.

solar noon — The time of the day, at a specific location, when the sun reaches its highest, apparent point
in the sky.

zenith angle — the angle between the direction of interest (of the sun, for example) and the zenith
(directly overhead).

Solar Time is the time based on the apparent angular motion of the sun across the sky, with solar
noon being the time the sun crosses the meridian of the observer. Solar time is used in all sun
angle relationships. The solar time in general deviates from the local clock time.

Declination, , is the angular position of the sun at solar noon with respect to the place of the equator.
Declination varies from - 23.450 to 23.450. , in degrees, for the day, n, of the year.

A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. A collector is a device for capturing solar
radiation. Solar radiation is energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the infrared (long) to the
ultraviolet (short) wavelengths. The quantity of solar energy striking the Earth's surface (solar constant)
averages about 1,000 watts per square meter under clear skies, depending upon weather conditions,
location and orientation.

Solar collectors are either non-concentrating or concentrating. In the non-concentrating type, the
collector area (i.e., the area that intercepts the solar radiation) is the same as the absorber area
(i.e., the area absorbing the radiation). In these types the whole solar panel absorbs light.
Concentrating collectors have a bigger interceptor than absorber.

Flat-plate and evacuated-tube solar collectors are used to collect heat for space heating, domestic
hot water or cooling with an absorption chiller.

Flat plate collectors

Flat-plate collectors, developed by Hottel and Whillier in the 1950s, are the most common type. They
consist of (1) a dark flat-plate absorber, (2) a transparent cover that reduces heat losses, (3) a heat-
transport fluid (air, antifreeze or water) to remove heat from the absorber, and (4) a heat insulating
backing. The absorber consists of a thin absorber sheet (of thermally stable polymers, aluminum, steel or
copper, to which a matte black or selective coating is applied) often backed by a grid or coil of fluid
tubing placed in an insulated casing with a glass or polycarbonate cover. In water heat panels, fluid is
usually circulated through tubing to transfer heat from the absorber to an insulated water tank. This may
be achieved directly or through a heat exchanger.

Polymer flat plate collectors are an alternative to metal collectors and are now being produced in Europe.
These may be wholly polymer, or they may include metal plates in front of freeze-tolerant water channels
made of silicone rubber. Polymers are flexible and therefore freeze-tolerant and can employ plain water
instead of antifreeze, so that they may be plumbed directly into existing water tanks instead of needing
heat exchangers that lower efficiency. By dispensing with a heat exchanger, temperatures need not be
quite so high for the circulation system to be switched on, so such direct circulation panels, whether
polymer or otherwise, can be more efficient, particularly at low light levels. Some early selectively coated
polymer collectors suffered from overheating when insulated, as stagnation temperatures can exceed the
polymer's melting point. For example, the melting point of polypropylene is 160 °C (320 °F), while the
stagnation temperature of insulated thermal collectors can exceed 180 °C (356 °F) if control strategies are
not used. For this reason polypropylene is not often used in glazed selectively coated solar collectors.
Increasingly polymers such as high temperate silicones (which melt at over 250 °C (482 °F)) are being
used. Some non polypropylene polymer based glazed solar collectors are matte black coated rather than
selectively coated to reduce the stagnation temperature to 150 °C (302 °F) or less.

Applications
The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand for hot water has a large
impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large family, or a situation in which the
hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry washing. Commercial applications include
laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and eating establishments. The technology can also be
used for space heating if the building is located off-grid or if utility power is subject to frequent outages.
Solar water heating systems are most likely to be cost effective for facilities with water heating systems
that are expensive to operate, or with operations such as laundries or kitchens that require large quantities
of hot water. Unglazed liquid collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools but can
also be applied to large scale water pre-heating. When loads are large relative to available collector area
the bulk of the water heating can be done at low temperature, lower than at swimming pool temperatures
where unglazed collectors are well established in the marketplace as the right choice. Because these
collectors need not withstand high temperatures, they can use less expensive materials such as plastic or
rubber.

Evacuated tube collectors

Most vacuum tube collectors in use in middle Europe use heat pipes for their core instead of passing
liquid directly through them. Direct flow is more popular in China. Evacuated heat pipe tubes (EHPTs)
are composed of multiple evacuated glass tubes each containing an absorber plate fused to a heat pipe.
The heat is transferred to the transfer fluid (water or an antifreeze mix—typically propylene glycol) of a
domestic hot water or hydronic space heating system in a heat exchanger called a "manifold". The
manifold is wrapped in insulation and covered by a protective sheet metal or plastic case. The vacuum
inside of the evacuated tube collectors have been proven to last more than 25 years, the reflective coating
for the design is encapsulated in the vacuum inside of the tube, which will not degrade until the vacuum is
lost. The vacuum that surrounds the outside of the tube greatly reduces convection and conduction heat
loss, therefore achieving greater efficiency than flat-plate collectors, especially in colder conditions. This
advantage is largely lost in warmer climates, except in those cases where very hot water is desirable, e.g.,
for commercial processes. The high temperatures that can occur may require special design to prevent
overheating.

Collectors are commonly classified by their air-ducting methods as one of three types:

 through-pass collectors
 front-pass
 back pass
 combination front and back pass collectors

Collectors can also be classified by their outer surface:

 glazed
 unglazed
Through-pass air collector

Offering the highest efficiency of any solar technology the through-pass configuration, air ducted
onto one side of the absorber passes through a perforated material and is heated from the
conductive properties of the material and the convective properties of the moving air. Through-
pass absorbers have the most surface area which enables relatively high conductive heat transfer
rates, but significant pressure drop can require greater fan power, and deterioration of certain
absorber material after many years of solar radiation exposure can additionally create problems
with air quality and performance.

Back, front, and combination passage air collector

In back-pass, front-pass, and combination type configurations the air is directed on either the
back, the front, or on both sides of the absorber to be heated from the return to the supply ducting
headers. Although passing the air on both sides of the absorber will provide a greater surface
area for conductive heat transfer, issues with dust (fouling) can arise from passing air on the
front side of the absorber which reduces absorber efficiency by limiting the amount of sunlight
received. In cold climates, air passing next to the glazing will additionally cause greater heat
loss, resulting in lower overall performance of the collector.

Glazed systems

Glazed systems usually have a transparent top sheet and insulated side and back panels to
minimize heat loss to ambient air. The absorber plates in modern panels can have absorptivity of
more than 93%. Glazed Solar Collectors (recirculating types that are usually used for space
heating). Air typically passes along the front or back of the absorber plate while scrubbing heat
directly from it. Heated air can then be distributed directly for applications such as space heating
and drying or may be stored for later use. Payback for glazed solar air heating panels can be less
than 9–15 years depending on the fuel being replaced.

Unglazed systems

Unglazed systems, or transpired air systems have been used to heat make-up or ventilation air in
commercial, industrial, agriculture and process applications. They consist of an absorber plate
which air passes across or through as it scrubs heat from the absorber. Non-tranparent glazing
materials are less expensive, and decrease expected payback periods. Transpired collectors are
considered "unglazed" because their collector surfaces are exposed to the elements, are often not
transparent and not hermetically sealed.

Concentrated solar power (also called concentrating solar power, concentrated solar thermal, and
CSP) systems generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of
sunlight, or solar thermal energy, onto a small area. Electricity is generated when the
concentrated light is converted to heat, which drives a heat engine (usually a steam turbine)
connected to an electrical power generator or powers a thermochemical reaction (experimental
as of 2013).
CSP is being widely commercialized and the CSP market saw about 740 megawatt (MW) of
generating capacity added between 2007 and the end of 2010. More than half of this (about
478 MW) was installed during 2010, bringing the global total to 1095 MW. Spain added
400 MW in 2010, taking the global lead with a total of 632 MW, while the US ended the year
with 509 MW after adding 78 MW, including two fossil–CSP hybrid plants. The Middle East is
also ramping up their plans to install CSP based projects and as a part of that Plan, Shams-I
which was the largest CSP Project in the world has been installed in Abu Dhabi, by Masdar. The
largest CSP project in the world until January 2016 is Noor in Morocco and global operational
power stands at 4,705 MW.

Current technology

CSP is used to produce electricity (sometimes called solar thermoelectricity, usually generated
through steam). Concentrated-solar technology systems use mirrors or lenses with tracking
systems to focus a large area of sunlight onto a small area. The concentrated light is then used as
heat or as a heat source for a conventional power plant (solar thermoelectricity). The solar
concentrators used in CSP systems can often also be used to provide industrial process heating or
cooling, such as in solar air conditioning.

Concentrating technologies exist in five common forms, namely parabolic trough, enclosed
trough, dish Stirlings, concentrating linear Fresnel reflector, and solar power tower. Although
simple, these solar concentrators are quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration. For
example, the parabolic-trough concentration gives about ⅓ of the theoretical maximum for the
design acceptance angle, that is, for the same overall tolerances for the system. Approaching the
theoretical maximum may be achieved by using more elaborate concentrators based on
nonimaging optics.

Different types of concentrators produce different peak temperatures and correspondingly

varying thermodynamic efficiencies, due to differences in the way that they track the sun and
focus light. New innovations in CSP technology are leading systems to become more and more
cost-effective.

Parabolic trough

A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver
positioned along the reflector's focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned directly above the
middle of the parabolic mirror and filled with a working fluid. The reflector follows the sun
during the daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. A working fluid (e.g. molten salt) is
heated to 150–350 °C (300–660 °F) as it flows through the receiver and is then used as a heat
source for a power generation system. Trough systems are the most developed CSP technology.
The Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) plants in California, the world's first commercial
parabolic trough plants, Acciona's Nevada Solar One near Boulder City, Nevada, and Andasol,
Europe's first commercial parabolic trough plant are representative, along with Plataforma Solar
de Almería's SSPS-DCS test facilities in Spain.

Enclosed trough
The design encapsulates the solar thermal system within a greenhouse-like glasshouse. The
glasshouse creates a protected environment to withstand the elements that can negatively impact
reliability and efficiency of the solar thermal system. Lightweight curved solar-reflecting mirrors
are suspended from the ceiling of the glasshouse by wires. A single-axis tracking system
positions the mirrors to retrieve the optimal amount of sunlight. The mirrors concentrate the
sunlight and focus it on a network of stationary steel pipes, also suspended from the glasshouse
structure. Water is carried throughout the length of the pipe, which is boiled to generate steam
when intense solar radiation is applied. Sheltering the mirrors from the wind allows them to
achieve higher temperature rates and prevents dust from building up on the mirrors.

Solar power tower

A solar power tower consists of an array of dual-axis tracking reflectors (heliostats) that
concentrate sunlight on a central receiver atop a tower; the receiver contains a fluid deposit,
which can consist of sea water. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 500–1000 °C
(773–1,273 K (932–1,832 °F)) and then used as a heat source for a power generation or energy
storage system. An advantage of the solar tower is the reflectors can be adjusted instead of the
whole tower. Power-tower development is less advanced than trough systems, but they offer
higher efficiency and better energy storage capability.

Fresnel reflectors

Fresnel reflectors are made of many thin, flat mirror strips to concentrate sunlight onto tubes
through which working fluid is pumped. Flat mirrors allow more reflective surface in the same
amount of space as a parabolic reflector, thus capturing more of the available sunlight, and they
are much cheaper than parabolic reflectors. Fresnel reflectors can be used in various size CSPs.

Dish Stirling

A dish Stirling or dish engine system consists of a stand-alone parabolic reflector that
concentrates light onto a receiver positioned at the reflector's focal point. The reflector tracks the
Sun along two axes. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 250–700 °C (480–1,300 °F)
and then used by a Stirling engine to generate power. Parabolic-dish systems provide high solar-
to-electric efficiency (between 31% and 32%), and their modular nature provides scalability.

Classification of pyranometers
Following the classifications and definitions noted in the ISO 9060, three types of pyranometers
can be recognized and grouped in two different technologies: thermopile technology and silicon
semiconductor technology.

A thermopile pyranometer is a sensor based on thermopiles designed to measure the broadband

of the solar radiation flux density from a 180° field of view angle. A thermopile pyranometer
thus usually measures 300 to 2800 nm with a largely flat spectral sensitivity (see the Spectral
Response graph) The first generation of thermopile pyranometers had the active part of the
sensor equally divided in black and white sectors. Irradiation was calculated from the differential
measure between the temperature of the black sectors, exposed to the sun, and the temperature of
the white sectors, sectors not exposed to the sun or better said in the shades.

In all thermopile technology, irradiation is proportional to the difference between the

temperature of the sun exposed area and the temperature of the shadow area.

Design

In order to attain the proper directional and spectral characteristics, a thermopile pyranometer is
constructed with the following main components:

A thermopile sensor with a black coating. It absorbs all solar radiation, has a flat spectrum
covering the 300 to 50,000 nanometer range, and has a near-perfect cosine response.

A glass dome. It limits the spectral response from 300 to 2,800 nanometers (cutting off the part
above 2,800 nm), while preserving the 180° field of view. It also shields the thermopile sensor
from convection.

Usage

Thermopile pyranometers are frequently used in meteorology, climatology, climate change

research, building engineering physics and in photovoltaic systems. They are usually installed
horizontally in meteorological stations; when they are mounted beside solar panels, they are
typically mounted with the sensor surface on the plane of the panel.

Photodiode-based pyranometer

Also known as a silicon pyranometer in the ISO 9060, a photodiode-based pyranometer can
detect the portion of the solar spectrum between 400 nm and 900 nm, with the most performant
detecting between 350 nm and 1100 nm. The photodiode converts the aforementioned solar
spectrum frequencies into current at high speed, thanks to the photoelectric effect. The
conversion is influenced by the temperature with a raise in current produced by the raise in
temperature (about 0,1% • °C)

Design

A photodiode-based pyranometer is composed by a housing dome, a photodiode, and a diffuser

or optical filters. The photodiode has a small surface area and acts as a sensor. The current
generated by the photodiode is proportional to irradiance; an output circuit, such as a
transimpedance amplifier, generates a voltage directly proportional to the photocurrent. The
output is usually on the order of millivolts, the same order of magnitude of thermopile-type
pyranometers.
Usage

Photodiode-based pyranometers are implemented where the quantity of irradiation of the visible
solar spectrum, or of certain portions such as UV, PAR, or IR, needs to be calculated. This is
done by using diodes with specific spectral responses. Photodiode-based pyranometers are the
core of luxmeter used in photography, cinema and lighting technique. Sometimes they are also
installed close to modules of photovoltaic systems.

Photovoltaic pyranometer

Built around the 2000s concurrently with the spread of photovoltaic systems, the photovoltaic
pyranometer is a derivation of the photodiode pyranometer. It answered the need for a single
reference photovoltaic cell when measuring the power of cell and photovoltaic modules.
Specifically, each cell and module is tested through flash tests by their respective manufacturers,
and thermopile pyranometers do not possess the adequate speed of response nor the same
spectral response of a cell. This would create obvious mismatch when measuring power, which
would need to be quantified. In the technical documents, this pyranometer is also known as
"reference PV cell", "irradiance sensor", "solarimeter", "solar sensor", as bibliographies are more
recent than the ISO 9060.

The active part of the sensor is composed of a photovoltaic cell working in near short-circuit
condition. As such, the generated current is directly proportionate to the solar radiation hitting
the cell in a range between 350 nm and 1150 nm. When invested by a luminous radiation in the
mentioned range, it produces current as a consequence of the photovoltaic effect. Its sensitivity is
not flat, but it is same as that of Silicon photovoltaic cell. See the Spectral Response graph.

Design

A photovoltaic pyranometer is essentially assembled with the following parts:

A metallic container with a fixing staff

A small photovoltaic cell

Signal conditioning electronics

Silicon sensors such as the photodiode and the photovoltaic cell vary the output in function of
temperature. In the more recent models, the electronics compensate the signal with the
temperature, therefore removing the influence of temperature out of the values of solar
irradiance. Inside several models, the case houses a board for the amplification and conditioning
of the signal.

Usage

Photovoltaic pyranometers are used in solar simulators and alongside photovoltaic system for the
calculation of photovoltaic modules effective power and system performances. Thanks to its
spectral response, obviously similar to that of a photovoltaic module, it is used also in
preliminary diagnosis of malfunction in photovoltaic systems.

Distinguish between Active Solar Design and Passive Solar

Design
The key difference between an active solar system and a passive solar system is this: Passive
solar energy uses the heat of the sun, while an active solar system uses the sun's irradiance, or
radiation (the sun's rays), which it converts to electricity to power systems in your home

Active solar systems: Active solar power setups rely on external energy sources – or backup
systems, such as radiators and heat pumps — to capture, store and then convert solar energy into
electricity. Depending on the complexity of the design, it can heat or cool our home or provide
power to an entire neighborhood. Active solar systems include the following features:

 The collectors are made up of flat-plate PV panels, which are usually mounted and
stationary. In advanced designs, panels are often connected with each other to form
modules.
 The solar collectors use liquid or air as conductors to store and convert energy. Those that
use liquid are known as hydronic collectors, while those that contain air are called air
collectors.

 Liquid conductors are more common than those that are air-based, as liquid is generally
more efficient at conducting heat, though air-based solar systems have the benefit of not
freezing.
 Since it still utilizes the power of your external devices, you don’t have to worry about
deriving power from sources other than the sun.
 It releases no carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
 Heating of the PV panels helps keep them clean, especially in poor weather conditions.
 There is usually no wind noise generated from the solar panels.

An active solar system has its disadvantages, too:

 It usually requires expensive external equipment.

 Maintenance of equipment can also be costly.
 The fluids that most efficiently store heat have the potential to release toxic chemicals
into the air.

Passive solar systems: In contrast to active solar systems, passive systems operate without the
reliance on external devices. Rather, such as in greenhouses, solariums and sunrooms, solar
energy captures sunbeams through glass windows that absorb and retain heat. Passive solar
systems include these features:

 Instead of using PV panels, passive collectors usually rely on south-facing windows to

convert rays into sunlight.
  Design of passive solar collectors is based on the law of thermodynamics, which posits
that heat transfers from warm to cool surfaces, such as through convection.
 The success of the passive solar system depends on its orientation and the thermal mass
of its walls, which determine its ability to absorb heat.

Here are some of the positive sides:

 It requires no external equipment, so it’s usually cheaper than an active system.

 It can further reduce costs by bringing your energy expenditures down by around 14
percent.
 It’s better than an active system for your health, since it doesn’t rely on radiators or
furnaces that dry out your mucous membranes or cause allergies.

Now, consider the negative sides:

 Its efficiency depends on the weather.

 If you live in a particularly warm climate, it has the potential to overheat your buildings.
 It requires a careful, proper choice in windows for maximum success.
 Passive Solar Design
A passive solar system does not involve mechanical devices or the use of conventional energy
sources beyond that needed to regulate dampers and other controls, if any. Classic examples of
basic passive solar structures are greenhouses, sunrooms and solariums -- as the sun's rays pass
through the glass windows, the interior absorbs and retains the heat. Modeling this concept in
your home can cut heating costs by half compared to heating the same home by traditional means
without the use of passive solar (see References 1). In terms of design, success of the passive
solar system depends on orientation and the thermal mass of the structure's exterior walls, which
means their ability to store and redistribute heat

 Passive Solar Collectors

A passive solar system typically relies on south-facing windows as collectors to capture solar
energy, although some systems may also use supplemental PV panels. In any case, the goal is
to redistribute the energy collected according to a fundamental law of thermodynamics,
which states that heat moves from warm to cool areas and surfaces (see References 3). The
simplest method of transferring the heat from passive solar collectors is through convection.
To illustrate, think of a sunroom with windows on a southern wall. As the sun's rays travel
through the glass, the heat is directed into the room. It then rises to areas where the air is
cooler, including other rooms beyond and above

 Active Solar Design

Active solar systems use external sources of energy to power blowers, pumps and other
types of equipment to collect, store and convert solar energy. Once energy from the sun is
absorbed, it is stored for later use. Small systems are used to furnish electricity for
 heating and cooling systems in homes and other buildings, while large systems can
furnish power for entire communities

 Active Solar Collectors

Solar collectors are more complex than passive collectors in both design and mechanism.
They consist of flat-plate PV panels that are usually mounted and remain stationary,
although some are designed to track the sun throughout the course of the day. In some
designs, multiple panels are connected together to form modules (see References 4).
Active solar collectors contain either air or a liquid as a conductor. Those that use air are
referred to as "air collectors," while liquid-based types are called "hydronic collectors"
(see References 5). The advanced design of these collectors makes an active solar heating
system the most cost-effective in terms of reducing reliance on traditional energy sources.

Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals
while at the same time sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources
and ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depend. The desirable end result is
a state of society where living and conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs
without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural systems.

Sustainable energy is energy that is consumed at insignificant rates compared to its supply and with
manageable collateral effects, especially environmental effects. Another common definition of sustainable
energy is an energy system that serves the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs.[1] The organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development,
which includes the four interconnected domains: ecology, economics, politics and culture