Translated from French to English - www.onlinedoctranslator.

com

CHAPTER 4
THERMAL PLANE SENSOR

1. Introduction:

Lhot water permanently available brings a certain level of comfort, but even ifConsumption
does not represent the largest part of our home's budget, its bill (gas or electricity) can
sometimes reach amounts that we would prefer to spend elsewhere. However, owe all have
the experience of finding ourcontainer placed in the sun in the courtyard, or ourwarmer tap
water in summer. So, why not use this principle to heat our domestic water?Transforming
solar energy into hot water is today the best way to have yourhot water with clean use of
natural resources:ecological hot water, without combustion or greenhouse gas emissions. For
our country, using solar energy allows us to preserve fossil fuels and reserve their use for
more specific uses than the simple production of hot water.

While thermodynamic solar systems produce a temperature of around 500°C, the thermal
plane collector (commonly called a solar water heater) hardly reaches a hundred degrees. Like
tall surfaces illuminated by solar radiation,weprinciple lies in transformation,as efficiently as
possible, from solar radiation into heat bythe absorption of part of this radiation (by
conduction and convection), and its exploitation to produce domestic hot water (and not
electricity like the thermodynamic solar collector).Solar collectors can be simple unglazed
planar collectors, boxes or glazed type or complex mirror systems.They are considered a
future solution in the fight against global warming.

2. Reminders on heat exchange elements:

With contact or at a distance, any body exchanges energy in thermal form.This is the case
with radiant energy which comes to us from the sun. We described in paragraph???Stéphane
Boltzmann's lawwhich allows us to quantify thehe density of thermal radiation received by a
thermodynamic sensor.It is also the same process of energy capture by the glass wall of the
thermal plane sensor. In a flat sensor, this heat transfer is combined with two other transfer
modes: conduction and convection.

2.1. Heat transfer by conduction:

Conduction is a contact transfer of energy (heat) exchange in a solid medium, without
significant movement of material, caused by a temperature gradient.VSis in fact the thermal
agitation which is transmitted step by stepfrom warm regions to cold regions;[J. M
Chasseriau,Thermal conversion of solar radiation; Dunod, 1984]. At any point in a medium
an equation called the “heat equation” applies which translates the local transfer mechanism,
it links the temperature T, the time t, the space coordinates (x,y,z) and α the thermal
diffusivity of the material; The equation is as follows [R. Bernard, G. Menguy, M.
Schwartz,Solar radiation thermal conversion and applications; Technique and
documentation, Paris, 1983]:
2
∂ (T ) 1 ∂(T )
=
∂ x 2 α ∂t

2.2. Heat transfer by convection:

Convection is also a mode of heat transfer whichtakes place in fluid environments.
Sheinvolves a collective movement of fluid: the hot fluid material, as it moves, gives up
energy to the colder parts. Most of the timein thermal exchanges between a wall and a moving
fluid [R. Bernard, G. Menguy, M. Schwartz,Solar radiation thermal conversion and
applications; Technique and documentation, Paris, 1983].Depending on the nature of the
mechanism which causes the movement of the fluid, two types of convection are
distinguished:
Natural convection, the movement of fluid (free)is due to the actionof a temperature
gradientwhich exists in the medium and a field of mass forces. It depends on the
characteristics of the fluid, the length of the wall and the temperature difference. As an
example, we will cite heating by electric convector (radiator) [R. Bernard, G. Menguy, M.
Schwartz,Solar radiation thermal conversion and applications; Technique and
documentation, Paris, 1983].
.
Forced convection, in this case the circulation of the fluid is no longer free, it is caused
by artificial circulation (pump, fan, turbine). That is to say thatthere is projection of fluid
molecules onto the heating device, the movement causes heat transfer.For example, the
radiator with forced convection (the air in the room is heated by forced convection), the air
current blown by a fan in a hair dryer.

3. The different types of flat sensor:

The energy intercepted by the solar collector, installed on a roof and facing south, is
converted into heatthanks to an absorber (body with very high absorption properties and very
low emissivity) placedee in a box closed by a window. The absorber transfers the heat to a
heat transfer fluid (generally water) circulating in the primary circuit, and is routed, depending
on the mode of use,to a storage tank (hot water tank).If necessary, an additional energy source
is connected to the tank to bring the water to the desired temperature.Thus, depending on the
design of the panel (plane or tube), the nature of fluid circulation, the type of installation, we
distinguish severalfamilies of sensors, including two main groups:flat fluid sensors and
“vacuum” tube sensors.[LAUGHTON C., ''Solar Hot Water: Design and Installation'',
DUNOD, 2012.]

2.1 Flat sensors:

Opaque flat sensors:They consist of a set of dark-colored opaque pipes, in which
circulatethe heat transfer fluid directly. These pipes are surrounded by an absorbent sheath
which allows the capture of thermal energy from solar radiation. These are the simplest
sensors on the market, with very low production costs. On the other hand, they have low
efficiency, because they have neither insulation nor transparent cover. They are intended for
summer applications at low temperatures (heating of outdoor swimming pools, etc.).

Insulating sheath

Insulating heat
transfer fluid

Figure 4.1 Schematic of opaque tubes for opaque sensor

Figure 4.2 opaque unglazed flat sensor(©Solarpedia)

Flat glass sensors: In a rigid box (wooden or metal),belowa transparent cover,
generally tempered glass,weplace a plate andblack metal tubes (absorber) in the shape ofcoil
in which the heat transfer fluid circulates.The glazing blocks infrared radiation (greenhouse
effect) and insulates the air space above the absorber(exchangerwhere the conversion of solar
energy into heat takes place).Care must be taken to reduce heat loss as much as possible; for
this, an insulator is placed on the side and rear faces of the sensor. For more details, oWe
therefore distinguish:
- The absorber is made of copper, steel or aluminum, dark in color, most often black, with no
visible thickness, with a special coating chemically treated to have an absorption coefficient
close to 0.95 and emissivity less than 0.15). This is one of the most important elements, its
performance depends on the inclination of the sensor in relation to the sun. It must therefore
be oriented so that it receives optimal solar radiation.
- The heat transfer fluid transmits the heat stored by the absorber to the hot water tank. It must
have the following characteristics: chemical stability at high temperatures; be anticorrosive
and non-toxic, have high specific heat and thermal conductivity. Water provides a good
compromise in relation to these criteria.
- The insulation must have good resistance to high temperatures in the event of a fluid
circulation stoppage during the summer. Insulating materials arecharacterized by the
conductivity coefficient ''σ'', the lower it is, the better the insulation. Thus, we useeitherrock
 wool (σ of 0.032-0.040 W/mK) and glass wool (σ of 0.030-0.040 W/mK), polyurethane
foams (σ of 0.022-0.030 W/mK) or even melamine resin.
- Glazing, single or double glazing (sometimes plastic is used). This glass must have good
thermal insulation while keeping infrared radiation to a maximum, be resistant to shock and
mechanical stress and thermal shock; it limits cooling by radiation and isolates the absorber
from the external environment (reduction of heat losses by convection).Thus, the sun's rays
heat the liquidheat carrier,which is evacuated, through a circulator or circulation pump, to a
hot water tank.

Figure 4.3 Diagram of a glass plane sensor(©Solarpedia)

This type of sensor is the one we encounter most often: theyoperate with good
efficiency(especially in summer) andare inexpensive. The figure below schematizes its mode
of operation.

(A) Solar radiation (direct or diffuse)

passes through the window.
(B) Infrared radiation is trapped by
the glass.
(C) Heat collection (absorber) circuit
and evacuation via an exchanger.
(D) The secondary circuit (hot water
tank) distributes hot water or supplies
the heating.

Figure 4.4 Diagram of the operating principle(©Energie Douce)

We must obviously orient the flat collector so as to absorb a maximum of solar energy, i.e. a
south-facing orientation, while taking into account the declination(see paragraph 2. ??).
For example for Mostaganem at a latitude of 36°, we must remove the 23°5 inclination of the
Earth's axis, i.e. 36°-23°5 = 12°5 at the winter solstice, and add it for the add the summer
solstice, i.e. 23°5+36° = 59°5. And, in order to avoid any solar mask, the sensors should be
placed as high as possible on a house or building. SThe operating temperature is generally
between 30°C and 80°C.
 Figure 4.5 glass plane sensor integrated into the roof(©Solarpedia)
2.2Vacuum tube sensors:
As the name suggests, they arecomposed of several rows of tubesunder vacuum (<10-3 Pa),
transparent (generally made of glass) and thus make it possible to limit heat loss as much as
possible.They are cylindrical in shape, with a length of approximately 2 m and an
approximate diameter of5 to 15 cm,in which the absorbers are placedwith a hydraulic circuit,
which captures solar energy and transfers it to the heat transfer fluid. These receive a selective
treatment to prevent radiation and are connected in series to a collector.
In order to reduce losses by convection and conduction, the insulation of this type of sensor is
ensured by vacuum. They thus offergood performance at high temperatures (above 70°C),
which makes them suitable for high temperature hot water production applications for
industry(temperature gain more than 100°C). The operating principle of such sensors remains
identical to that reported for flat glass sensors. It should just be mentioned that thesetubes are
fitted with a barium getter in order to visualize any vacuum losses [The vacuum intensity is of
decisive importance for the interruption of the heat transfer mechanism].
There are two main families depending on whether the absorber is located directly on the
glass or on a copper fin1 [e+energy source, flat solar collector]:
Vacuum tubes with absorbers on copper fins:This type of absorber on copper has
better selectivity than that deposited on glass (and therefore provides higher optical efficiency
to the sensor). The main advantage is that the absorber can be oriented differently in relation
to its support.

1. A glass tube under an air

vacuum, in which all of the following
components are located:
2. The absorber placed on a copper
support;
3. The copper heat evacuation
tubes, arranged either juxtaposed or

Figure 4.5Composition of vacuum tubes with absorbent fin(©e+energy)

Although the principle is simple, the manufacturing of these sensors remains delicate because
of the glass/metal connections required. There are several types of families depending on the
specificity of theheat transfer fluid and its mode of circulation:
Direct circulation sensors Heat pipe sensors

Figure 4.6 Typesvacuum tubes with absorbent fin(©e+energy)

- The flow-through vacuum tube sensor, It was developed to improve the performance of a
planar sensor. Except that the whole thing is narrow enough to be slipped inside a glass tube,
and that theThe fin serves as a support for a U-shaped tube,closed hermetically,in which the
heat transfer fluid circulates.The principle is simple, but manufacturing is difficult because
of the glass/metal connections necessary for the circulation of the heat transfer fluid.

Figure 4.7Operational diagram of a tube sensor

vacuum direct circulation (©Energie Douce)

- The heat pipe is an exchanger which uses the mechanisms for changing the liquid-gas state
of a fluid placed in a closed tube.The difference with the direct circulation sensor is that the
heat exchange takes place following a natural mechanism of evaporation and condensation
of a fluid; LThe principle is simple: by capturing the heat absorbed by the fin, the fluid
evaporates. It then rises to the upper part and gives up its heat by condensing by contact with
the heat transfer fluid of the installation which circulates in the upper part. Once again in the
liquid state, it then returns by gravity to the bottom of the tube, installed with a minimum
 inclination.It allows the heat captured to be transmitted out of the tube to heat a fluid in the
collector.

1. Collector insulated inside the protective enclosure. 2. Heat pipe condenser. 3.

Circulation of water in the collector. 4. Waterproof steel tube. 5. Absorber. 6.
Liquid descending. 7. Rising steam. 8. Vacuum glass tube

Figure 4.8 Operational diagram of a tube sensor

heat pipe vacuum and its connection with the collector(©Energie Douce)
- Vacuum tubes with absorbers on glass support (Sydney tube): This is the principle of the
Thermos (envelope to keep a drink hot). The void is therefore created between thedouble
wall connected in a watertight manner so as to trap the vacuumInthe glass bottle. Its external
surface is left transparent.The internal sidesubjected to atmospheric pressure isprocessed so
as to be selective, and serves as an absorber.Pipes are connected to the latter in order
todissipate heatoutside the vacuum envelope by the circulation of a fluid in contact with the
absorber.

Figure 4.9Composition of vacuum tubes with absorber

on glass support and its operating principle(©Energie Douce and e+energy)
Currently, many water heater manufacturers use this technique, it is considered "Hi-Tech" of
the flat sensor. It does not require glass/metal welding, which facilitates
manufacturing.Vacuum sensors heat up more quickly and make better use of short periods of
sunlight. Losses are significantly reduced compared to those of a flat glass collector, the
efficiency is significantly higher (temperatures of around 150°C can be reached).On the other
hand, these sensors are particularly fragile.
4. The different installation typologies1[e+energy source, flat solar collector]:
There are different types of solar water heaters on the market adapted to your needs,
including:

4.1 Solar water heater for individual homes (CES):

This system is made up of thermal solar panels and a water storage tank. This is the model
most used in individual homes. In the case of our region, it can cover up to 80% of a home's
hot water production. In winter, where the level of sunshine is not sufficient, it is coupled with
a backup system.

The monobloc water heater, heis made up of a horizontal tank of variable capacity
connected to solar collectors (glazed or vacuum).It's aboutsimplest system: the thermal sensor
and the tank form a single unit,mounted on the same chassis. This type of water heater can be
installed on a roof or on a support located on the ground, outside the home.

Figure 4.10 Operation diagram of a monobloc water heater(©solarpedia)

In this system thecoolantoperates in a closed (or indirect) loop, that is to say that the water
which heats in the collector and that which arrives at the taps for consumption are distinct: the
consumption water is indirectly heated through an exchanger by the heat transfer fluid of the
solar circuit.
There is also another circulation system, moresimple and quick to heat water,called “open
loop” (direct circuit). In this case, the water circulating in the sensors is the same as that
consumed at the points of use (without a heat exchanger in the tank). This arrangement is only
useful in hot countries, in particular because of the problems linked to frost.

Closed loop Open loop.

Figure 4.11 Closed and open loop operation diagram(©e+energy)
 The thermosyphon water heater, heuses the same principle as the monobloc water
heater with the difference that the tank is separated from the thermal sensors. We can then
install the tank inside the house, as long as it remains located above the thermal sensors(at a
distance of at least 50 cm). LThe fluid in the loop circulates by natural convection (the heated
fluid rises). This type of sensor adapts very well to our country.

Thermosiphon. Forced traffic.

Figure 4.12 Thermosiphon and forced circulation operating diagram(©solarpedia)
The forced circulation water heater, a pump(circulator) causes the circulation of the
fluid (we speak of forced circulation). A regulator senses the temperature of the fluid at the
outlet and operatespump automatically.This solutiondoes not fear frost, it adapts to cold
countries.We distinguish in this category several principles depending on the flowof the
circulator:
 So-called “high flow” installations, production of a large quantity of fluid with a flow
rate of +/- 40 to 60 liters/h.m²);
 So-called “low flow” installations, in this case the flow rate is low +/- 15 to 20
liters/h.m²), we favor a high temperature for a reduced volume of water (case of direct
installations).
 In so-called “mix flow” installations, the flow rate is variable and is continuously
adjusted by regulating the temperature in a range set by the user. This system is used
more and more and makes it possible to avoid frequent switching on and off of the
pump.

Compared to this systemoperating in forced circulation, the thermosyphon solar water heater
remains simplerto install: no pump, regulator or expansion tank; it therefore simplifies
maintenance and significantly improves the lifespan of the solar system. On the other hand,
the forced circulation CES can, unlike the thermosyphon, be used in collective or industrial
uses, and does not need to be below the storage tank.

The water heaterunder pressure or drain,in this type of system, the heat transfer
fluid is constantly maintained at a pressure of 1 bar when stopped and 6 bars in operation
(sourcee+energy). Closed loop and forced circulation systems generally operate under pressure.
Often, we add a self-draining option. Thus, this makes it possible to extend the lifespan of the
system and to simplify its construction since they do not require a pressure gauge, an
expansion tank, a bleeder or a non-return valve (see. Paragraph ??)
Under pressure. To drain.
Figure 4.13 Operation diagrampressure and self-draining water heater (©e+energy)

4.2 The combined water heater (SSC):

In addition to producing domestic hot water (CSI), this system has the particularity that it can
beconnected to several circuits, which also allowsto cover hot water needs, to power the water
radiators for heating the home and/or the heated parquet floor. The combined water heater is
always basedon solar energy, which is associated with either another renewable or
conventional secondary energy source. It takes over when necessary, an associated regulator
triggers it, but always gives priority to the solar thermal energy received by the sensor.There
are two majortypes of SSC:
The double storage system, it works with two water heaters: one for hot water and the
other for heating.
The combined storage system, it is basedon a single water heater for hot water and
heating, with direct or indirect storage, i.e. the heat is stored in aball(cumulus) before being
diffused (hydro accumulation). The systemof space heating is quite complex and is not yet
very developed, due to reduced sunlight during periods of great heating need (winter). There
are three ways to heat a home:
- Heating by circulation of hot water inside conventional radiators,which store heat and
diffuse it;
- Heating by underfloor heating, in this case a circuit integrated into the floor replaces
the radiators;
- The air sensor system, air replaces water as heat transfer fluid.A ventilation system
draws in outside air through thermal sensors anddiffuses hot air into the home.

by conventional radiators by underfloor heating by air ventilation

Figure 4.14 Illustration of how a home is heated(©solarpedia)
4.3 The hybrid solar system:
This “two in one” solutioncombines solar thermal energy for the production of hot water and
photovoltaics for the production of electricity.This ambivalent system makes it possible to
fully use the energy collected,and thus achieve a certain energy independence.

Figure 4.14 Schematic of a hybrid system(©insunwetrust)

4.4 Sensor reliability:

Throughout its lifespan, a solar collector will be subject to climatic constraints and wear and
tear. It is therefore necessary to test and measure the reliability and durability of certain
parameters such as:
High temperature resistance: in order to determine what high level of sunlight the
sensor can withstand without breaking down (breakage of the window, degradation of the
insulation materials, etc.);
Frost resistance: If used in an environment where the temperature can drop below
freezing, it is essential to carry out frost resistance evaluation tests;
Thermal shock resistance: The objective is to evaluate the capacity to withstand
thermal shock (return to service on a hot, sunny day);
Good sealing performance: it is necessary to ensure that rainwater does not enter the
collector, following corrosion of the collector frame or loss of insulation;
Load resistance: evaluate whether the glazing and the sensor frame are able to
withstand a pressure load (effect of wind, snow, etc.);
Impact resistance: you need to know the tolerance for which a sensor can withstand
the effects of heavy impacts (hail, stone throwing, etc.)
For all these types of tests, there are international standards which specify thehe most
unfavorable real conditions to evaluate thermal performance.The table below shows the
nomenclature of Algerian testing standardsmeeting current international norms and
standards(source CEDER bulletin 029-06).
 5. Sensor peripheral accessories:

Circuit lines: these are copper or simple steel pipes. Those of the primary circuit must
be well insulated in order to limit heat losses between the collectors and the storage tank;
A pump (circulator): its role is to ensure the circulation of the heat transfer fluid in
the loop;
The non-return valve: its function is to prevent an inversion of the primary circuit in
the event of the pump stopping;
The expansion tank: if a boiling phenomenon occurs, the expansion tank makes it
possible to absorb the eruption volume of the heat transfer fluid, without excessive increase in
pressure;
The safety valve: in the event of abundant sunshine (summer) and/or reduced
consumption, a risk of overheating in the sensors may appear. This requires the use of a
pressure gauge in order to limit the maximum pressure in the primary circuit (opening
pressures of 4 to 6 Bars);
Drain taps: they are placed at the lowest point of the circuit in order to be able to
completely drain the installation;
The traps: unlike drain taps, they must be placed at the highest points of the
installation, and thus allow air to escape from the pipes;
The Regulator: apart from the case ofthermosyphon systems,minimal regulation is
necessary in order to regulate the heat exchange process between the collector and the storage
tank. Saccording to the temperature difference measured by theprobe located in the thermal
sensor and another on the return to the outlet of the storage tank, the regulator controls
accordinglythe pump which sets the heat transfer fluid in motion.
 Connection pipes Circulator Check valve Expansion tank

Safety valve Drain tap Automatic drain Regulator

Figure 4.15 The different components of a solar water heater

6. Energy balance of a flat solar collector:

6.1 Sensor performance:
The energy balance of a flat collector is defined by the solar energy absorbed by the collector
Qa, upart of it is recovered by the heat transfer fluid, it is the useful energy Qu(energy directly
used or transferred to a storage system). Part of this energy is lost as thermal energy (mainly
by convection and radiation) Qt, and finally the losses due tothe thermal inertia of the Qi
installation (system warm-up period). Thus the overall heat balance is written [J.Bernard.
Solar energy calculations and optimization, Ellipse Edition Marketing. (2004)]:
Qa=What+Qt+Qi
In order to simplify the calculation of the heat balance, a certain number of hypotheses were
considered [JA Duffie, W.A. Beckman. Solar engineering of thermal processes, John Wiley and Sons. (1980). ]:
1. The sensor surface is uniformly illuminated;
2. The sky is considered a black body at the temperature𝑇𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑙 ;
3. Each of the sensor elements is at a uniform temperature;
4. Permanent regime;
5. Sensor with negligible thermal inertia;
6. The air temperature is homogeneous, so thermal losses towards the front and back
occur around the same ambient temperature;
7. The effect of dust deposition and masks on the sensor is negligible,
8. One-dimensional heat flow.
Assumptions 4 and 5 make the flow stored in the sensor negligible, i.e.:Qi= 0, So we have :
Qa=What+Qt
Assuming thatthe conditions are constant over a period of time, the efficiency of a flat
collector is defined by the ratio between the useful flux recovered, on the overall solar
irradiance incident on the collector such that [A. Guedira, A. Benallou. Qualification procedure for flat collectors
under natural sunlight in Morocco, Revue des Energies Renouvelables, 2001.]:
Qu
𝜂=
Gi
Knowing that the solar energy absorbed by the absorber isQa=𝜏𝑐.𝛼𝑝.𝐺i,So we have :

What = Qa -Qt =𝜏𝑐.𝛼𝑝.𝐺i -Qt

with Gi:The overall illuminance incident on the sensor.
𝜏𝑐 : Transmittance factor of the transparent cover,
𝛼𝑝 : Absorption factor of the absorbent plate.
In order to determine theenergy lost in the form of thermal energy Qt, a study on the
performance of a solar collector, in 2016, carried out at CDER [ souce A.BRAHIMI, Master Univ.
Lorraine,2016], divides this loss into three modes of heat transfer: lThe forward loss coefficients
Uav, the rearward losses Uar and the lateral losses Ulat. The calculations for each category
give:
1 1 1
Uav = ; with R1 = and R2 =
R 1+ R 2 hc ,c−a +h r ,c−ciel hc , p−c +hr , p−c
Where hc,ca and hr,c-ciel, respectively designate theexchange coefficient by convection
between the window and the environment, by radiation between the window and the sky, and
hc,pcand hr,pc, denote the cheat transfer coefficient by convection between the window
and the absorber and by radiation between the window and the absorber.

λis
Uar=
e is
Or𝜆𝑖𝑠 And𝑒𝑖𝑠 are the thermal conductivity and the thickness of the insulation on the back.
λis A lat
Ulat=
eislat A c
Or𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡is the thickness of the insulation on its side faces
𝐴lat and 𝐴vs arerespectively, the surface of the side faces of the sensor and surface of the
sensor.

By summing the front, side and rear loss coefficients we obtain the overall loss coefficient Ut:
Ut = Uav + Uar + Ulat

We can then write the density of the total heat flux lost like this:
Qt= Ut (Tpm – Tam)
Tpm: absorber temperature,
 Tam: ambient temperature.

Thus, the expression of the instantaneous efficiency of the sensor as a function of the average
temperature of the absorbing plate will be:
𝜂=𝜏𝑐.𝛼𝑝Gi -Ut(Tpm – Tam)

The sensors will differ from each other by the quality of the absorber𝛼𝑝,solar glass𝜏𝑐and by
that of the insulation of the sensorUt. All of these three properties will give the sensor
preferred temperature ranges.

Figure 4.16 The variation in efficiency as a function of ambient and captured

temperatures(©e+energy)

By this type of graph,depending on the operating temperature ranges, we will be able

tochoose the type of sensors best suited to our use. We will therefore preferably choose the
sensor which offers the best efficiency for the working temperature regime corresponding to
the desired application. Thus, for a low temperature range (swimming pool heating), a simple
non-glazed sensor will suffice. On the other hand, for high temperature regimes (solar air
conditioning, industrial hot water), vacuum sensors will be preferred. It will be noted that the
flat glass sensor (average temperature regime) will respond perfectly to domestic applications
(domestic hot water and radiator heating).

7. Advantages and disadvantages of flat solar collectors:

ADVANTAGE INCONVENIENCE
Opaque flat sensor 1,Glazed plane sensor 2, Vacuum sensor 3
Simplified manufacturing, no body or glazing1.2. Very dependent on air temperature1.
Performing in summer1.2. Sensitivity to cold wind (absence of glazing)1.
Easy to install and integrate1,2,3. Need for larger surface area1.
Long lifespan1,2,3. Variation in yield depending on the season1,2.3.
Highly ecological1,2,3(no CO2 emissions). Aesthetics of the building (placed on a roof)1,2.3.
Energy savings1,2,3. Investment in a storage tank2,3.
Return on investment in 10 years1,2. Intermittent day/night, overcast weather1,2…
 Minimal maintenance1,2. Need for additional energy1,2.3.
Possibility of combining with a PV panel2.3. Requires location on the ground or roof1,2.3.
Preserving fossil fuel reserves1,2,3. Sensitive to hail and frost1,2.3
Surface reduction of 25%3, Significant cost3

Low inertia3, They don't produce electricity1,2.3

Self-limiting temperature3,
Rotates on its axis for a south-facing
orientation3
Little wind resistance3,

More efficient performance3.

Possibility of hot water and heating

production2,3.

Optimized operation3 even in the case of a short

duration of sunshine.

8. Calculation tools:

Among the numerous software programs for estimating the performance of different systems,
we will cite:
- CombiSun: Estimation of the performances of different combined systems under
different climates and loads.
- GetSolar and TSOL: Simulation of solar thermal installations
- LOGICLIP, POLYSun: Sizing of hot water installations
- SIMSOL: Simulation of collective solar installations
- SIMAPRO, EQUER, GaBi and TEAM: Life cycle, cost and environmental analysis
- CoDyBa, HOT3000, SUNCHART: Simulation of the energy performance of
buildings.