Chapter 4: Solar radiation

The sun is the primary source of energy on the earth supplying 99.9 % of energy in the form
of various physical, biological and geological processes. Plants convert solar energy into its
useful form of energy which is biomass and sustain biological life by providing food, fodder,
fuel, fibre etc. Crop production in agriculture is basically dependent on quality, quantity and
duration of radiation.

● Radiation

The transfer of thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves from one place to
another through vacuum with the speed of light is called radiation. Everybody on our earth
having temperature more than absolute zero emits radiation specific to its own body
temperature.

● Electromagnetic energy – It is a form of energy that is reflected or emitted from

objects in the form of electrical and magnetic waves that can travel through space.
● Electromagnetic spectrum – It is the range of radiation from short to microwave
arranged according to the wavelength of frequency.

Fig 4.1: Electromagnetic spectrum

● Solar radiation

The radiant energy emitted by the sun form a nuclear fusion reaction are called shortwave
radiation or insolation while the long wave radiation emitted from the earth surface and
atmosphere are known as long wave radiation or terrestrial radiation.
Light takes 8 minutes 20 seconds to reach the earth.

● Nature and properties of solar radiation

Solar radiation spans a spectrum from 0.1 to 4.0 micrometers. About 7% of the sun’s
emission is in the range of 0.1 to 0.39 micrometers wavelength which is known as ultraviolet
rays. UV rays are too short to be but are chemically active in certain chemical reactions. The
large parts of UV rays are eliminated by the ozone layer. Visible light is the form of
electromagnetic radiation which ranges in wavelengths of 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers. The Sun
emits 44% of energy in this wavelength. This solar spectrum takes part in the process of
photosynthesis. Absorption by plants is higher in the visible spectrum, mainly in the blue and
red bands. Further, 48% of radiation falls in the region between 0.71 to 4.0 micrometers
which is termed as infrared radiation (0.71 to 1.5 micrometers – near infrared and 1.6 to 4.0 –
far infrared). Infrared is helpful because of its heating properties. Much of its radiation is
absorbed by carbon dioxide and water before it reaches vegetation.

The Sun is placed at a distance of 1.5 X 10 13 cm (1.5 X 1010 m) which has a temperature of
6000°K and gives energy of 4 X 10 27 cal per min. Solar radiation is reflected and scattered by
clouds, particulate matter and various gases present in the atmosphere.

Fig 4.2: Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with atmosphere.

● Incoming solar radiation

Sun emits radiation of about 56 X 1026 calories per minute and the mean distance between
earth and sun is 1.5 X 1013 cm. The range of solar spectrum is 0.1 μm to 4.0 μm with its peak
at 0.5 μm.

The flux of solar radiation received on a unit surface held perpendicular to the sun's direction
at a mean distance between earth and sun is referred to as solar constant.

S = 56 X 1026 cal cm-2 min-1 / 4π (1.5 X 1013 cm) 2 = 1.979 cal cm-2 min-1 ≈ 2.0 cal cm-2 min-1

Due to the large part lost due to reflection by clouds absorption by dust particles, the average
solar energy received by the earth's surface is only 0.30 cal cm -2 min-1. This energy is utilized
to sustain biological life on the earth and to operate various physical processes.

However, the solar constant is not a true value and changes about ±1.5% from its mean value.

Radius of earth, r = 6.37 X 108 cm. Thus total energy intercepted by earth surface = area X
solar constant.

Πr2 X S = 3.14 X (6.378 X 108)2 X 2 = 2.55 X 1018 cal cm-2 min-1

Considering earth as sphere of radius, energy will be distributed uniformly over this spherical
surface and hence energy received per unit cm2 at the top of atmosphere will be

= πr2s / 4 πr2 = S/4 = 2/4 = 0.5 cal cm-2 min-1

● Outgoing radiation

Absorbed radiation by the earth surface is again re-emitted by the earth's surface is called
long wave radiation / outgoing radiation or terrestrial radiation. The range of earth’s radiation
is about 4.0 μm to 100.0 μm with its peak at 10 μm. It is absorbed by water vapour, CO 2 and
ozone. There is a window which occurs between 8 μm and 14 μm that reradiates radiation
back to earth causing a greenhouse effect which helps in keeping the earth warm and
sustaining earth temperature.

Fig 4.3: Heat budget

 ● Depletion of solar radiation

The loss of solar radiation passing through the atmospheric layer is called atmospheric
depletion. Heat is lost through scattering, dispersion, reflection and absorption.

● Scattering

A beam of light travelling in the medium of dust particles, reflected from the particles of dust
and beam becomes visible. Waves encounter particles having the same dimension of
wavelength of light. Because of this such particles act as a centre from which light spreads
out in all directions. The solar rays consist of light and heat waves of different wavelengths.
When the ultraviolet rays pass through such molecules as have diameters shorter than their
wavelengths, the blue and violet colour spectrums get scattered. But the red colour spectrum
with larger wave-lengths manages to reach the surface of the earth. Thus, when we look at the
sky away from the direct rays of the sun, we see more of blue light which was more readily
scattered.

At sunrise and sunset the rays have to pass through the longest path of the atmosphere, hence
all the colour spectrums except the red and orange are scattered because shorter wavelengths
scatter more than longer wavelengths. It is only the red and the orange colours that reach our
eyes. This accounts for the reddish hue of the sky during the twilight hours.

Rayleigh scattering – a particle whose radius is less than 1/10 th of wavelength of light is
inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength. Thus, blue light with short
wavelength scatters more and the sky appears blue.

Mei scattering – For large particles, having circumference greater than 30 times of
wavelength of light, scattering is independent of wavelength.

● Reflection

A part of the incident radiation falling on any surface is reflected back. It is called the
reflection of light. Thus, a certain amount of energy is lost and it does not play any role in
heating the atmosphere. The reflectivity of a substance, usually expressed as a percentage of
the incident radiation reflected, is known as its albedo or reflection coefficient. It differs from
place to place as well as from time to time in the same locality.

It depends upon the amount of cloudiness and atmospheric impurities, the obliquity of the
sun’s rays, and the nature of the surface. The albedo for the earth as a whole, also known as
the planetary albedo, is 35 per cent.
 ● Dispersion

Earth’s axis is inclined at an axis of 23.5°. This inclination causes the sun’s rays to be
received on the earth at different angles depending on the position of the earth. When the
sun's rays are perpendicular to the earth it falls at a smaller area. When the sun's rays are not
perpendicular to the surface of earth, energy gets dispersed or spread out over a large area. It
is caused by the rotation of the earth. Sun’s rays fall straight at the equator and dispersion is
less thus makes it hotter. On the other side rays falling over poles get dispersed and decrease
the energy eventually heat, which makes it colder.

● Absorption

Absorption has been defined as the process in which the incident radiation is retained by a
substance and is irreversibly converged to some other form of energy. There is a certain
amount of radiant energy loss by the process of absorption in the atmosphere. It may be
pointed out that gases do not play a very significant role, since they are selective absorbers.
Their capacity to absorb solar radiation differs for different wavelengths. When a gas
molecule absorbs light waves, this energy is transformed into internal molecular motion
which causes a rise in temperature.

Nitrogen is a very poor absorber of incoming solar radiation. Oxygen and ozone are said to
be the good absorbers of solar radiation shorter than 0.29 micrometer. At high altitudes
oxygen absorbs most of the ultraviolet rays. In the stratosphere ozone removes ultraviolet
radiation of relatively longer wave-lengths. The most important and efficient absorber of
ultraviolet radiation is water vapour which along with oxygen and ozone absorbs roughly 15
percent of the total solar radiation within the atmosphere.

Water vapour is the most effective regulator of the surface temperature of the earth.

● Black body radiation

A body which absorbs all the radiant energy incident on it is called black body and the
radiation emitted from such a body is called black body radiation.

● Net radiation

Difference between incoming and outgoing radiation is called net radiation. The earth
receives 47% solar radiation by short wave radiation while it loses the same amount by long
wave radiation. Thus, net radiation of earth becomes zero. Similarly the atmosphere gains
19% by short wave radiation absorption but loses the same by long wave radiation. Hence, by
taking earth and atmosphere together we can say that earth net radiation is zero.
Net radiation = {Direct solar radiation + Diffuse solar radiation} – {Reflected radiation by
earth + radiation lost by earth}

● Albedo

The Ratio of reflected radiation to incident radiation is termed as albedo. It majorly depends
on angle of incidence of solar radiation and physical characteristics of surface, season and
time of the day.

Albedo is maximum during sunrise and sunset whereas minimum during noon hours. Albedo
decreases with increasing elevation of sun.

A high albedo indicates much of the incident radiation is reflected rather than absorbed.

Type Albedo (%)

Black soil (dry) 14

Black soil (moist) 8

Snow 75-95

Rice 12

Wheat 23-25

Moong 26

Potato 19

● Significance of radiation in Agriculture

Duration, intensity and quality of radiation have an immense importance in agriculture.

1. It provides necessary energy for the entire phenomenon concerning biomass

production.
2. Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) is the real source of energy for the
photosynthesis process. Plants are the efficient biological converts of solar energy into
biomass. Radiation defines the yield of crops in a particular region.
3. It provides energy for the physical process that takes place in plants, soil and
atmosphere.
4. It conditions the distribution of temperature and hence crop distribution on the earth
surface.
5. Almost all growth, development and yield governing processes such as germination,
elongation, reproduction, flowering, photoperiodism, phototropism, leaf enlargement
pigmentation etc. are affected by radiation.