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Our Barren Moon 10
Lunar surface features, the absence of a lunar magnetic field, and the nature of the lunar interior are
reviewed. Tidal forces in the Earth-Moon system are described. The composition and ages of lunar
rocks are discussed in the context of the origin and evolution of the Moon. The strengths and
weaknesses of the various theories of the origin of the Moon are examined.

10-1 The Moon’s airless, dry surface is covered with plains and craters
In contrast to the Earth and its active geology, the Moon’s surface is geologically dead.

10-2 Human exploration of the Moon in the 1960s and 1970s has been continued by robotic
spacecraft
The Moon is the only world other than Earth to be visited by humans.

10-3 The Moon has no global magnetic field but has a small core beneath a thick mantle
Compared to earthquakes, moonquakes are few and feeble—but they reveal key aspects of the
Moon’s interior.

10-4 Lunar rocks reveal a geologic history quite unlike the Earth’s
Although no wind or rain disturbs the lunar surface, it is “gardened” over the ages by the impact of
tiny meteoroids.

Box 10-1 Calculating Tidal Forces

The gravitational force between any two objects decreases with increasing distance between the
objects. This principle leads to a simple formula for estimating the tidal force that the Earth exerts on
parts of the Moon.

10-5 The Moon probably formed from debris cast into space when a huge protoplanet struck
the young Earth
The difference in chemical composition between lunar rocks and Earth rocks helps to constrain
theories of the Moon’s origin.

Teaching Hints and Strategies

[Refer to the Teaching Hints and Strategies section of Chapters 7 and 8 of this Instructor’s Manual for
general strategies applicable to solar system objects.]

The differences between the general appearance of the surface of the near and far sides of the Moon
(Section 10-1) in terms of highlands and maria should be noted. Be sure to recall the use of crater
surface density to estimate ages of surface features on planets and satellites. The references to
volcanism during various stages in the evolution of the Moon can be discussed in the context of the
past theories of the possible volcanic origin of craters. Such theories have been abandoned in recent
years, but were given serious consideration just a few decades ago. The detailed picture we have of
the lunar surface today stands in stark contrast to the diverse and uncertain theories that were
common in the 1960s. Some discussion of those theories might illustrate the explosion of information
that has resulted from the space program and permit greater appreciation of our current state of
knowledge of many other solar system objects.
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The composition and ages of lunar rocks brought back by Apollo astronauts (Section 10-2) have
proven to be invaluable in generating information that has led to a rather detailed scenario regarding
the origin and evolution of the Moon. The fact that the Moon has no atmosphere is one reason that
astronomers are interested in the lunar surface. Discuss the role of wind erosion and water erosion on
the Earth and their impact on the ages of rocks and surface features. Stress the dramatic effect of the
freezing and thawing cycle for water and the fact that it expands as it freezes. This process is very
destructive, as potholes in most highways in northern states clearly illustrate. The absence of these
processes on the Moon permits much older rocks to exist there. The lunar surface is generally much
older than the surface of the Earth. The dating of lunar rocks is much more informative about early
periods in the evolution of the solar system than the same process for Earth rocks due to the lack of
erosion on the Moon.

Emphasize that the experiments left on the Moon (Section 10-3) as part of the Apollo exploration
supplied data for many years after the astronauts left the lunar surface. The seismometers have
generated data that provide insight into the interior structure of the Moon, just as seismic data does
for the Earth. The study of the Moon has provided valuable information regarding the early history of
the Earth about which no record remains on the Earth. Understanding the Earth is of direct benefit to
the tax-paying public. In addition, the Apollo landings had high entertainment value. The cost to
advertisers to get the viewing ratings achieved then would have paid for much of the space program.

The analysis of the chemical abundances of lunar rocks compared to Earth rocks is essential to our
understanding of the origin of the Moon (Section 10-4).

Students often have great difficulty understanding why there are two tides (see Box 10-1) each day
rather than one. You might want to discuss the Roche limit at this point and discuss the role of tidal
forces in maintaining ring systems. It would be wise to refer to Table 10-1 for relevant information
about the orbit of the Moon to clarify the effects of the varying distance of the Moon from the Earth.

When discussing theories of the origin of the Earth and Moon (Section 10-5) it is wise to remind
students yet again that the solar system formed long after the origin of the universe. Many students, if
not a majority, attribute the origin of the solar system to events directly related to the Big Bang.
Remind students that the solar system is only about 5 billion years old, while the origin of the
universe was 15 to 20 billion years ago. Call attention to the definitions of volatile and refractory
substances here.

You might want to discuss the impact of “creationism” and its offspring “intelligent design” on
modern science education at this point. The effort to require the teaching of biblical views of creation
along with the theory of evolution by state legislatures or local school boards seems to be a recurring
problem for modern biology and for science in general. The exclusion of the theory of evolution from
many high school biology texts clearly demonstrates how a concentrated effort by a small group of
persons can directly affect science education. This might be an opportune time to discuss briefly how
the ages of stars are determined from theories of stellar evolution, how the age of the universe is
estimated from the expansion of stellar systems, and how the ages of lunar and terrestrial rocks are
found. The consistency of the results of these three independent methods of age determination is
reassuring.

Several commercial films have provided dramatized glimpses at the exploration of the Moon. The
Right Stuff is about the steps that led us to the Moon. This 1983 release stars Sam Shepard as Capt.
Chuck Yeager, test pilot; Scott Glenn as Capt. Alan Shepard Jr., Mercury Astronaut; and Ed Harris,
who played Maj. John Glenn Jr., Mercury astronaut and the first American to orbit the Earth.

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“Houston, we have a problem.” Those words began some of the most intense days for the space
program. For Jim Lovell’s personal account of the Apollo 13 mission, see James Lovell and Jeffrey
Kluger, Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13 (Houghton Mifflin, 1994). Apollo 13 stars
Tom Hanks as Jim Lovell and Ed Harris as Mission Controller Gene Kranz. Bill Paxton, Kevin Bacon
and Gary Sinise round out the astronaut crew. This film is an adaptation of Lovell’s book, and
students who have not seen the film should be encouraged to do so. It is accurate to the point of much
of the dialogue coming directly from NASA’s mission logs. In the last scene when the astronauts
have safely landed on the recovery carrier, Tom Hanks shakes the hand of a Navy captain, portrayed
by none other than the real Jim Lovell. Director Ron Howard wanted to make Lovell an admiral for
the scene, but Lovell reportedly said he retired as a captain and a captain he should remain.

Memorable dialogue from Apollo 13:

Marilyn Lovell to her mother-in-law watching news reports of the crippled spacecraft: “Blanche,
Blanche, these nice young men are going to watch the television with you. This is Neil Armstrong,
and this is Buzz Aldrin.”
Neil Armstrong: “Hi.”
Blanche Lovell: “Are you boys in the space program, too?”

The SH-3 Sea King recovery helicopter for the Apollo 8, 10, 11, 12 and 13 missions is displayed on
the deck of the USS Midway Museum in San Diego.

Review Questions
Recall that the average density of an object is its mass divided by its volume. The volume of a sphere
4
is πr 3, where r is the sphere’s radius. The surface area of a sphere of radius r is 4πr 2, while the
3
area of a circle of radius r is πr 2. Recall also that the acceleration of gravity on the Earth’s surface is
9.8 m/s2. You may find it useful to remind students that a 1-pound (1-lb) weight presses down on the
Earth’s surface with a force of 4.448 newtons. You might want to review Newton’s universal law of
gravitation in Section 4-7. The time to travel a certain distance is equal to the distance traveled
divided by the speed of motion. Consult the Appendices for any additional data.

1. The Moon orbits the center of mass of the Earth-Moon system. The Earth also rotates about this
point.

2. Due to rotational libration, we actually can see 59% of the lunar surface.

3. There is no atmosphere to scatter the sunlight and make the sky look blue.

4. Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of the Moon because the lack of atmospheric pressure
would cause the water to vaporize.

5. Astronauts wore pressurized spacesuits on the Moon to provide oxygen for breathing, to regulate
body temperature, and to protect against ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.

6. With a small telescope, you can see craters, mountains, and maria (lava flows) on the Moon.

7. The remnant impact crater is much larger than the meteoroid that caused it due to the shock wave
the meteoroid generates.

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8. The maria are lava-flooded areas that are dark gray in color and are lower in elevation than the
average. The highlands are light gray in color, rough in appearance, and higher than average in
elevation. The highlands are much more heavily cratered. The maria were formed later in the Moon’s
history. We know this because the number of craters on the maria is less than the number on the
highlands.

9. Lunar highlands predominate on the far side of the Moon. Presumably, the crust is thicker on the
far side.

10. The statement that the Moon is a “one-plate world” means that the crust of the Moon is not
broken into separate plates as the Earth’s is. The evidence is the lack of plate boundary rifts, mountain
ranges, and subduction zones.

11. It was necessary to send unmanned spacecraft to the Moon before sending humans so that we
would understand the nature of the surface that the humans would stand on. Unmanned missions also
allowed engineers to refine their techniques for getting probes to safely land on the Moon.

12. Reflections of radar waves from the polar regions of the Moon show spectral features that
suggest ice. The evidence is not definitive.

13. A magnetometer would be necessary to confirm the absence of a global magnetic field. A
seismometer would be necessary to confirm the inactivity of the lunar interior. Seismometers also
recorded meteor impacts and the impact of spacecraft.

14. You could not use a magnetic compass to navigate on the Moon because the Moon does not have
a global magnetic field.

15. No. The Moon has a liquid iron core, but it’s too small to generate a magnetic dynamo.

16. There are more moonquakes at perigee because when the Moon is closest to the Earth the Moon
becomes more tidally distorted.

17. The Earth is geologically active, whereas the Moon is not because the Earth is larger and
therefore has not cooled as much as the Moon. In addition, the Earth’s core produces more heat from
radioactivity than does the Moon’s core.

18. The regolith is a fine powdery material on the lunar surface caused by eons of meteoroid impacts.

19. Sedimentary rock requires liquid water to form.

20. The maria are darker colored than the highlands because the maria surfaces are cooled basalt and
the highland surface material is highly pulverized from impacts.

21. The Moon rocks contain no water, whereas all Earth rocks contain some water. In addition, Moon
rocks are basalt or anorthosite, whereas some Earth rocks are carbonate.

22. On the Earth, rocks that formed before about 4 billion years ago have been subducted into the
mantle and melted. Old crust is continually pushed down into the mantle and replaced along the mid-
oceanic ridges by new crust. These processes do not occur on the Moon, so ancient rocks are still
there on the surface.

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23. The Earth’s rapid rotation carries the tidal bulge about 10° ahead of a line connecting the Earth
and the Moon (Figure 10-17). This misaligned bulge produces the small but steady gravitational force
that tugs the Moon forward and lifts it into a larger orbit. Therefore, if the bulge pointed directly at
the Moon, the force lifting the moon into the larger orbit would be absent and the moon would not
recede from the Earth.

24. Most scientists favor the collision ejection theory because this theory accounts for all the facts,
such as the Moon’s composition and nearly circular orbit, better and more naturally than do the other
theories. A theory that simultaneously solves problems of the similarities and differences between the
Earth and Moon is a superior theory.

25. The Pacific Ocean basin is a recent product of plate tectonics. The Pacific Ocean basin cannot be
the scar left by the fission of the Moon from the Earth because the Moon formed 4.6 billion years ago.

Advanced Questions
26. (a) Solve for the center of mass.
m2 r
d cm =
m1 + m2
(7.35 × 1022 kg)(3.84 × 108 m)
d cm =
5.974 × 1024 kg + 7.35 × 1022 kg
= 4.67 × 106 m
(b) This is less than the radius of the Earth, so this is inside the Earth, approximately 4670 km from
the center of the Earth. (c) The center of mass of the Earth-Sun system is
(5.974 × 1024 kg)(1.496 × 1011 m)
d cm =
5.974 × 1024 kg + 1.99 × 1030 kg
= 4.49 × 109 m
This is greater than the solar radius of 6.96 × 108 m. The Earth approximately orbits around the center
of the Sun but more accurately orbits the center of mass.

27. The lunar features are more easily seen at quarter phase than at full phase because the shadows
are longer at quarter phase.

28. Golf balls hit on the moon would travel farther than on Earth because there is no air resistance on
the Moon and the Moon’s weaker gravity would take longer to pull the balls back down to the
surface.

29. The Moon’s albedo is much less than the Earth’s. This means that the Moon’s surface absorbs
more heat per square meter in the daytime than does the Earth’s. At night the absence of an
atmosphere containing greenhouse gases means that the Moon radiates the heat away faster. In
addition, the day and night on the Moon are two weeks long. For these reasons, the Moon’s daytime
temperature is higher and the nighttime temperature is lower than the Earth’s.

30. First calculate the weight of the 80-kg person on Earth, which is mass times the acceleration due
to Earth’s gravity (9.8 m/s2): Earth weight = 80 N × 9.8 m/s2 = 784 newtons = 176 pounds. This
weight is the force with which gravity pulls the person down on the surface of the Earth. According to

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Newton’s law of gravitation, that force (FE) is given by FE = G mM2 E , where G is the Universal
RE
constant of gravitation, m is the person’s mass, and ME and RE are the mass and radius of the Earth,
respectively.
Similarly, the person’s weight on the Moon (FM) is given by FM = G mM2 M , where MM and RM are
RM
the mass and radius of the Moon, respectively. Now find the ratio of the person’s Moon-weight to the
Earth-weight by dividing the equation for FM by the equation for FE:
2
FM  M M   RE 
=
FE  M E   RM 
We know that MM/ME = 0.012, and RM/RE is (1738 km/6378 km) = 0.27. Consequently,
FM
= (0.012)(0.27) = 0.16
–2

FE
Therefore, a person standing on the Moon weighs 16% of his or her Earth weight. An 80-kg person
presses down on the lunar surface with a force of 0.16 × 784 newtons = 125 newtons = 28 pounds.

31. The average density of the Moon is its mass (M) divided by its volume (V). From Table 10-1 we
see that the Moon’s mass is 7.35 × 1022 kg and its radius is 1.738 × 106 m.
M M 7.35 × 1022 kg
=ρ = = = 3340 kg/m3
V 4 3 4
( )
6 3
πr π 1.738 × 10 m
3 3
Crustal rocks from the Earth and Moon have densities in the range of 3000 to 3500 kg/m3. The Moon
cannot have a significant iron core because, if it did, its average density would be higher than the
density of typical crustal rock.

32. (a) At perigee, the Earth-Moon distance is (Table 10-1) r = 363,300 km = 3.633 × 108 m. The
tidal force is then
2GmEarth md
Ftidal =
r3
2 ( 6.67 × 10 –11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )( 5.974 × 1024 kg ) (1 kg ) ( 3.476 × 106 m )
=
( 3.633 × 10 m )
8 3

F=
tidal 5.78 × 10 –5 N

(b) At apogee, r = 405,500 km = 4.055 × 108 m. So

Ftidal =
( )( ) (
2 6.67 × 10 –11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 5.974 × 1024 kg (1 kg ) 3.476 × 106 m )
( )
3
4.055 × 108 m
= 4.15 × 10 –5 N
(c) The ratio of the tidal force at perigee to the tidal force at apogee is
–5
Ftidal(perigee) 5.78 × 10 N
= = 1.39
Ftidal(apogee) 4.15 × 10 –5 N

33. Impact breccias are formed over a series of impact events. Therefore, we would not expect to find
many younger than 3.1 billion years because impacts have been rare since 3.1 billion years ago.

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34. The regolith in the highlands is deeper because the highlands are older and have been subjected
to pulverizing impacts for a longer time than have the maria.

35. It is not likely that active volcanoes exist anywhere on the Moon today because the Moon is solid
to such a great depth that there is no magma near the surface. When the maria flooded with lava, this
was not the case.

36. The average center-to-center distance is r = 384,400 km. The surface-to-surface distance is less
than this by the radius of the Earth and Moon or R = 384,400 – 1738 – 6378 = 376,284 km = 3.76 ×
108 m. For a laser pulse traveling to and from the Moon, the distance is twice this, so the time
becomes

=t =
( 8
2r 2 3.76 × 10 m
= 2.5 s
)
c 3 × 108 m/s

37. The rocks from the maria are composed more of heavier elements like iron, manganese, and
titanium and are denser than the highland rocks that are composed more of lighter elements like
silicon, calcium, and aluminum. If the maria were formed by impacts melting the surface material,
then the maria rocks should have the same composition and density as the highland rocks. The denser
maria rocks could have come only from the interior. On the other hand, not all lunar features can be
volcanic because the lighter-density highland rocks are composed of materials that floated to the
surface rather than erupted. Also, the impact breccias are certainly not volcanic.

38. (a) When the Earth-Moon distance was 1/10 of its present value, this distance was 38,440 km =
3.844107 m. The upward gravitational pull of the Earth on a 1-kg rock on the Moon’s surface was
GmE m
FE =
r2

=( 6.67 × 10 –11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 )

(5.974 × 1024 kg ) (1 kg )
( 3.844 × 107 m )
2

= 0.27 N
whereas the downward pull of the Moon’s gravity on the same rock was
G mM m
FM =
rM2

=( 6.67 × 10
( 7.349 ×10 kg ) (1 kg )
22
–11 2
N ⋅ m /kg 2
)
(1.738 ×10 m )
6 2

= 1.6 N
Therefore, the rock’s weight would have exceeded the upward pull of the Earth. (b) The tidal force on
md
the Moon in those days was (Box 10-1) Ftidal = 2GmEarth . Set up a ratio:
3
r
Ftidal (then) 2GmEarth md r (now)3
=
Ftidal (now) r (then)3 2GmEarth md
r (now)3
=
r (then)3
= 103
Therefore, the tidal force was 1000 times grater on the Moon when its distance from the Earth was
1/10 of its present value.

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Discussion Questions
39. Speculation about the nature, origin, and orbit of the Moon figures prominently in the
development of modern astronomy.

40. Communications with a lander on the far side would have been difficult. The general absence of
lava flows on the far side would make it an interesting place to explore.

41. Robotic probes are limited by their programming. Humans are limited only by the extent of their
imagination.

42. Due to the many variables in human behavior, this would be difficult to test. Even so, hospitals
sometimes report more births in the full phase of the Moon.

43. Sedimentary rock would have profoundly altered our understanding of the lunar origin due to the
implied presence of water on the moon in the past.

44. For safety reasons, all landings occurred in relatively flat, non-rocky areas. The highlands are
older and would be a good place to look for volcanic activity compared to the maria.

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Web/eBook Questions
Apollo Expeditions to the Moon, edited by Edgar M. Cortwright, is available at
www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-350/cover.html.

Where No Man Has Gone Before: A History of Apollo Lunar Exploration Missions, by W. David
Compton, is available at www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4214/contents.html.

NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center provides a timeline of all lunar expeditions, US and Soviet,
and Apollo mission summaries: nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunartimeline.html. NASA’s
general site for Moon information is nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planets/moonpage.html.

The Project Apollo Archive serves as an online reference source, source of books and videos, and a
repository of digital images pertaining to the historic manned lunar landing program:
www.apolloarchive.com/.

On January 25, 1994, Clementine was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, on a
mission designed to test sensors and spacecraft components. In addition, Clementine was given the
complex task of mapping the moon. The mission results were spectacular. For results and images, see
www.cmf.nrl.navy.mil/clementine/.

SMART-1 was used to test solar electric propulsion and other deep-space technologies while
performing scientific observations of the Moon. Information is available on the European Space
Agency Web site: sci.esa.int/smart-1/.

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Observing Projects
47. (a) The absence of rifts and mountain ranges is an indication that there is no current tectonic
activity. The large number of ancient impact craters also indicates that the Moon is geologically
inactive. There is no evidence for volcanism. The lunar crust is peppered with ancient impact craters.
(b) There is much less cratering in the lunar maria compared to the highlands. (c) Although the rays
indicate violent ejection of material from several craters, this material seems to have had no effect on
crater walls across which it has traveled. (d) At least three major craters are surrounded by ray
structures: Kepler, Tycho, Copernicus.

48. (a) We always see the same features on the Moon, showing that the same side of the Moon
always faces toward the Earth. This means that the Moon rotates around its spin axis with the same
period as its orbital period. (b) The Earth remains almost stationary in the lunar sky. The lunar
horizon does not obstruct the view of the Earth from this viewing location because the Moon always
shows the same face to the Earth due to tidal effects and the Moon’s subsequent synchronous orbital
and rotational periods.

49. (a) The Moon’s size changes, demonstrating that its orbit is not circular, but slightly elliptical.
(b) Approximately 27 days. (c) Small changes in the positions of features show an additional small
motion of the Moon

Chapter 10 Our Barren Moon