Lecture 9 The atmosphere

Why is it important?
“the gaseous envelope that surrounds a planet or other celestial body”

• Without the protective layer of gases that make up Earth’s atmosphere, the harsh
conditions of the solar system would render the planet a barren, lifeless husk like the
moon.
• The Earth's atmosphere protects and sustains the planet's inhabitants by providing
warmth and absorbing harmful solar rays.
• In addition to containing the oxygen and carbon dioxide, which living things need to
survive, the atmosphere traps the sun's energy and wards off many of the dangers of
space.
Definition of the atmosphere
Atmosphere: a gaseous envelope that surrounds a planet
or any other celestial body

Air: a complex mixture of gases and tiny suspended

particles that makes up Earth’s atmosphere

The composition is often discussed in relative terms, as

the density of air changes with altitude.

Variable gases in the atmosphere: Aerosols and water

vapor (H2O), change with location and time. 1-4% of air.

Dry air: without aerosols and water vapor, the

composition of dry air is essentially constant. N2, O2 and
Argon make up 99.96% of dry air aerosols: liquid/solid
particles
Trace gases: gases that are present in small amounts
within an environment such as a planet's atmosphere,
including CO2, CH4, O3, N2O
Greenhouse effect
• CO2, H2O, methane, ozone and nitrous oxide are the
greenhouse gases that create Earth’s life-maintaining
blanket.
• Absorb and re-emit infrared radiation, creating a
near-surface environment that is warmer than is
would be if they were absent from the atmosphere.
• Changes in the amount of greenhouse gases lead to
global warming
Changes in physical environment – Elevated CO2
• Global atmospheric CO2 level has increased from 280 ppm from pre-industrial era (1760s) to 320
ppm in the 1960s to 420 ppm in 2022.
• Charles Keeling – Keeling’s curve the describe the dynamics of atmospheric CO2 level, one of the
most important discovery in 20th century.

• The seasonal dynamic reflect the activity of terrestrial

ecosystems. Most land is in the northern hemisphere,
so during the northern hemisphere summer CO2 level
is low as plant photosynthesis outpaces respiration;
vice versa in winter.
peak of CO2 at the end of winter
due to decay of matter
Changes in physical environment – other greenhouse gases
Major greenhouse gases:
1. CO2, 410 ppm, lifetime 100 years
2. CH4, 1860 ppb, 21 times stronger
than CO2, shorter resident time,
mostly comes from agriculture (cattle
No.1 sources) and wetland (aerobic
environment).
3. N2O, 332, ppb, 120 times stronger
than CO2, long resident time, mostly
comes from agriculture and anthropogenic
sources

Gas lifetime: the amount of the gas in the

atmosphere divided by the rate at which
it is removed from the atmosphere.

IPCC AR6 TS. Figure TS 9

Aerosols

Aerosol à solid or liquid particles,

suspended in the liquid state; very tiny
remain in the atmosphere very easily ( <
1micrometer in diameter or 1 millionth of
a meter)

Aerosols comes from both natural and

anthropogenic sources: volcanic ash,
smoke from forest fires, blown sea salt,
blown dust and loess and pollen (solid) or
fog (liquid). Most anthropogenic
particulates are pollutants that originate
from industrial activities
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtJzn8A725w&t=64s
Aerosol impacts on Earth system
1. Sea spray – transfer sodium from ocean to
land
2. Nucleation sites for water droplets and ice
crystals – to form clouds – white that can
reflect sunlight
3. Scattering light – scatter incoming solar
radiation
4. Clouds of sulfur-bearing aerosols from
large, explosive volcanic eruption have
cooling effect on earth
1991 Mt. Pinatubo eruption cause -0.1 to -0.15 C change in
global average temperature for some places in 2 years. Tonga (submarine) volcano eruption 2022
The largest one since Mt. Pinatubo
https://pubs.usgs.gov/pinatubo/self/
Structure of the atmosphere – Temperature
Troposphere
- Bottommost layer, extends to 10-16 km. Higher
in low latitude where there are stronger
convection.

- Temperature decreases with altitude, air at

bottom is more effectively warmed up by
infrared radiation emitted by land and ocean

- Most of our weather is a consequence of

thermal motion of air in this layer

- Contains 80% of the air mass

Structure of the atmosphere – Temperature
Stratosphere: Location of most ozone (“ozone
layer”), temp increases with altitude due to
absorption of incoming ultraviolet (UV) radiation by
ozone

As sunray pass through the stratosphere, less and

less UV remains to be absorbed by air, so
temperatures in the bottom of the stratosphere is
lower

Mesosphere: Temp decreases with altitude, the

coldest layer of the atmosphere, reaching a minimum
of -100 C.

Thermosphere: Extends to 500 km, very little mass,

increasing temp with altitude, reaches the highest T
(directly absorption of sunlight and bombardment of
gas molecules by protons and electrons from sun),
hosts the ionosphere, where auroras occur
The Ozone layer and the Stratosphere
Photochemical reaction involving O2

O2 + EK ( the excess energy of the reaction)

+ EK ( the excess energy of the reaction)

This cycle converts penetrating UV-B light into heat,

without any net loss of ozone
The absorption of UV radiation by O3 causes the
temperature in the stratosphere to be higher than
expected from an extension of the adiabatic
temperature profile in the troposphere
Chapter 11 from the “The blue planet: an introduction
to earth system science” 3rd ed. 11
• While the hole over Antarctica has been closing, the protective ozone is thinning at the lower
latitudes, where the sunlight is stronger and billions of people live.

• The cause of the decline is unknown but might be the result of global warming. Ozone is produced by
chemical reactions in the atmosphere over the tropics and then distributed towards the poles world
by large air circulation currents. But warming trends could be strengthening these currents, moving
more ozone to the poles and leaving less at lower latitudes.
Structure of the atmosphere – Pressure
• Air pressure: a force exerted by overlying air - air pressure
decreases smoothly with altitude.

• As gases are highly compressible, near ground more

compressed – so the air pressure curve is not a straight
line.

• 50% of the atmosphere mass lies below an altitude of 5.5

km - within the troposphere

• 99% lies <32 km - the troposphere + the bottommost

portion of the stratosphere

• ~32 km, about the middle of the stratosphere, the air is so

thin that it is like a laboratory vacuum

• >32km to ~500 km à 1% of the atmosphere

13
Structure of the atmosphere – Moisture
Atmosphere holds water vapor – the gaseous form of
water.

Saturation determines the maximum concentration of

water vapor (H2O molecules) that can reside in the air. A
balance of evaporation and condensation.

The amount of water vapor is reported in vapor pressure

(kPa). – Due to Dalton’s law that the partial pressure is
proportional to the volume percent of a gas in a mix.

Under saturation we have saturated vapor pressure

(SVP). Higher with higher temperature - molecular kinetic
energy is greater, more molecules can escape the surface.

Under unsaturated condition we have water vapor

pressure, and the value of water vapor/SVP is relative
humidity (RH).
Adiabatic lapse rate In thermodynamics, an adiabatic
process is a type of thermodynamic
process which occurs WITHOUT
transferring heat or mass between
the system and its surroundings.

Dry adiabatic lapse rate: 10 °C /km in

altitude.
Week 5 GE4229 (ESS)
 Adiabatic lapse rate

• Moist adiabatic lapse rate: the way temperature

drops in a rising mass of saturated air

• 4 to 9 °C/km, average of 6 °C /km.

• Moist adiabatic lapse rate is always less than the

dry rate – air rise, water condense, release
latent heat.

• When a parcel of air has reached saturation and

condensation has begun, the dry rate changes
to moist rate – lead to cloud formation.
 Clouds
• Clouds are visible aggregations of minute water droplets,
tiny ice crystals, or both.
• Most clouds are in the troposphere, where most moisture
stays
• Clouds form when air rises and becomes saturated with
moisture due to adiabatic cooling.

• Four principal reasons for air rise – lifting:

• 1. Density lifting: warm, low density air rises convectively

and displaces cooler, denser air

• 2. Frontal lifting: two flowing air masses of different

density and temperature meet.

• 3. Orographic lifting: flowing air is forced upward as a

result of passing over a sloping terrain.

• 4. Convergence lifting: flowing air masses converges and

are forced upward.
Cloud types

• Cumulus clouds: puffy, globular,

individual clouds; forms when hot
and humid air rise convectively

• Stratus clouds: sheets of cloud

cover at 2-15 km altitude that
cover the entire sky; forms due to
frontal lifting

• Cirrus clouds: highest clouds in the

troposphere, fine, wispy feather
like. Mostly ice crystals.
 Cloud types

• Stratocumulus clouds: cumulus

clouds coalesce to form puffy
layer; shape like a combination of
stratus and cumulus

• Cumulonimbus clouds: large

cumulus clouds rise to the top of
the troposphere and expand
horizontally – thunderstorms.

• Nimbostratus clouds: cloud

blanket of stratus is thick and the
day is dark and deary.

Names of cloud
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UuW1jhxCgx0
Weather and Climate
Weather – the state of the atmosphere a given time & place:
• temperature
• air pressure
• humidity
• cloudiness
• wind speed & direction
Climate – average weather over a long period of time
As you remember this week we have our first QUIZ, you will have 15 mcq questions to answer in 20 minutes (this is a closed-book
quiz). Based on previous years this is actually more time than what you will need.

Few things to remember for the next Tuesday, as we will be using exemplify.

•1. Log in with Zoom from your phone (we take cheating very seriously so any suspicious activity happening will be reported
and your quiz will be canceled)
•2. Have nearby your student card as I will quickly check your face and ID
•3. Place the phone in a way that your hands, keyboard and screen are visible to me and the invigilator
•4. Have installed exemplify
•5. Check the following slides for reference which explain clearly each single step
https://wiki.nus.edu.sg/display/DA/Examplify+Assessment+-+Student
•6. Have installed Microsoft teams in case something happens and there is need to troubleshoot with an IT person
•7. During the time of the exam, please do not leave the room and stay where you are even if you finish the exam after 10 mins.
Once you submit the quiz you will be able to have wifi again so you can do other things on your computer in the meanwhile….like
checking the right answers
•8. Once the time window for the exam is closed you can log back on zoom in your laptop so we can start class
•9. In case something goes completely wrong (e.g. Your laptop crashes, you have an electricity blackout, an asteroid hits your
neighbor’s apartment or your cat destroys everything J ……you will do a make-up quiz in my office next week)
•10. More info here https://wiki.nus.edu.sg/display/da/Student

Best wishes and good luck with the quiz everyone