Geography 3 Climatology

WORLD PHYSICAL & HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
CLIMATOLOGY
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CHAPTER-15
ATMOSPHERE
EVOLUTION OF EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen.
Hadean Eon (4,540 – 4,000 Mya): The Primordial Atmosphere

The early atmosphere contained almost no oxygen and volcanic outgassing created the primordial
atmosphere.
 Outgassing: Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late
heavy bombardment of Earth, produced
the next atmosphere.
 Solidification of Earth’s Surface:
Solidification left behind hot volatiles
which resulted in a heavy CO2
atmosphere with hydrogen, nitrogen, inert
gases and water vapour.
 Co2 Absorption: The majority of the
CO2 in the atmosphere was absorbed by
ocean water once the oceans formed.
 Atmospheric Escape: Most of the lighter
gases like the hydrogen and helium
escaped into space and are continually
escaping even to the present day due to
atmospheric escape (outer layers stripped
by solar wind).
Archean Eon (4000 Mya – 2500 Mya)
 Photosynthesising Cyanobacteria: In the late Archean Eon, an oxygen-containing
atmosphere began to develop, apparently produced by photosynthesising cyanobacteria.
 The constant re-arrangement of continents influenced the long-term evolution of the
atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores.
Proterozoic Eon (2500 Mya – 541 Mya): Oxygen In Atmosphere
 Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago.
 O2 showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of the
Proterozoic.
Phanerozoic Eon (541 Mya To Present): The Present Atmosphere
 The amount of oxygen reached a peak of about 30% around 280 million years ago.
 Two main processes govern changes in the oxygen levels in the atmosphere:
 Use of Co2 by Plants: Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen.
 Breakdown Of Pyrite (Iron Sulphide) And Volcanic Eruptions: Release sulphur into the
atmosphere, which oxidises and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere.
However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen.
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere is a mixture of different gases and it envelopes the earth all round.
 Mass of Atmosphere: The air is an integral part of the earth’s mass and 99 per cent of the total
mass of the atmosphere is confined to the height of 32 km from the earth’s surface.
Composition of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is made up of different types of gases, water vapour and dust particles. The
composition of the atmosphere is not static and it changes according to the time and place.
 The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that oxygen
will be almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km.
 Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the surface of the
earth.
Gases
Gases of the Atmosphere:
 Main Constituents: Nitrogen and
Oxygen are the two main gases of the
atmosphere because 99 percent part of
it is made up of these two gases.
 Other Gases: Like organ, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, neon, helium etc.
form the remaining part of atmosphere
i.e.,0.99%.
Important Constituents Of The

Atmosphere:
Oxygen Carbon Dioxide
 Oxygen is chemically very active  Importance in Heat Budget: Being an efficient
because it combines with majority of absorber of heat, carbon dioxide is a very important
elements in the biosphere. factor in the heat energy budget.
 It generally forms about 70 per cent  Composition in Atmosphere: With increased
atoms in living matter and plays a burning of fossil fuels – oil, coal and natural gas – the
very important role in the formation carbon dioxide percentage in the atmosphere has been
of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. increasing at an alarming rate.
 Vertical Composition: The  More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere means

molecular oxygen (02) mostly occurs more heat absorption. This could significantly
up to the height of 60 km in the lower raise the temperature at lower levels of the
atmosphere while dissociated atmosphere thus inducing drastic climatic
oxygen (0) is present above the changes.
molecular oxygen layer.
Ozone Gas (O3) Water Vapour
Ozone (O3) is a type of oxygen molecule  Altitudinal Distribution: Water vapour is also a
consisting of three oxygen atoms. variable gas in the atmosphere, which decreases with
 Atmospheric Composition: It altitude.
forms less than 0.00005% by volume  Composition: In the warm and wet tropics, it may
of the atmosphere and is unevenly account for four per cent of the air by volume, while
distributed. in the dry and cold areas of desert and polar regions,
 It is between 20 km and 30 km it may be less than one per cent of the air.
altitude (stratosphere) that the  Latitudinal Distribution: Water vapour also
greatest concentrations of ozone decreases from the equator towards the poles.
are found.  Importance: It also absorbs parts of the insolation
 It is formed at higher altitudes (due from the sun and preserves the earth’s radiated heat.
to interaction between O2 and UV It thus, acts like a blanket allowing the earth neither
light) and transported downwards. to become too cold nor too hot.
 Importance: Ozone plays a crucial  Water vapour also contributes to the stability and
role in blocking the harmful instability in the air.
ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
Nitrogen Dust Particles
 It is a relatively inert gas and is an  Atmosphere has a sufficient capacity to keep small
important constituent of all organic solid particles, which may originate from different
compounds. sources and include sea salts, fine soil, smoke-soot,
 Function: The main function of ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated particles of
nitrogen is to control combustion by meteors.
diluting oxygen, i.e., it prevents  Vertical Distribution: Dust particles are generally
spontaneous combustion of oxygen concentrated in the lower layers of the atmosphere;
in the atmosphere. yet, convectional air currents may transport them to
great heights.
 Latitudinal Distribution: The higher concentration
of dust particles is found in subtropical and temperate
regions due to dry winds in comparison to equatorial
and polar regions.
 Importance: Dust and salt particles act as
hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour
condenses to produce clouds.
Importance of the Atmosphere:

 Oxygen is very important for the living beings.
 Carbon dioxide is very useful for the plants.
 Dust particles present in the atmosphere create suitable conditions for the precipitation.
 The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere goes on changing and directly affects the
plants and living beings.
 Ozone protects all kinds of life on the earth from the harmful ultra violet rays of the sun.
Structure of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is an integral part of the earth that extends up to about 1600 kilometres from the
earth’s surface.
 97 percent of the total amount of weight of the atmosphere is limited up to the height of about
30 kilometres.
Thermal Characteristics
On the basis of the characteristics of temperature and air pressure the layering system of the
atmosphere has been classified by the S. Peterson into five vertical zones surrounding the earth.
The Troposphere
 Lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
 Height: Its average height is 13 km and
extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the
poles and about 18 km at the equator.
 Thickness: Greatest at the equator because
heat is transported to great heights by strong
convectional currents.
 Importance: All kinds of weather changes
take place only in this layer.
 The air never remains static in this layer.
Therefore this layer is called changing
sphere or troposphere.
 This is the most important layer for all
biological activity.
 Temperature: Decreases at the rate of 1° C
for every 165m of height.
Tropopause
The zone separating the troposphere from stratosphere is known as the tropopause.
 The air temperature at the tropopause is about minus 800C over the equator and about minus
45c over the poles. The temperature here is nearly constant, and hence, it is called tropopause.
Stratosphere The Mesosphere

 The stratosphere is found above the  Mesosphere lies above the stratosphere, which
tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 extends up to a height of 80 km.
km.  In this layer, once again, temperature starts
 Contains Ozone Layer: One important decreasing with the increase in altitude and
feature of the stratosphere is that it contains reaches up to minus 100° C at the height of 80
the ozone layer. km.
 This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation  The upper limit of mesosphere is known as the
and shields life on the earth from intense, mesopause.
harmful form of energy.
 Temperature: The temperature remains
almost the same in the lower part of this
layer up to the height of 20 kms. After this
the temperature increases slowly with the
increase in the height.
 The temperature increases due to the
presence of ozone gas in the upper part
of this layer.
 Weather related incidents do not take
place in this layer.
 The air blows horizontally here. Therefore
this layer is considered ideal for flying of
aircrafts.
Thermosphere
 Thermosphere: The part of the atmosphere beyond mesopause is known as thermosphere
wherein temperature increases rapidly with increasing height. Thermosphere is further divided
into two layers.
Note: The Kármán line, located within the thermosphere at an altitude of 100 km, is commonly
used to define the boundary between Earth's atmosphere and outer space.
The Ionosphere Exosphere
 Vertical Extent: The Ionosphere is located  The uppermost layer of the atmosphere
between 80 and 400 km above the above the thermosphere.
mesopause.  Extent: This is the last layer of the
 It contains electrically charged particles atmosphere located above ionosphere and
known as ions, and hence, it is known as extends to beyond 400 km above the earth.
ionosphere.  Air Density: Gases are very sparse in this
 Radio waves transmitted from the earth are sphere due to the lack of gravitational force.
reflected back to the earth by this layer. Therefore, density of air is the least in the
 Temperature here starts increasing with exosphere.
height.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
On the basis of chemical composition the atmosphere is divided into:
Homosphere Heterosphere
 Extent: Represents the lower  Extends from 90 km to 10,000 km and different
portion of the atmosphere and layers of this sphere vary in their chemical and
extends up to the height of 90 km physical properties.
from sea level.  There are four distinct layers of gases in this
 The main constituent gases are sphere,
oxygen (20.946%) and nitrogen  Molecular nitrogen layer is dominated by
(78.084%). molecular nitrogen and extends upward up to ‘the
 Other gases are argon, carbon height of 200 km (90 to 200 km),
dioxide, neon, helium, krypton,  Atomic oxygen layer extends from 200 to 1100
xenon, hydrogen etc. km.
 Characteristic: This zone is called  Further upward there is helium layer which
homosphere because the extends up to the height of 3500 km.
proportions of different gases are  Atomic hydrogen layer is the topmost layer of the
uniform at different levels in this atmosphere and extends up to the outermost limit
zone. of the atmosphere.
ATMOSPHERIC ESCAPE:
Certain light gases like hydrogen are constantly lost into space from exosphere due to atmospheric
escape.
 Atmospheric escape of gases (atmospheric stripping) happens when gas molecules achieve
escape velocity due to low gravity or due to energy received from the sun (heat, solar wind).
 Jovian planets retain gases with low molecular masses because of low temperatures and higher
gravity.
 Titan, a moon of Saturn, and Triton, a moon of Neptune, possess significant nitrogen-rich
atmospheres.
 Earth's magnetic field reduces atmospheric escape by protecting the atmosphere from solar
wind that would otherwise greatly enhance the escape of hydrogen.
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CHAPTER-16
CYCLIC PROCESS OF THE ATMOSPHERIC GASES
The cycle of main gases found in the atmosphere is given below:
CARBON CYCLE
 Source: The element of carbon is present in the atmosphere
in the form of carbon dioxide. The source of carbon for all
living beings is atmosphere.
 Photosynthesis: Green plants receive carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere which is used for making food with the help
of the sun light. This is called photosynthesis.
 By this process the plants create ‘carbohydrates’ in the
form of food.
 Carbohydrates thus, produced by plants are used as a food
by all Living beings.
 Dissolution of CO2: Carbon dioxide gets dissolved in the
water bodies and gets collected in the form of lime on the
earth.
 Carbonization: After dissolution of lime stone, carbon
dioxide again reaches in the atmosphere. This process is called carbonization.
 In this way carbon dioxide goes on moving between the atmosphere and water bodies of the
earth.
 Carbon dioxide produced by breathing of plants and animals, disintegration of plants and
animals and by burning fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas again returns back to
the atmosphere.
In this way, the process of receiving of carbon-dioxide from the
atmosphere and going back to it from the surface of the earth
keeps on going continuously. It keeps the balance between the
carbon and biosphere.
OXYGEN CYCLE
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is about 21% and all
living beings use oxygen present in the atmosphere for
breathing.
 The main sources of oxygen in the atmosphere are plants
and trees. Higher the number of trees and plants, the
availability of oxygen will be more.
 Oxygen produced through photosynthesis by the green
plants goes back to the atmosphere. In this way the process of oxygen cycle goes on continuously.
NITROGEN CYCLE
The amount of nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is
78%.
 The main source of nitrogen are nitrates
present in the soil.
 From the atmosphere, nitrogen enters into
bio components through the biological and
industrial processes.
 Nitrogen compounds from the plants are
transferred to the animals through food
chain.
 The process of transformation of nitrogen
gas of the atmosphere into nitrogen
components is called nitrogen Fixation.
 Bacteria’s decompose dried plants and dead
animals. It produces nitrogen gas which
goes back into the atmosphere. In this way
the cycle of nitrogen gas is completed.
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

There is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the oceans and the continents through the
processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation.
Since the total amount of moisture in the entire system remains constant, a balance is required between
evapotranspiration and precipitation. The hydrological cycle maintains this balance
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CHAPTER-17
SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE
GENERAL INFORMATION
 The earth receives almost all of its energy from the sun.
 The earth in turn radiates back to space the energy received from the sun. As a result, the earth
neither warms up nor does it get cooled over a period of time. Thus, the amount of heat received
by different parts of the earth is not the same.
 This variation causes pressure differences in the atmosphere. This leads to transfer of heat from
one region to the other by winds.
INSOLATION (SOLAR RADIATION)

The sun is the primary source of energy on the earth. This energy is radiated in all directions into space
through short waves. This is known as solar radiation.
 Only two billionths or (two units of energy out of 1,00,00,00,000 units of energy radiated by
the sun) of the total solar radiation reaches the earth’s surface.
 This small proportion of solar radiation is of great importance, as it is the only major source of
energy on the earth for most of the physical and biological phenomena.
 Insolation: Incoming solar radiation through short waves is termed as insolation. The amount
of insolation received on the earth’s surface is far less than that is radiated from the sun because
of the small size of the earth and its distance from the sun.
 Moreover water vapour, dust particles, ozone and other gases present in the atmosphere
absorb a small amount of insolation.
Heating and cooling of the Atmosphere:

Sun is the ultimate source of atmospheric heat and energy, but its effect is not direct.
 For example, as we climb a mountain or ascend in the atmosphere, temperature become
steadily lower, rather than higher, as we might expect. This is because the mechanism of
heating the atmosphere in not simple.
There Are Four Heating Processes Directly Responsible For Heating the Atmosphere:
Radiation Convection
Radiation is the process by which solar Transfer of heat by movement of a mass or
energy reaches the earth and the earth loses substance from one place to another, generally
energy to outer space. When the source of vertical, is called convection.
heat transmits heat directly to an object  Reason for Upward Movement of Air: The air
through heat waves, it is known as radiation of the lower layers of the atmosphere get heated
process. either by the earth’s radiation or by conduction.
The heating of the air leads to its expansion. Its
density decreases and it moves upwards.
 Insolation reaches the earth’s surface in  Continuous ascent of heated air creates vacuum
short waves and heat is radiated from in the lower layers of the atmosphere. As a
the earth in long waves. consequence, cooler air comes down to fill the
 Atmosphere is transparent to short vacuum, leading to convection.
waves and opaque to long waves. Hence  Importance: The cyclic movement associated
energy leaving the earth’s surface i.e. with the convectional process in the atmosphere
terrestrial radiation heats up the transfer heat from the lower layer to the upper
atmosphere more than the incoming solar layer and heats up the atmosphere.
radiation i.e. insolation.
Conduction Advection
 The conduction in the The process of horizontal transport of heat by winds is
atmosphere occurs at zone of known as advection.
contact between the  Winds carry the temperature of one place to another.
atmosphere and the earth’s  Rise in Temperature: The temperature of a place will
surface. However, this is a rise if it lies on the path of winds coming from warmer
minor method of heat transfer in regions.
terms of warming the
 Fall in Temperature: The temperature will fall if the
atmosphere since it only affects
place lies on the path of the winds blowing from cold
the air close to the earth’s
regions.
surface.
Factors Influencing Insolation

The amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface is not uniform everywhere. It varies from
place to place and from time to time.
 The tropical zone receive the maximum annual insolation and it gradually decreases towards
the poles. Insolation is more in summers and less in winters.
The Following Factors Influence the Amount of Insolation Received:

The Angle of Incidence
Since the earth is round, the sun’s rays strike the surface at different angles at different places. The
angle formed by the sun’s ray with the tangent of the earth’s circle at a point is called angle of
incidence. It influences the insolation in two ways.
 First, when the sun is almost overhead, the rays of the sun are vertical. The angle of incidence
is large hence, they are concentrated in a smaller area, giving more amount of insolation at that
place.
 If the sun’s rays are oblique, angle of incidence is small and sun’s rays have to heat up a
greater area, resulting in less amount of insolation received there.
 Secondly, the sun’s rays with small angle, traverse more of the atmosphere, than rays striking
at a large angle.
 Longer the path of sun’s rays, greater is the amount of reflection and absorption of heat by
atmosphere. As a result the intensity of insolation at a place is less.
Distance between the Earth and the Sun

 The distance between the sun and the earth  At the time of perihelion on January 3 the
changes during course of a year because earth is nearest to the sun, say 91. 5 million
the earth revolves around the sun in miles (147 million kilometres) away while at
elliptical orbit. the time of aphelion on July 4 it is farthest
 The average distance between the sun and from the sun, say 94.5 miles (152 million
the earth is about 93 million miles(149 kilometres) away.
million kilometres).  As per rule, the earth at the time of
perihelion, when it is nearest to the sun,
should receive maximum insolation while
it should receive minimum insolation at the
time of aphelion when the earth is at the
greatest distance from the sun.
 In fact, in the month of January, when the
earth is nearest to the sun, there is winter
season instead of summer season in the
northern hemisphere due to low amount of
insolation received.
 On the other hand, in the month of July, when
the earth is farthest from the sun, there is
summer instead of winter in the northern
hemisphere due to high amount of insolation
received.
Duration Of The Day Transparency of the atmosphere
 Duration of the day varies from place to  The transparency depends upon cloud cover,
place and season to season. its thickness, dust particles and water vapour,
 It decides the amount of insolation as they reflect, absorb or transmit insolation.
received on earth’s surface.  Thick clouds hinder the insolation to reach the
 The longer the duration of the day, the earth while clear sky helps it to reach the
greater is the amount of insolation surface.
received.  Water vapour absorb insolation, resulting in
 Conversely shorter the duration of the day less amount of insolation reaching the surface.
leads to receipt of less insolation.
Sunspots
 It is believed that the energy radiated from the sun increases when the number of sunspots
increases and consequently the amount of insolation received at the earth's surface also
increases.
 On the other hand, the amount of insolation received at the earth's surface decreases with
decrease in the number of sunspots due to less emission of radiation from the sun.
Spatial Distribution of Insolation at the Earth’s Surface:

The insolation received at the surface varies from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to about 70
Watt/m2 in the poles.
 Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical deserts, where the cloudiness is the least.
 Equator receives comparatively less insolation than the tropics. Generally, at the same latitude
the insolation is more over the continent than over the oceans.
 In winter, the middle and higher latitudes receive less radiation than in summer.
HEAT BUDGET OF THE PLANET EARTH:

Heat budget is the balance between insolation (incoming solar radiation) and terrestrial radiation.
 Figure depicts the heat budget of the planet earth. The earth as a whole does not accumulate or
loose heat. It maintains its temperature. This can happen only if the amount of heat received in
the form of insolation equals the amount lost by the earth through terrestrial radiation.
Consider that the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent.
 While passing through the atmosphere some amount of energy is reflected, scattered and
absorbed. Only the remaining part reaches the earth surface.
 Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before reaching the earth’s surface.
o Of 35 units, 27 units are reflected back from the top of the clouds and 2 units from the
snow and ice-covered areas of the earth. The reflected amount of radiation is called the
albedo of the earth.
 The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14 units within the atmosphere and 51 units by the earth’s
surface.
 The earth radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation.
 Of these, 17 units are radiated to space directly and the remaining 34 units are absorbed by
the atmosphere (6 units absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units through convection
and turbulence and 19 units through latent heat of condensation).
 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (14 units from insolation +34 units from terrestrial
radiation) are also radiated back into space.
Thus, the total radiation returning from the earth and the atmosphere respectively is 17+48=65 units
which balance the total of 65 units received from the sun. This is termed the heat budget or heat balance
of the earth. This explains, why the earth neither warms up nor cools down despite the huge transfer
of heat that takes place.
Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the Earth’s Surface:

There are variations in the amount of radiation received at the earth’s surface. Some part of the earth
has surplus radiation balance while the other part has deficit.
 Latitudinal Variation: The figure shows that there is a surplus of net radiation balance between
40 degrees north and south and the regions near the poles have a deficit.
 The surplus heat energy from the tropics is redistributed pole wards and as a result the tropics do
not get progressively heated up due to the accumulation of excess heat or the high latitudes get
permanently frozen due to excess deficit.
******
CHAPTER-18
TEMPERATURE
The interaction of insolation with the atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates heat which is
measured in terms of temperature. While heat represents the molecular movement of particles
comprising a substance, the temperature is the measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing
(or a place) is.
Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution

The Latitude The Altitude
 Amount of insolation received by the  The atmosphere is indirectly heated by terrestrial
ground surface decreases poleward radiation from below. Therefore, the places near
from the equator i.e. from low latitudes the sea-level record higher temperature than the
towards high latitudes because the places situated at higher elevations.
sun’s rays become more and more  In other words, the temperature generally
oblique (slanting) poleward and hence decreases with increasing height.
air temperature also decreases  Normal Lapse Rate: The rate of decrease of
poleward. temperature with height is termed as the normal
lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m.
Example: Quito and Guayaquil are two cities of Ecuador (South America) situated near the
equator and relatively close to each other. Quito is at 2800 metres high from mean sea level while
Guayaquil is just at 12 metres altitude. However because of difference in altitude Quito experiences
annual mean temperature of 13.3°C while in Guayaquil it is 25.5°C.
Distance From The Sea Air-Mass And Ocean Currents
 Land heats up and cools down quickly.  The places, which come under the influence of warm
 Therefore, the variation in temperature airmasses experience higher temperature and the places
over the sea is less compared to land. that come under the influence of cold air-masses
experience low temperature.
 The places situated near the sea come under  Similarly, the places located on the coast where the warm
the moderating influence of the sea and land ocean currents flow record higher temperature than the
breezes which moderate the temperature. places located on the coast where the cold currents flow.
Winds Vegetation Cover
 Winds also affect temperature because  Soil devoid of vegetation cover receives heat more
they transport heat from one region to the rapidly than the soil under vegetation cover.
other, about which we have already studied  For example: Annual range of temperature in
under advection. equatorial regions is about 5°C while in hot deserts,
it is as high as 38°C.
Nature of the Soil Slope and Aspect
 Colour, texture and structure of soils  Angle of the slope and its direction control the receipt
modify temperature to a great degree. of insolation.
 Black, yellow and clayey soils absorb  Greater concentration of solar energy per unit area
more heat than sandy soils. along gentler slope raises the temperature while its
 Likewise heat radiates more rapidly from lesser concentration along steeper slopes lowers the
sandy soils than from black, yellow and temperature.
clayey soils.  Ex: The southern slopes of the Himalaya are warmer
om
 Hence temperature contrasts are than the northern ones. The northern slopes of the
relatively less in black soil areas than Himalaya for example, not facing the sun are exposed
those of sandy soils. to cold northernly winds are obviously colder
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Horizontal Distribution of Temperature:

The horizontal distribution of temperature over the globe can be studied easily from the maps of
January and July months, since the seasonal extremes of high and low temperature are most obvious
in both northern and southern hemispheres during these months.
Isotherms: The temperature distribution is generally shown on the map with the help of isotherms(
lines joining places having equal temperature).
In general the effect of the latitude on temperature is well pronounced on the map, as the isotherms
are generally parallel to the latitude.
Seasonal Temperature Distribution – January
The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of January

In Northern Hemisphere
• The western margins of continents are warmer than their eastern counterparts since the Westerlies
are able to carry high temperature (from the oceans) into the landmasses.
• The isotherms are closer on the eastern margins as temperature gradient is high because of the
less moderating effect of the oceans (westerlies flow from west to east).
• The isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean.
 For example, the presence of warm Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift make the Northern
Atlantic warmer and the isotherms show a poleward shift indicating that the currents are able
to carry high temperatures poleward.
• The isotherms deviate to the south over the continents (due to continentality) as the cold polar
winds are able to penetrate southwards into the interiors.
• Lowest temperatures are recorded over northern Siberia and Greenland.
In Southern Hemisphere
• The effect of the ocean is well pronounced in SH, and the isotherms exhibit a more regular
behaviour.
• The isotherms are more or less parallel to the latitudes, and the variation in temperature is gradual.
• The high-temperature belt runs in the southern hemisphere, somewhere along 30° S latitude
(subtropics are devoid of cloud cover due to anticyclonic circulation at the surface).
• The thermal equator lies to the south of geographical equator (because the Intertropical
Convergence Zone or ITCZ has shifted southwards with the apparent southward movement of
the sun).
SEASONAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION – JULY

• During July, it is summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the southern hemisphere.
• The isotherms generally run parallel to the latitudes.
• Thermal equator lies to the north of the geographical equator.
• The equatorial oceans record warmer temperature, more than 27 °C.
• Over the land more than 30 °C is noticed in the subtropical continental region of Asia, along
the 30° N latitude.
The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of July

• The highest annual range of temperature is more than 60°C over the Siberian region
(continentality).
• The least range of temperature, 3° C, is found between 20° S and 15° N.
• Over the northern continents, a poleward bend of the isotherms indicates that the landmasses
are over heated, and the hot tropical winds are able to go far into the northern interiors.
• The isotherms over the northern oceans show an equatorward shift indicating that the oceans
are cooler and are able to carry the moderating effect into tropical interiors.
• The lowest temperatures are experienced over Greenland.
• The highest temperature belt runs through northern Africa, West Asia, north-west India arid
south-eastern USA.
• The temperature gradient is irregular and follows a zig-zag path over the northern hemisphere.
Figure below shows the range of temperature between January and July.
The range of temperature between January and July

The highest range of temperature is more than 60° Cover the north-eastern part of Eurasian continent.
This is due to continentality. The least range of temperature, 3°C, is found between 20° S and 15° N.
Vertical Distribution of Temperature

The permanent snow on high mountains, even in the tropics, indicate the decrease of
temperature with altitude.
 Observations reveals that there is a fairly regular decrease in temperature with an increase
in altitude.
 The average rate of temperature decrease upward in the troposphere is about 60C per km,
extending to the tropopause.
 This vertical gradient of temperature is commonly referred to as the standard atmosphere
or normal lapse rate, but is varies with height, season, latitude and other factors.
INVERSION OF TEMPERATURE
Normally, temperature drops as elevation rises. It's known as the normal lapse rate. The normal lapse
rate can occasionally be flipped when the circumstances are reversed. It is referred to as a temperature
inversion.
Ideal Conditions for Temperature Inversion

 Long nights, so that the outgoing radiation is greater than the incoming radiation.
 Clear skies, which allow unobstructed escape of radiation.
 Calm and stable air, so that there is no vertical mixing at lower levels.
Types of Temperature Inversion

1. Temperature Inversion in Intermontane Valley (Air Drainage Type of Inversion)
 Sometimes, the temperature along a sloping surface increases instead of decreasing with
elevation.
 Here, the top part of the sloping surface radiates heat back to space rapidly and cools the
surrounding air making it denser.
 The cold air sinks towards the bottom along the slope and settles as a zone of low
temperature at the bottom while the upper layers are relatively warmer.
 This kind of temperature inversion is very strong in the middle and higher latitudes and
regions with high mountains or deep valleys
2. Ground Inversion (Surface Temperature Inversion)
 This type of inversion occurs when air in contact with a colder surface becomes cooler than
the overlying atmosphere. This occurs most often on clear nights when the ground cools
off rapidly by radiation.
 If the temperature of surface air drops below its dew point, fog may result. This kind of
temperature inversion is very common in the higher latitudes.
 In the lower and middle latitudes, this kind of inversion gets destroyed easily during daytime.
3. Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface Temperature Inversion)
 A subsidence inversion develops when a widespread
layer of air descends. As it descends, the ambient
atmospheric pressure increases and the layer is
compressed and heated.
 If the air mass sinks low enough, it forms a warm
intermediate layer which is at a higher
temperature compare to the layers below,
producing a temperature inversion.
 Subsidence inversions are common over areas
located under large high-pressure centres.
 Such conditions occur in the northern continents in winter and over the subtropical
oceans.
 This temperature inversion is also called upper surface temperature inversion because it
takes place in the upper parts of the atmosphere.
4. Frontal Inversion (Advectional type of Temperature
Inversion)
 A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass
undercuts a warm air mass and lifts it aloft.
 This kind of inversion has considerable slope,
whereas other inversions are nearly horizontal.
 Also, humidity may be high, and clouds may be
present immediately above it.
 This type of inversion is unstable and is destroyed as the weather changes.
Effects of Temperature Inversion

 Convection Is Inhibited: An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the
layers below.
 Convection is limited to levels below the inversion, and the rainfall is below normal.
 In regions where a pronounced low-level inversion is present, convective clouds cannot
grow high enough to produce rain.
 Pollution is Exacerbated: diffusion of dust, smoke, and other pollutants is limited due to
stable conditions.
 Visibility may be greatly reduced below the inversion due to the accumulation of dust and
smoke particles. Because air near the base of an inversion tends to be cool, fog is frequently
present there. Fog lowers visibility affecting vegetation and human settlements.
 Effect On Intermontane Valley Regions
 The temperature of the air at the valley
bottom can go below freezing whereas the
air at higher altitude remains comparatively
warm.
 The trees along the lower slopes are bitten by
frost, whereas those at higher levels are free from
it.
 Houses and farms in intermontane valleys are
usually situated along the upper slopes, avoiding
the cold and foggy valley bottoms.
 For instance, coffee growers of Brazil and apple
growers and hoteliers of mountain states of
Himalayas in India avoid lower slopes. Air pollutants such as dust particles and smoke do
not disperse in the valley bottoms.
******
CHAPTER-19
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEMS
Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variations in the
atmospheric pressure. The result is that it causes the movement of air from high pressure to low
pressure, setting the air in motion.
 Wind: Air in horizontal motion is wind.
 Atmospheric pressure also determines when the air will rise or sink.
 The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across the planet, thereby, maintaining a constant
temperature for the planet as a whole.
 The vertical rising of moist air cools it down to form the clouds and bring precipitation.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the
atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure.
General Information
 The atmospheric pressure is expressed in units of millibar. At sea level the average atmospheric
pressure is 1,013.2 millibar.
 Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser and hence has higher pressure.
 Air pressure is measured with the help of a mercury barometer or the aneroid barometer.
 The pressure decreases with height.
 At any elevation it varies from place to place and its variation is the primary cause of air
motion, i.e. wind which moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
Vertical Variation of Pressure

 In the lower atmosphere the pressure
decreases rapidly with height.
 The decrease amounts to about 1 mb for
each 10 m increase in elevation.
Note: It does not always decrease at the same
rate.
 Table gives the average pressure and
temperature at selected levels of elevation for a standard atmosphere.
Why do we not experience strong upward winds?

The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal pressure gradient.
But, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not
experience strong upward winds.
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure

 Horizontal distribution of pressure is
studied by drawing isobars at constant
levels.
 Isobars: Isobars are lines connecting
places having equal pressure.
 In order to eliminate the effect of altitude on
pressure, it is measured at any station after
being reduced to sea level for purposes of
comparison.
 The sea level pressure distribution is shown
on weather maps.
 Above figure shows the patterns of isobars
corresponding to pressure systems.
 Low pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in the
centre.
 High-pressure system is also enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure
in the centre.
PRESSURE BELTS
The horizontal distribution of air pressure across the latitudes is characterised by high or low pressure
belts (a theoretical model because pressure belts are not always found as such on the earth).
The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt:

 Extent: This belt extends from equator to 10N and 10S latitudes.
 The sun shines almost vertically on the equator throughout the year. As a result the air gets
warm and rises over the equatorial region and produce equatorial low pressure.
 ITCZ: These are the regions of convergence because the winds flowing from sub-tropical high
pressure belts converge here. This belt is also known as-Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ).
Doldrum
Due to excessive heating horizontal movement of air is absent here(10N and 10S latitudes of
Equator) and only conventional currents are there. Therefore this belt is called doldrums (the zone
of calm) due to virtual absence of surface winds.
The Sub-tropical High Pressure Belts:

 The sub-tropical high pressure belts extend from the tropics to about 35 latitudes in both the
Hemispheres.
 In the northern hemisphere it is called as the North sub-tropical high pressure belt and
in the southern hemisphere it is known as the South sub-tropical high pressure belt.
 The existence of these pressure belts is due to the fact that the uprising air of the equatorial
region is deflected towards poles due to the earth’s rotation.
 After becoming cold and heavy, it descends in these regions and get piled up. This results in
high pressure.
 Calm conditions with feeble and variable winds are found here.
Horse Latitude:
In older days vessels with cargo of horses passing through these belts found difficulty in
sailing under these calm conditions. They used to throw the horses in the sea in order to make
the vessels lighter. Henceforth these belts or latitudes are also called ‘horse latitudes’. These
are the regions of divergence because winds from these areas blow towards equatorial and
subpolar low pressure belts.
The Sub-polar low Pressure Belts

 The sub-polar low pressure belts extend between 45N and the Arctic Circle in the northern
hemisphere and between 45°S and the Antarctic Circle in the southern hemisphere.
 Polar Front: Winds coming from the sub-tropical and the polar high belts converge here to
produce cyclonic storms or low pressure conditions. This zone of convergence is also known
as polar front.
The Polar High Pressure Belts:

 Reason for High Pressure: In polar regions, sun never shines vertically (always slanting)
resulting in low temperatures. Because of low temperature, air compresses and its density
increases. Hence, high pressure is found here.
 In northern hemisphere the belt is called the North polar high pressure belt while it is known
as the South polar high pressure belt in the southern hemisphere. Winds from these belts
blow towards sub-polar low pressure belts.
Note: This system of pressure belts that we have just studied is a generalised picture. In reality,
the location of these pressure belts is not permanent. They shift northward in July and southward
in January, following the changing position of the sun’s direct rays as they migrate between the
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE

The variation of pressure from place to place and from season to season over the earth plays an
important role in affecting the weather and climate. Therefore we study pressure distribution through
isobar maps.
 While drawing isobar maps, the pressures of all places are reduced to sea level to avoid the
effect of altitude on air pressure.
January Conditions
 In January, with the south-ward apparent movement of the Sun, the equatorial low pressure belt
shifts a little south of the mean equatorial position.
 Areas of lowest pressure occurs in South America, Southern Africa and Australia. This is
because the land tends to get hotter rapidly than water.
om
 Sub-tropical high pressure cells are cantered over the ocean in the southern hemisphere.
The belt of high pressure is interrupted by the continental land masses where the temperature is
l.c
much higher. They are well developed in eastern part of the ocean where cold ocean currents
dominate.
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In Northern Hemisphere In Southern

Hemisphere
 In the northern hemisphere, ridges of high pressure occur in the  In the southern
sub-tropical latitudes over the continent. hemisphere, the sub-
 A well-developed high pressure cell occurs in the interior parts of polar low pressure belt
Eurasia. circles the earth as a
 This is due to the fact that land cools more rapidly than oceans. real belt of low
Its temperatures are lower in winter than the surrounding seas. pressure and is not
divided into cells,
 In northern hemisphere two cells of low pressure namely Iceland
because there is
low and Aleutian low develop over the North Atlantic and the
virtually no landmass.
North Pacific oceans respectively.
July Conditions
 In July, the equatorial low pressure belt shifts a little north of the mean equatorial position
because of the northward apparent movement of the Sun. All the pressure belts shift
northwards in July.
 The Aleutian and Icelandic lows disappear from the oceans while the landmasses, which
developed high pressure during winter months, have extensive low pressure cells now. In
Asia, a low pressure develops.
 The subtropical hights of the northern  In the southern hemisphere, the sub-tropical
hemisphere are more developed over high pressure belt is continuous.
the oceans - Pacific and Atlantic.  Sub-polar low forms a continuous belt in the
southern hemisphere while in northern
hemisphere, there is only a faint oceanic low.
WINDS:
Air attempts to balance the uneven distribution of
pressure. Hence, it moves from high pressure areas to
low pressure areas.
 Wind: Horizontal movement of air in response to
difference in pressure is termed as wind.
 Air Current: Vertical or nearly vertical moving
air is called air current.
Pressure Gradient and Winds

The greater the difference in air pressure between the two
points, the steeper is the pressure gradient and greater is the speed of the wind. The gentler the pressure
gradient slower is the speed of the wind.
Type of Winds
For ages man has observed that in some areas of the earth the winds blow predominantly from one
direction throughout the year; in other areas the wind direction changes with the season and in still
others the winds are so variable that no pattern is discernible.
Despite these difference, the winds are generalized under three categories:
Planetary/Primary/Prevailing Winds
 Direction/Orientation: Planetary or permanent winds blow from high pressure belts to low
pressure belts in the same direction throughout the year over vast area of continents and oceans.
The Easterlies/Trade Winds The Westerlies
 Direction: The winds that blow from sub-tropical  Direction: The winds that move
high pressure areas towards equatorial low poleward from the sub-tropical
pressure areas called trade or easterly winds. high pressure in the northern
 Because of the Coriolis effect the northern trade hemisphere are detected to the
winds move away from the subtropical high in north- right and thus blow from the south
east direction. west.
 In southern hemisphere the trade winds diverge out of  These in the southern
the sub-tropical high towards the equatorial low from hemisphere are deflected to the
the southeast direction. As the trade winds tend to left and blow from the north-
blow mainly from the east, they are also known as the west. Thus, these winds are called
Tropical easterlies. westerlies.
Polar Easterlies
 Direction of Flow: Polar easterlies blow from polar regions towards sub-polar low pressure
regions.
 Their direction in the northern hemisphere is from north-east to southwest and from south-east
to north-west in the southern hemisphere.
Periodic Winds
The direction of these winds changes with the change of seasons.
Monsoon Winds
The word ‘Monsoon’ has been derived from the Arabic word ‘Mausim’ meaning season.
 Meaning: The winds that reverse their direction with the change of seasons are called
monsoon winds.
 Flow Direction: During summer the monsoon winds blow from sea towards land and during
winter from land towards seas.
 The Asiatic monsoon is the result of interaction of both planetary wind system and regional
factors, both at the surface and in the upper troposphere.
 Effected Regions: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar(Burma), Sri Lanka, the Arabian
Sea, the Bay of Bengal, South-east Asia, North Australia, China and Japan are important
regions where monsoon winds are prevalent.
( This will be covered in more detail in subsequent articles.)
Local Winds
Local winds usually affect small areas and are confined to the lower levels of the troposphere.
Land and Sea Breezes
Land and sea breezes are prevalent on the narrow strips along the coasts or a lake. It is a diurnal
(daily) cycle, in which the differential heating of land and water produces low and high pressures.
 During the day when landmass gets heated more quickly than the adjoining sea or large lake;
air expands and rises. This process produces a local low pressure area on land.
 Sea breeze then develops, blowing from the water (high pressure) towards the land (low
pressure). The sea breeze begins to develop shortly before noon and generally reaches its
greatest intensity during mid-day to late afternoon. These cool winds have a significant
moderating influence in coastal area.
 At night, the land and the air above it cools more quickly than the nearby water body. As a
result, land has high pressure while the sea has comparatively a low pressure area. Gentle wind
begins to blow from land (high pressure) towards sea (low pressure). This is known as land
breeze.
The Mountain and Valley Breezes
Another combination of local winds that undergoes a daily reversal consists of the mountain and
valley breezes.
Valley Breeze: Mountain Breeze
 On a warm sunny day the mountain slopes are  After sunset, the rapid radiation takes
heated more than the valley floor. Hence, the place on the mountain slopes. Here, high
pressure is low over the slopes while it is pressure develops more rapidly than on
comparatively high in the valleys below. the valley floor.
 As a result gentle wind begins to blow from  Cold arid heavy air of mountain
valley towards slopes and it assumes the slopes starts moving down towards
name of valley breeze. the valley floor. This is known as the
mountain breeze .
Note: The valley and mountain breezes are also named as anabatic and katabatic breezes
respectively.
Hot Winds
Loo Chinook
 Loo are hot and dry winds, which blow very  Chinook is the name of hot and dry local wind
strongly over the northern plains of India and which moves down the eastern slopes of the
Pakistan in the months of May and June. Rockies in U.S.A. and Canada.
 Their direction is from west to east and they  The literal meaning of chinook is ‘snow eater’ as
are usually experienced in the afternoons. they help in melting the snow earlier. They keep
 Their temperature varies between 45°C to the grasslands clear of snow. Hence they are very
50°C. helpful to ranchers.
Cold Winds
Mistral
 Originate on the Alps and move over France towards the Mediterranean Sea through the Rhone
valley.
 They are very cold, dry and high velocity winds.
 They bring down temperature below freezing point in areas of their influence.
 People in these areas protect their orchards and gardens by growing thick hedges and build their
houses facing the Mediterranean sea.
Loo Hot Harmful Plains of northern India and Pakistan

Mistral Cold Harmful Rhine Valley-Southern France
Sirocco Hot Harmful Mediterranean Wind that comes from the
Sahara.
Fohn Hot Beneficial Leeward side of Alps
Chinook Hot Beneficial Leeward side of Rockies
Forces Affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind

The air in motion is called wind.
Pressure Gradient Force Frictional Force
 The rate of change of pressure with respect  It affects the speed of the wind.
to distance is the pressure gradient.  It is greatest at the surface and its influence
 The pressure gradient is strong where the generally extends up to an elevation of 1 -
isobars are close to each other and is weak 3 km.
where the isobars are apart.  Over the sea surface the friction is minimal.
Coriolis Force
 Coriolis Force: The rotation of the earth about its axis
affects the direction of the wind. This force is called the
Coriolis force after the French physicist who described it
in 1844.
 It deflects the wind to the right direction in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere.
 The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.
 The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude.
 It is maximum at the poles and is absent at the equator.
 It acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force.

 The pressure gradient force is perpendicular to an isobar.
The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the
velocity of the wind and the larger is the deflection in the
direction of wind.
 As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to
each other, in the low-pressure areas the wind blows around
it.
 At the equator, the Coriolis force is zero and the wind
blows perpendicular to the isobars.
 The low pressure gets filled instead of getting intensified.
That is the reason why tropical cyclones are not formed near the equator.
Pressure and Wind
 The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating forces.
 The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect
of the surface and are controlled mainly by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.
 Geostrophic Wind: When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the pressure
gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the
isobar. This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.
 The wind circulation around a low is called cyclonic circulation. Around a high it is called anti
cyclonic circulation.
 The direction of winds around such systems changes according to their location in different
hemispheres .
 Generally, over low pressure area the air will converge and rise. Over high pressure area the
air will subside from above and diverge at the surface.
 Apart from convergence, some eddies, convection currents, orographic uplift and uplift along
fronts cause the rising of air, which is essential for the formation of clouds and precipitation.
Pattern of Wind Direction in Cyclones and Anticyclones
GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is called the general circulation of the atmosphere.
 The pattern of planetary winds largely depends on: latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;
emergence of pressure belts; the migration of belts following apparent path of the sun; the
distribution of continents and oceans; the rotation of earth.
Hadley Cell
 Development of Low Pressure: The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises
because of convection caused by high insolation and a low pressure is created.
 The winds from the tropics converge at this low pressure zone.
 The converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the top of the troposphere
up to an altitude of 14 km. and moves towards the poles. This causes accumulation of air at
about 30 N and S.
 Sinking of Air: Part of the accumulated
air sinks to the ground and forms a
subtropical high.
 Another reason for sinking is the
cooling of air when it reaches 30 N
and S latitudes.
 Air Flow towards Equator: Down below
near the land surface the air flows towards
the equator as the easterlies.
 The easterlies from either side of the
equator converge in the Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
Such circulations from the surface upwards
and vice-versa are called cells and Such a cell
in the tropics is called Hadley Cell.
Ferrell Cells Polar Cells
 In the middle latitudes the circulation is  At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides
that of sinking cold air that comes from near the poles and blows towards middle
the poles and the rising warm air that latitudes as the polar easterlies. This cell is
blows from the subtropical high. At the called the polar cell.
surface these winds are called
westerlies and the cell is known as the
Ferrell cell.
*******
CHAPTER-20
JET STREAM
The strong and rapidly moving circumpolar upper westerly air circulation in a narrow belt of a few
hundred kilometres width in the upper limit of troposphere is called jet stream.
 The circulation of westerly jet stream is continued between poles and 20° latitudes in both the
hemispheres at the height of 7.5-14 km.
Types of Jet Streams

On the basis of locational aspect, jet streams are divided into 5 types:
Polar Front Jet Streams Subtropical Westerly Jet Streams
 Formed above the convergence zone (40-60  Move in the upper troposphere to the north of
latitudes) of the surface polar cold air mass and subtropical surface high pressure belt (at the
tropical warm air mass. poleward limit of the Hadley cell in both the
 The thermal gradient is steepened because of hemispheres) i.e. above 30°-35° latitudes.
convergence of two contrasting airmasses. These  Their circulation is from west to east in more
move in easterly direction but are irregular. regular manner than the polar front jet streams.
Tropical Easterly Jet Streams Polar Night Jet Streams
 Develop in the upper troposphere above  Also known as stratospheric subpolar jet streams,
surface easterly trade winds over India develop in winter season due to steep temperature gradient
and Africa during summer season due in the stratosphere around the poles at the height of 30 km.
to intense heating of Tibetan plateau  These jet streams become very strong westerly
and play important role in the circulation with high wind velocity during winters but
mechanism of the Indian monsoon. their velocity decreases during summer and the direction
becomes easterly.
Local Jet Stream
 Formed locally due to local thermal and dynamic conditions and have limited local importance.
The Somali Jet The Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly Jet
• The Somali Jet is a south-westerly jet occurs during • The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature of the
the summer over northern Madagascar and off the northern hemispheric summer over southern Asia
coast of Somalia. and northern Africa.
• The jet is most intense from June to August. • The TEJ is found near between 5° and 20°N.
• The jet remains relatively steady from June to • It is fairly persistent in its position, direction, and
September before moving southward to the southern intensity from June through the beginning of October.
Indian Ocean during the winter. • During the South Asian summer monsoon, the TEJ
induces secondary circulations that enhance
convection over South India and nearby ocean.
INDEX CYCLES OF JET STREAMS:
 Genesis: The genesis of jet streams is related to temperature gradient from equator towards
the poles, surface high pressure at the poles and genesis of circumpolar whirl above the poles
caused by tropospheric low pressure.
 It may be pointed out that surface high pressure is intensified over the surface of arctic region
due to subsidence of cooled heavy air during winter season in the northern hemisphere. On the
other hand, upper air low pressure develops in the upper troposphere above the high pressure
of ground surface of the arctic region.
 Due to this phenomenon a cyclonic system (west to east ) of air circulation in the form of
a whirl develops around upper tropospheric low pressure . The general direction of this
circulation is from west to east . The equator ward meandering part of this upper air
circulation is called jet stream.
 Rossby Waves: The upper air arctic whirl becomes very strong during winter season in the
northern hemisphere resulting into maximum southward extension of jet stream up to 20 degree
North latitude. There are changes in the position of extent of jet stream from the poles towards
the equator. The wavy ( meandering ) jet stream is called Rossby waves.
Significance of Jet Streams:

1. Influence of Jet Streams on Weather
• Jet streams help in maintenance of latitudinal heat balance by mass exchange of air.
• Sub-tropical jet stream and some temporary jet streams together influence Indian Monsoon
patterns.
• Jet streams also exercise an influence on movement of air masses which may cause
prolonged drought or flood conditions.
2. Jet Streams and Weather in Temperate Regions
• Polar Front Jet play a key role in determining the weather because they usually separate
colder air and warmer air.
• Jet streams generally push air masses around, moving weather systems to new areas and
even causing them to stall if they have moved too far away.
• PFJ play a major role in determining the path and intensity of frontal precipitation and
frontal cyclones.
• Weak PFJ also results in slipping of polar vortex into temperate regions.
3. Jet Steams and Aviation
 Jet streams are used by aviators if they have to fly in the direction of the flow of the jet
streams and avoid them when flying in opposite direction.
 Jet streams can also cause a bumpy flight because the jet stream is sometimes unpredictable
and can cause sudden movement, even when the weather looks calm and clear.
 During volcanic eruptions plumes of volcanic ash tend to get sucked into the same jet
stream that aeroplanes use for travel.
POLAR VORTEX:
CHAPTER-21
AIR MASSES
The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an airmass. It is
defined as a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture.
 Source Regions: The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source
regions. The air masses are classified according to the source regions.
 There are five major source regions. These are: (i) Warm tropical and subtropical oceans; (ii)
The subtropical hot deserts; (iii) The relatively cold high latitude oceans; (iv) The very cold
snow covered continents in high latitudes; (v) Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic
and Antarctica.
 Accordingly, following types of air-masses are recognised:
 Maritime tropical (mT); Continental tropical (cT); Maritime polar (mP); Continental polar
(cP); Continental arctic (cA).
FRONTS
When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone
between them is called a front.
 Frontogenesis: The process of formation of the
fronts is known as frontogenesis.
There are four types of fronts:

 Stationary Front: When the front remains
stationary, it is called a stationary front.
 Weather along a stationary front:
Cumulonimbus clouds are formed.
Overrunning (uplifted air) of warm air along
such a front causes frontal precipitation.
Frontal cyclones migrating along a stationary
front can dump heavy amounts of
precipitation, resulting in significant flooding
along the front.
 Cold/Warm Front: When the cold air moves
towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is
called the cold front, whereas if the warm air mass
moves towards the cold air mass, the contact zone
is a warm front.
 Weather Associated With Cold Front: A cold front is associated with bad weather
characterized by thick clouds, heavy downpour with thunderstorms, lightning etc.
Sometimes cold frontal precipitation is also associated with snowfall and Hailstorms.
 Weather along a warm front: As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses and
causes precipitation but, unlike a cold front, the temperature and wind direction changes
are gradual. Such fronts cause moderate to gentle precipitation over a large area, over
several hours. The passage of warm front is marked by rise in temperature and pressure.
o Clouds along a warm front: With the approach, the hierarchy of clouds is-cirrus,
stratus and nimbus (no cumulonimbus clouds as the gradient is gentle). Cirrostratus
clouds ahead of the warm front create a halo around sun and moon.
 Occluded Front: If an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface, it is called the occluded
front.
 Weather along an occluded front: Weather along an occluded front is complex -a
mixture of cold front type and warm front type weather. Such fronts are common in western
Europe. The formation mid-latitude cyclones involve the formation of occluded front.
 Clouds along an occluded front: A combination of clouds formed at cold front and warm
front. Warm front clouds and cold front clouds are on opposite side of the occlusion.
Note: The fronts occur in middle latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient in temperature
and pressure. They bring abrupt changes in temperature and cause the air to rise to form clouds
and cause precipitation.
*******
CHAPTER-22
CYCLONES
Cyclones are centres of low pressure surrounded by closed isobars having increasing pressure outward
and closed air circulation from outside towards the central low pressure in such a way that air blows
inward in anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPERATE CYCLONES:

The systems developing in the mid and high latitude,
beyond the tropics are called the middle latitude or
extra tropical cyclones.
THEORY:
Polar Front Theory
According to this theory, the warm-humid air
masses from the tropics meet the dry-cold air
masses from the poles and thus a polar front is
formed as a surface of discontinuity.
 Such conditions occur over sub-tropical high,
sub-polar low-pressure belts and along the
tropopause.
Life Cycle of Cyclone

The period of a cyclone from its inception (cyclogenesis) to its termination (frontolysis or
occlusion) is called the ‘life cycle of cyclone’ which is completed through six successive stages:
Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate Cyclones

• The temperate cyclones occur mostly in winter, late autumn and spring.
• They are generally associated with rainstorms and cloudy weather.
• During summer: All the paths of temperate cyclones shift northwards, and there are only
few temperate cyclones over sub-tropics and the warm temperate zone, although a high
concentration of storms occurs over Bering Strait, USA and Russian Arctic and sub-
Arctic zone.
Source Regions and Tracks of Movement

 Latitudinal Distribution: The areas frequented by temperate cyclones mostly lie in the
middle and high latitudes extending between 35°-65° latitudes in both the hemispheres.
 Track: These cyclones move, on an average, in easterly direction but since their tracks are
highly variable and hence cyclonic tracks are always considered in zonal pattern rather than
in linear pattern.
The following are the most favourable breeding areas of temperate cyclones:
 Cyclones after originating in the
north Pacific off the north-east
and eastern coasts of Asia: Move
in easterly and north-easterly
direction towards the Gulf of Alaska
and ultimately merge with Aleutian
Lows from where they follow
southerly direction and reach as far
south as southern California. The
cyclones moving inland dissipate
and are occluded at the windward
western slopes of the Rocky
mountains.
 North America: There are four
principal areas of frontogenesis in
North America e.g. (a) area east of
Sierra Nevada Range, (b) eastern
Colorado, where temperate cyclones are called Colorado Lows, (c) area east of Canadian Rocky
mountains, where cyclones are known as Alberta Lows, and (d) Great Lakes region.
 The cyclones originating in the Gulf of Mexico: Follow northerly trajectory to the east of the
Appalachians and following the course of the Gulf Stream merge with the Icelandic Zone of
frontogenesis.
 North-West North Atlantic off the north-east coast of North America: The cyclones originating in
this area move in easterly direction and enter the north western parts of Europe.
 Cyclones originating in the area between Iceland and Barents Sea: Follow easterly trajectory and
affect the weather conditions of north Europe.
 Continental Europe: There are two main zones of frontogenesis in continental Europe e.g. (a) Baltic
Sea and (b) Mediterranean Sea.
Note:
 Some of the cyclones originating over the Mediterranean Sea after following easterly direction reach
Pakistan and north India in winter season where, most of the winter precipitation is received through
these storms.
 Majority of the cyclones of Mediterranean origin move north-eastward and reach Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS, some Republics of former USSR).
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones:

Orientation and Movement
 Role of Jet Stream: Polar jet stream plays a major role in the formation and hence influences
the path of temperate cyclones.
 Orientation: Since these cyclones move with the westerlies, they are oriented east-west.
 If the storm front is east-west, the centre moves swiftly eastwards.
 If the storm front is directed northwards: The centre moves towards the north, but after
two or three days, the pressure difference declines and the cyclone dissipate.
 In case the storm front is directed southwards: The centre moves quite deep southwards-
even up to the Mediterranean region (sometimes causing the Mediterranean cyclones or
Western Disturbances-they are very important as they bring rains to North-West India –
Punjab, Haryana).
Size and Shape Wind Velocity and Strength

• Shape: The temperate cyclones are • The wind strength is more in eastern and southern
asymmetrical and shaped like an portions over North America compared to Europe.
inverted ‘V’. • The wind velocity increases with the approach but
• Extent: They stretch over 500 to decreases after the cyclone has passed.
600 km and may spread over 2500
km over North America.
• Height: They have a height of 8 to
11 km.
Structure
 The north-western sector is the cold sector and the north-eastern sector is the warm sector
(Because cold air masses in north and warm air masses in south push against each other and
rotate anti-clockwise in northern hemisphere).
Associated Weather
• Arrival of Cyclone:
 When the cyclone coming from
the western direction draws
nearer to the observation point,
wind velocity slows down
considerably, air pressure
decreases and the sun and the
moon are encircled by halo which
is in fact the reflection of thin
veneers of cirrus and cirrostratus
clouds in the west.
 Temperature suddenly increases
when the cyclone comes very
close to the observation point,
wind direction Changes from
easterly to south-easterly, the
cloud cover thickens and the sky
becomes overcast with dark, thick and low clouds, mainly nimbostratus clouds.
• Warm Frontal Precipitation:

 Clouds become very thick and dark
with the arrival of warm front of the
cyclone and heavy shower begins
with nimbostratus clouds. Since the
warm air rises slowly along the
front, and hence the precipitation is
slow, gradual but of long duration.
 The region of warm front
precipitation is characterized by
foggy weather and poor visibility.
 Sometimes, the warm air ascends
over cold air suddenly, and
becomes unstable and yields heavy
precipitation through strong
convection.
 ‘In winter, ice pellets or freezing rain may occur when rain falls from the warm air
through the cold mass below.
 The succession of weather can include snow, ice pellets, and then rain as the front
approaches, clouds lower, and temperature rises’.
 Warm Sector:
 The warm sector comes over the observation point after the passage of warm front, and
there is sudden change in the pre-existing weather condition.
 The wind direction becomes southerly and south-westerly. The sky become cloudless
and clear. There is sudden rise in temperature and increase in the specific humidity of
the air but air pressure decreases remarkably.
 Though weather becomes clear but the
moist and warm air becomes
conditionally unstable which may
produce occasional convective showers
or drizzles through strato-cumulus
clouds. In all, the weaker is clear and
pleasant.
 Cold front:
 Temperature registers marked decrease
with the arrival of cold front. Cold
increases considerably.
 The cold air pushes the warm air upward
and there is change in wind direction from
southerly to south-westerly and westerly. Sky is again covered with clouds which soon
start precipitation.
 Cold Frontal Precipitation:

 Sky becomes overcast with cumulonimbus clouds which yield heavy showers.
 Since the warm air is forcibly lifted upward hurriedly, the cold frontal precipitation is
in the form of heavy downpour with cloud thunder and lightning but the precipitation
is of short duration and less widespread because the cold sector is very close.
 Cold Sector:
 Weather again changes remarkably with the passage of cold front and arrival of cold
sector. Sky becomes cloudless and hence clear.
 There is sharp fall in air temperature and considerable rise in air pressure but decrease
in specific humidity.
 Wind direction changes from 45° to 180° and thus it becomes true westerly.
 After the occlusion of cyclone the weather conditions of pre-cyclone period again set
in.
 Occluded Fronts:
 Occlusion of cyclonic front is defined as overtaking of warm front by cold front.
 The cold front occlusion: is characterized by weather of cold front.
 The lifting of conditionally unstable warm air produces convective thunderstorms and
resultant heavy precipitation.
 But after the passage of cold front occlusion, calm weather prevails.
 The weather of warm front occlusion: is more or less similar to warm frontal weather.
The extra tropical cyclone differs from the tropical cyclone in number of ways.
Basis Extra Tropical Cyclone Tropical Cyclone
Frontal The extra tropical cyclones have a Clear Frontal system are not present in
System clear frontal system. the tropical cyclones.
Extent They cover a larger area and can Originate only over the seas and on
originate over the land and sea. reaching the land they dissipate.
Affected The extra tropical cyclone affects a Affects less areas compared to the
Area much larger area. tropical cyclone.
Wind The wind velocity in a tropical significantly slower speed and less
Velocity cyclone is much higher and it is more damaging
destructive.
Movement The extra tropical cyclones move Tropical cyclones, move from east to
from west to east. west
TROPICAL CYCLONES
Tropical cyclone, representing a closed low pressure system generally having a diameter of about 650
kilometres, counter clockwise and clockwise air circulation in the northern and southern hemispheres
respectively, energy power equivalent to more than 10,000 atomic bombs which were hurled at
Nagasaki in Japan during World War II, is one of the most powerful, destructive, dangerous and deadly
atmospheric storms on the planet earth..
Origin of Tropical Cyclones

Frontal Theory: According to the advocates of frontal theory all types of cyclones originate because
of frontogenesis.
 In spite of the absence of two contrasting air masses in the equatorial region fronts are formed
due to meeting of land and sea winds.
 Initially, different fronts are formed but later they disappear. This frontal concept of the origin
of tropical cyclone is no longer acceptable because tropical cyclones in no case are related to
fronts.
 In fact, tropical cyclone is like a heat engine which is energised by the latent heat of
condensation. On an average, tropical cyclones are formed due to the development of low
pressure of thermal origin.
 They develop when the following requirements are fulfilled:
 Continuous supply of warm and moist air,
 Suitable source of sensible and latent heat (of
condensation),
 Vertical air motion and convergence of air,
 Powerful trigger mechanism in the form of
intruding low pressure system at high altitude,
 Warm water surface of the oceans (having at
least 27°C temperature) up to the depth of 60-
70 meters,
 Presence of pre-existing disturbances at lower
altitude to be intensified and transformed into
fully developed tropical cyclones,
 Higher values of Coriolis force,
 Divergent circulation in upper troposphere,
 Existence of small atmospheric vortices in the
intertropical convergence zone,
 Weak vertical wind shear etc
Structure of Tropical Cyclones

The horizontal structure of the tropical cyclones comprises 6 more or less circular belts though there
are no clear cut dividing boundaries between them as all the six belts are continuous and parts of the
cyclones.
Eye Eye Wall
 Represents the central and core area of the tropical  Eye wall is a narrow band of high
cyclone which is characterized by minimum wind wind speed and surrounds the eye of
speed, highest temperature and lowest pressure, the cyclone.
highest relative humidity, almost clear sky and  The eye wall is in fact a ring of
hence clear weather etc. cumulonimbus clouds around the eye
(center) of the cyclone.
 The belt is characterized by highest
wind speed, intense thunderstorms,
violent vertical motions, heaviest
rainfall through explosive
cumulonimbus clouds of
thunderstorms etc.
 The average width of eye wall belt
ranges between 10-20 kilometers.
Spiral Band Annular Belt
 Spiral bands surrounding the eye and eye wall of the  Annular belt surrounds spiral bands.
cyclone are also called rain bands or feeder bands  Characterized by low relative
because they are associated with dense humidity, weak cloudiness, little
cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorms which rainfall because of sinking of air
yield heavy rainfall. from above.
 In fact, the zone outside eyewall consists of two
spiral bands which are 50 to 80 kilometers apart.
Outer Convective Belt Peripheral Belt
 Outer convective belt surrounding annular belt is  Peripheral belt representing the
characterized by intense convective activity due to outer-most limit of the tropical
instability which is caused by the convergence of cyclone is characterized by
out flow of sinking air from above and main inflow suppressed cloudiness (i.e. scanty
of air towards the center of the cyclone, and hence clouds), weak convective activity,
increased cloudiness and rainfall. and hence low rainfall.
Vertically the tropical cyclones comprise three zones from the ground surface upward,
namely:
Inflow Layer Middle Layer
 The inflow layer represents the lowest zone which  The middle layer stretches from
extends up to 3 kilometres upward from the ground 3 kilometers (the upper limit of the
surface. lowest inflow layer) to 6-7
kilometers up in the atmosphere.
 This zone is characterized by air motion towards the  Characterized by main cyclonic
center, evaporation of water from warm ocean circulation which is more or less
surfaces, condensation of atmospheric moisture, circular.
development of convective activity, formation of
cloud, release of latent heat of condensation which
provides energy to the storms etc.
Upper Outflow Layer
 The upper air out flow layer extends from the upper limit of the middle layer (6-7 km) to the
tropopause.
 Characterized by divergent air circulation (anti-cyclonic circulation) and tropospheric westerly
winds (anti-trades).
Weather Conditions Associated With Tropical Cyclones:

 The First Appearance At A Location: Heralded by sudden increase in air temperature and
wind velocity, marked decrease in air pressure, appearance of cirrus or cirrostratus clouds in the
sky, and emergence of high waves in the oceans.
 Clouds: The clouds are thickened and become cumulonimbus which yield heavy rains. The
clouds are also associated with thunder and lightning.
 Rainfall: On an average, a single storm yields 100 to 250 mm of rainfall but if obstructed
by relief barrier it may give as heavy rains as 750 to 1000 mm.
 The visibility: Visibility becomes zero because the sky is overcast with thick and dark
thunder clouds. Such destructive conditions persist for a few hours only.
 The Arrival Of The Centre Or The Eye: is characterized by calm breezes, clear sky, rainless
fine and settled weather, and low pressure at the centre. Such weather conditions do not persist
for more than half an hour.
 Arrival of Rear Portion: The weather suddenly changes with the arrival of the rear portion of the
cyclone as the sky again becomes overcast, wind direction changes, and pressure sharply goes up.
 There is heavy downpour with cloud thunder and lightning and storm becomes very severe
and furious. This situation persists for several hours.
 Condition After Final Pass: Slowly and slowly the ferocity of cyclone starts declining and the
weather becomes calm. The sea surface also becomes calm and clear weather sets in.
Distribution of Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones mostly develop over the ocean surface between 5°-20° latitudes in both the
hemispheres and influence the weather of coastal areas of the continents.
There are 6 major regions of tropical cyclones e.g.
 West Indies, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea,
 Western North Pacific Ocean including Philippines Islands, China Sea, and Japanese Islands,
 Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal,
 South Indian Ocean coastal regions off Madagascar,
 Western South Pacific Ocean, in the region of Samoa and Fiji Island and
 The east and north coasts of Australia.
Tracks of Tropical Cyclones
 First Move Westward: The tropical cyclones after their formation over warm water surfaces
of the tropical oceans move westward in general between a zone of 5°- 20° latitudes in both the
hemispheres under the influence of easterly trade winds.
 Curved Poleward After Landing: After reaching the western margins of the oceans and
striking the continental coastal lands they curve north-westward and poleward.
 The equatorial warm ocean currents also help in the westward movement of tropical
cyclones.
 After Reaching 20°-30° Latitudes: The tropical cyclones, if not exhausted and finished, move
eastward under the influence of westerly winds.
 It may be mentioned that when the tropical storms strike the coast land, they start losing
energy and dissipation as the source of required energy of latent heat of condensation, which
is over the warm water surface of the tropical oceans, is cut off.
Note: Sometimes the tropical cyclones become stationary at a particular place for most part Of
their life cycle.
Regional Names For Tropical Cyclones:

Regions Names
Indian Oceans Cyclones
Atlantic Hurricanes
Western Pacific and South China Sea Typhoons
Western Australia Willy-Willies
Damage Associated With Tropical Cyclones

Floods Wind
 Precipitation of about 50 cm/day is  The strong wind speed associated with a cyclonic
quite common within a cyclonic storm (60-90 kmph) can result into some damage to
storm. kutcha houses and tree branches likely to break off.
 As little as a trace of rainfall to as  Winds of a severe Cyclonic storm (90-120 kmph)
much as 250 cms have been recorded can cause uprooting of trees, damage to pucca
during cyclonic storms. houses and disruption of communications.
 The intensity of rainfall is about 85  Example: The maximum wind speed associated
cms/day within a radius of 50 km with a very severe Cyclonic storm that hit Indian
and about 35 cms/day between 50 to coast in the past 100 years was 260 kmph in Oct
100 km from the centre of the storm. 1999 (Paradeep Super cyclone).
Storm Surge Storm Tide
 Storm Surge is an abnormal rise of sea level  The storm tide is the combination of storm
as the cyclone makes landfall. surge and the astronomical tide.
 Seawater inundates the coastal strip causing  Storm surge is accentuated if the landfall
loss of life, large scale destruction to time coincides with that of high tides
property & crop
Positive Effects of Tropical Cyclones

Rainfall Break up Red Tide
 Tropical cyclones bring rainfall to rain  Red tide is a phenomenon which involves
shadow and other parched regions. discolouration of coastal waters caused by
algal blooms.
 Example: Rain shadow regions of Western  As tropical cyclones move across the ocean,
Ghats and semi-arid regions in south India winds and waves mix and break up patches
(Telangana, Rayalaseema, Hyderabad- of bacteria and can bring an earlier end to the
Karnataka, Vidarbha) sometimes receive red tide.
copious rain during the cyclone season
Replenish Barrier Islands Speed dispersal to faraway locations
 Tropical cyclones have the power to pick up  Tropical cyclone wind blow spores and seeds
substantial amounts of sand, nutrients and further inland from where they would
sediment on the ocean’s bottom and bring it normally fall; this effect can be seen a
towards barrier islands. thousand miles inland as storms move away
 Storm surge, wind and waves will often move from the shoreline.
these islands closer to the mainland as sand is  These seeds can replenish lost growth after
pushed or pulled in that direction. fires and urbanisation.
The average annual frequency of tropical cyclones in the north Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal and
Arabian Sea) is about 5 (about 5-6 % of the global annual average), and about 80 cyclones form around
the globe in a year. (Most of them occur in Western Pacific and Western Atlantic)
 The frequency is more in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea, the ratio being 4:1.
Why do cyclones over the Arabian Sea form less frequently than over the Bay of Bengal?
 Extra Low-Level Disturbances In Bay Of Bengal
 In-situ cyclones over the southeast of the Bay of Bengal or leftovers of typhoons over the Northwest Pacific
moving across the South China Sea to the Indian Seas are the two types of cyclones that form over the Bay
of Bengal.
 As the frequency of typhoons over Northwest Pacific is quite high (about 35% of the global annual average),
the Bay of Bengal also gets its increased quota.
 The cyclones over the Arabian Sea either originate in-situ over southeast Arabian Sea or remnants of cyclones
from the Bay of Bengal that move across south peninsula.
 As the majority of Cyclones over the Bay of Bengal weaken over land after landfall, the frequency of
migration into Arabian Sea is low.
 The Surface Temperature Of Bay Of Bengal Is Higher
 Surface temperature in the Bay of Bengal is usually between 22 °C and 31 °C. It is cooler by 1-2 °C in the
Arabian Sea because of the monsoon winds.
 Arabian Sea Surface Has Higher Salinity
 Salinity near the surface in the Arabian Sea is much higher than in the Bay of Bengal because evaporation over the
Arabian Sea is much greater than precipitation and river runoff (it loses more freshwater than it receives).
 Salinity near the surface in the northern Bay of Bengal can be as low as 31 ppt because the bay receives lots
of freshwater from the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Godavari, and others.
NAMING OF CYCLONES:
WMO (World meteorological organisation) divided the world Oceans into Basins and assigned the
responsibility of naming the Cyclones to the respective regional bodies.
 Each regional body has its own rules in naming cyclones.
 In most regions, pre-determined alphabetic lists of alternating male and female names are used.
Reasons for Naming:

 Since the storms can often last a week or even longer and more than one cyclone can be
occurring in the same region at the same time, names can reduce the confusion about what
storm is being described.
 Naming them after a person/flower/animal etc. makes it easier for quick information exchange.
Northern Indian Ocean Region:

 The names of cyclones in Indian Seas are not allocated in alphabetical order but are arranged
by the name of the country which contributed the name.
 It is usual practice for a storm to be named when it reaches tropical storm strength (63 kmph).
 The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) which issues cyclone advisories to eight
countries has a list of names contributed by each of them.
 Every time a cyclone occurs, a name is picked in the order of the names that are already
submitted.
 Each country gets a chance to name a cyclone. After all the countries get their turn, the next
list of names is followed.
Warning of Tropical Cyclones

Detection of any unusual phenomena in the weather leading to cyclones has three main parameters:
fall in pressure, increase in wind velocity, and the direction and movement (track) of storm.
• Use of Aircrafts: Monitoring is also done by aircraft which carry a number of instruments
including a weather radar.
• Satellite: Cyclone monitoring by satellites is done through very high-resolution radiometers
to obtain an image of the cloud cover and its structure.
IMD WARNING SYSTEM FOR TROPICAL CYCLONES:

IMD and Cyclone Disaster Management in 1999 introduced a 4-Stage warning system to issue cyclone
warnings to the disaster managers.
Pre-Cyclone Watch Cyclone Alert (Colour code Yellow)
 Issued when a depression forms over the Bay of  Issued at least 48 hours before the
Bengal irrespective of its distance from the coast. commencement of the bad weather when the
 The pre-cyclone watch is issued at least 72 hours in cyclone is located beyond 500 Km from the
advance of the commencement of adverse weather. coast.
 It is issued at least once a day.  It is issued every three hours.
Cyclone Warning (Colour code Orange) Post-landfall outlook (Colour code Red)
 Issued at least 24 hours before the commencement  It issued 12 hours before the cyclone landfall
of the bad weather when the cyclone is located when the cyclone is located within 200 km
within 500 Km from the coast. from the coast.
 Information about time/place of landfall are  More accurate information about time/place of
indicated in the bulletin. landfall and associated bad weather are
 Accuracy in estimation increases as the cyclone indicated in the bulletin.
comes closer to the coast.
Why Are There No Tropical Cyclones At The Equator?

 The low pressure close to the equator gets filled instead of getting intensified, i.e., there is no
spiralling of air due to zero Coriolis effect. The winds directly get uplifted vertically to form
thunderstorms.
******
CHAPTER-23
THUNDERSTORMS AND TORNADOES
Other than Cyclones severe local storms are thunderstorms and tornadoes that are of short duration,
occurring over a small area but are violent.
THUNDERSTORMS:
Stages of Formation:
Stage 1: Cumulus stage
 Ground is significantly heated due to solar
insolation.
 A low pressure starts to establish due to intense
upliftment of an air parcel (convention).
 Air from the surroundings start to rush in to fill the
low pressure.
 Intense convection of moist hot air builds up a
towering cumulonimbus cloud.
Stage 2: Mature stage
 Condensation releases latent heat of condensation making the air warmer.
 It becomes much lighter and is further uplifted.
 Intense updraft of rising warm air causes the cloud to grow bigger and rise to greater height.
 The space is filled by fresh moisture-laden air.
 Condensation occurs in this air, and the cycle is repeated as long as the moisture is supplied.
Later, downdraft brings down to earth the cool air and rain.
 The incoming of thunderstorm is indicated by violent gust of wind. This wind is due to the
intense downdraft.
Motion of a thunderstorm
 Path of a thunderstorm is erratic.
 Motion is primarily due to interactions of its updrafts and downdrafts.
 The speed of isolated storms is typically about 20 km (12 miles) per hour, but some storms
move much faster.
 In extreme circumstances, a supercell storm may move 65 to 80 km (about 40 to 50 miles) per
hour.
Downbursts
• Downdrafts are referred to as macro bursts or microbursts.

• Macro burst is more than 4 km in diameter and can produce winds as high as 60 metres per
second, or 215 km per hour.
• A microburst is smaller in dimension but produces winds as high as 75 metres per second, or
270 km per hour
• They are seriously hazardous to aircraft, especially during take-offs and landings.
Stage 3: Dissipating stage
• When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are formed, and
they come down as hailstorm. Intense precipitation occurs.
• In a matter of few minutes, the storm dissipates, and clear weather starts to prevail.
Types of Thunderstorms
Thermal Thunderstorm Orographic Thunderstorm

 Caused due to intense heating of ground during  Forceful upliftment of warm moist air parcel
summer (cumulonimbus cloud and convectional when it passes over a mountain barrier
rain). creates cumulonimbus cloud causing heavy
precipitation on the windward side.
Frontal Thunderstorm  Example: Orographic cloudbursts are
 Thunderstorms occurring along cold fronts. Single- common in Jammu and Kashmir,
cell thunderstorm Cherrapunji and Mawsynram
Isolated Thunderstorm A Multi-Cell Thunderstorm
• Single-cell thunderstorms are small, brief, weak • A multi-cell storm is a thunderstorm in
storms that grow and die within an hour or so. They which new updrafts form along the leading
are typically driven by heating on a summer edge of rain-cooled air (the gust front).
afternoon. • Individual cells usually last 30 to 60
• Single-cell storms may produce brief heavy rain and minutes, while the system as a whole may
lightning. last for many hours.
• They are very common in India during summers, • Multicell storms may produce hail, strong
mostly April, May. winds, brief tornadoes, and flooding.
• Example: In Kerala, they are called Mango Showers
and in Karnataka Blossom showers.
A Supercell Thunderstorm Mesocyclone
• A supercell is a long-lived (greater than 1 hour) and • A mesocyclone is a rotating vortex of air
highly organised storm feeding off an updraft (a within a supercell thunderstorm.
rising current of air) that is tilted and rotating. • Mesocyclones sometimes produce
• Most large and violent tornadoes come from tornadoes.
supercells.
Thunderstorms and Weather

Rainfall Hailstorm
• Rainfall in thunderstorms, unlike • Hail is not associated with every thunderstorm!
tropical cyclones, is in the form of Not only this, hail is confined to only certain
heavy downpour with greatest intensity cells of a thunderstorm.
of all other forms of precipitation but is • Hails fall down on the ground surface when the
of short duration. rising convection currents become weak and
feeble.
Lightning Thundering
• Electrical discharge centres are • Sound is produced due to sudden and rapid
developed in a mature thunderstorm. expansion of air columns caused by intense heat
• The centres of positive and negative (10,000°C) resulting from lightning strokes.
electrical charges develop in the upper • This deafening noise produced by vibrating
and lower portions of the clouds pressure wave due to rapid expansion of air
respectively with discharge values column as mentioned above is called cloud
ranging between 20 to 30 coulombs. thunder.
• Lightning is produced when the
electrical potential gradient between
the electrical positive and negative
charges becomes very steep.
om
Squall
• The downward movement and divergence of cold air at the ground surface is called squall.
l.c
• The velocity of squalls is equal to and some times greater than hurricane velocity and hence
ai
they inflict great damage to human structures and vegetation.

• Squall is produced after the thunderstorm becomes mature and heavy precipitation occurs.
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TORNADO
From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling wind descends like a trunk of an elephant with great
force, with very low pressure at the centre, causing massive destruction on its way. Such a
phenomenon is called a tornado.
Formation
Waterspout
• Waterspout is an intense columnar vortex (usually appearing as a funnel-shaped cloud) that occurs
over a body of water.
Distribution of Tornadoes
• The temperate and tropical regions are the most prone to thunderstorms and tornadoes.
• Tornadoes have been reported on all continents except Antarctica.
• United States has the most violent tornadoes.
• Canada reports the second largest number of tornadoes.
• In the Indian sub-continent, Bangladesh is the most prone country to tornadoes.
• They are connected to a towering cumulonimbus cloud.
• They are weaker than most of its land counterparts, i.e. tornadoes.
• Most waterspouts do not suck up water; they are small and weak rotating columns of air over
water.
LIGHTNING AND THUNDER

Thunder is the sound caused by the discharge of atmospheric electrical charge (plasma-ionised gas
medium-30,000°C) by lightning.
The resulting
Water vapour The ice crystals This leads to a
collisions trigger the
condenses into small continue to move up system where
release of electrons,
ice crystals when it until they gather smaller ice crystals
in a process very
moves upward in the enough mass that move up while
similar to the
cumulonimbus can overcomes the bigger crystals come
generation of electric
cloud. buoyant force. down.
sparks.
The process results

in a situation in
The electrical In little time, a huge
which the top layer It produces heat,
potential difference current, of the order
of the cloud gets leading to the
between the top and of 105 to 106
positively charged heating of the air
the bottom layers is amperes, starts to
(cations) while the column between the
huge, of the order of flow between the
middle and bottom two layers of cloud.
109 or 1010 volts. layers.
layers are negatively
(anions) charged.
The heated air

It is because of this
column expands and
heat that the air
produces shock
column looks red
waves that result in
during lightning.
thunder.
There are two types of ions based on charge – cation and anion.
• Cation: A cation is an atom or a molecule which is positively charged, i.e. it has a greater
number of protons than electrons.
• Anion: An anion is an atom or molecule which is negatively charged, i.e. it has a greater
number of electrons than protons.
• The moving free electrons cause more collisions and more electrons are released and a chain
reaction ensues.
Lightning:
• Earth is a good conductor of electricity but is electrically neutral in comparison to the middle
layer of the cloud, however, it becomes positively charged.
 As a result, a flow of current (about 20-15%) gets directed towards the Earth as well.
 It is this current flow that results in the damage to life and property.
• Once about 80-100 m from the surface, lightning tends to change course to hit the taller objects.
This is because travelling through air, which is a bad conductor of electricity, electrons try to
find a better conductor, and also the shortest route to the relatively positively charged Earth’s
surface.
• The most lightning activity on Earth is seen on the shore of Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela
Hailstorm
• Hail is a form of solid precipitation in which frozen pellets fall in showers from a
cumulonimbus cloud.
• Any thunderstorm which produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a hailstorm.
• A hailstone is a layered irregular lump of ice. It is made of thick and translucent layers,
alternating with layers that are thin, white and opaque.
• Hailstones are produced in almost all thunderstorms, but in most of the cases, they don’t reach
the surface.
Favourable Conditions For Hail Formation

• Strong, upward motion of air (updraft) within the parent thunderstorm.
• High liquid water content.
• Great vertical extent of the cumulonimbus cloud.
• Good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing 0 °C.
• High surface temperatures.
• Hail growth is greatly inhibited during cold surface temperatures.
Formation of Hail
Finally, it may fall to the

It then falls toward the ground
surface as hailstone if it can
Hail begins as water droplets in while continuing to grow,
overcome the frictional force
a cumulonimbus cloud. based on the same processes,
of the wind and ground
until it leaves the cloud.
temperature.
It doesn’t fall immediately to

the surface because of melting,
As the droplets rise and the
friction with air, wind, and
temperature goes below
interaction with rain and other
freezing, they freeze on contact
hailstones that slow its descent.
with condensation nuclei.
In the process, it acquires more
layers.
The storm's updraft with great The hailstone will keep rising
wind speeds (180 kmph) blows in the thunderstorm until its
the forming hailstones up the mass can no longer be
cloud supported by the updraft.
Size:
• Hailstones can grow up to 15 centimetres and weigh more than 0.5 kg.
• Generally, the larger hailstones will form some distance from the stronger updraft where they
can pass more time growing.
Distribution:
• Hail is less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in
the midlatitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much
greater altitude.
******
CHAPTER-24
HUMIDITY AND PRECIPITATION
WATER VAPOUR
Water vapour is a highly variable component of the atmosphere. Its proportion varies from zero to
four percent by volume of the atmosphere.
Significance of Water Vapour for life on the earth.

 Water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs a significant portion of both incoming solar energy
and outgoing earth radiation. In this way, it prevents great losses of heat from the earth’s
surface and helps to maintain suitable temperatures on the earth.
 The amount of water vapour present in the air affects the “rate of evaporation.
 The amount of water vapour present in a volume of air decides the quality of latent heat or
energy stored in it for producing atmospheric changes;
 The amount of water vapour present in the air of a place or in a region indicates the potential
capacity of that air for precipitation.
 The amount of water vapour present in the air also affects standing crops favourably. On the other
hand hot dry winds damage standing crops as in the case of rabi crops of North- Western India.
 Air, poor in water vapour content, makes our body skin dry and rough. It is because of this fact
that we use cream to protect our faces from dry air of cold winters or hot summers.
HUMIDITY
How does water changes into water vapour?
 The heat energy radiated from the sun changes water into water vapour. This invisible water
vapour present in gaseous form in the atmosphere at any time and place is termed as humidity.
 In other words, we can say that the term humidity refers to the amount of water vapour present
in a given air. It indicates the degree of dampness or wetness of the air.
Humidity of the air is mainly expressed in the following two ways:

Absolute Humidity Relative Humidity
 Absolute humidity is the ratio of the mass of  It is the ratio of the amount of water vapor
water vapour actually in the air to a unit mass actually in a volume occupied by air to the
of air, including the water vapour. amount the space could contain at
 It is expressed in gram per cubic metre of air. saturation
 For example, if the absolute humidity of air is
10 grams it means that one cubic metre of that R.H=Vapour Pressure in the
air holds 10 grams of moisture in the form of air/Saturation Vapour Pressure
water vapour.
 The ability of an air to hold water vapour  Air can hold a definite maximum quantity
depends entirely on its temperature. The of water vapour at a given temperature.
capacity of holding water vapour of an air When this situation is attained, we say the
increases with the increase in its temperature. air is fully saturated.
 For example, at 10°C, one cubic metre of an  The temperature at which a given sample
air can hold 11.4 grams of water vapour. If the of air becomes fully saturated is called the
temperature of the same air increases to 21°C, dew point or saturation point
the same volume of air can hold 22.2 grams of  The relative humidity of an air at
water vapour. saturation point is hundred percent.
 Change in temperature and pressure conditions  If the relative humidity of air is less than
of an air results in the change of its volume and 100 percent, the air is said to be
consequently there is change in its absolute unsaturated.
humidity. Hence, there is a need of some more  The relative humidity increases when the
reliable measure of humidity. temperature of the air goes down or when
more moist air is added to it.
 The relative humidity decreases when the
temperature of the air increases or when
less moist air is added to it.
 When one measures relative humidity of
an air, one not only needs to know about
its actual water vapour content but also its
total capacity to contain water vapour at
that temperature, that’s why relative
humidity is more useful in making
predictions about atmospheric conditions.
 There is inverse relationship between air
temperature and relative humidity i.e.,
relative humidity decreases with
increasing temperature while it increases
with decreasing temperature.
EVAPORATION
 Evaporation is the process of which water changes from its liquid state to gaseous form.
 This process takes place at all places, at all times and at all temperatures except at dew point
or when the air is saturated.
The rate of evaporation is affected by several factors.
Accessibility Of Water Bodies Cloud Cover
 The rate of evaporation is higher over the  The cloud cover prevents solar radiation and
oceans than on the continents. thus influences the air temperatures at a
place. This way, it indirectly controls the
process of evaporation.
Wind Air Moisture

 If there is no wind, the air which overlies a  If the relative humidity of a sample of air is
water surface will get saturated through high, it is capable of holding less moisture.
evaporation. This evaporation will cease  On the other hand if the relative humidity is
once saturation point is reached. less, it can take more moisture. Hence, the
 However, if there is wind, it will blow that rate of evaporation will be high.
saturated or nearly saturated air away from the  Aridity or dryness of the air also increases
evaporating surface and replace it with air of the rate of evaporation.
lower humidity. This allows evaporation to  During rainy days, wet clothes take more
continue as long as the wind keep blowing time to dry owing to the high percentage of
saturated air away and bring drier air. moisture content in the air, than on dry days.
Temperature
 We know that hot air holds more moisture than cold air. So, when the temperature of an air is
high, it is capable of holding more moisture in its body than at a low temperature.
 It is because of this that the rate of evaporation is more in summers than in winters. That is
why wet clothes dry faster in summers than in winters.
Interesting Facts:
 About 600 calories of heat is used for converting each gram of water into water vapour.
 A calorie is unit of heat energy spent in raising temperature of one gram of water by 100C.
 Latent Heat: The heat energy used for changing the state of water or a body from liquid to
gaseous state or from solid (ice) to liquid (water) state without changing its temperature is
called latent heat. It is a sort of hidden heat.
 The effect of which is not seen on the thermometer.
 The latent heat consumed in changing water into gaseous form is released when water
vapour changes into water or ice.
 The release of latent heat in the air is an important source of energy for causing changes in
weather.
 Transpiration: A special case of evaporation is transpiration, which entails a loss of water
from leaf and stem tissues of growing vegetation.
 Evapo-Transpiration: The combined losses of moisture by evaporation and transpiration
from a given areas are termed evapo-transpiration.
CONDENSATION
 Condensation is the process by which atmospheric water vapour changes into water or ice
crystals.
 When the temperature of saturated air falls below dew point, the air cannot hold the amount of
humidity which it was holding earlier at a higher temperature. This extra amount of humidity
changes into water droplets or crystals of ice depending upon the temperature at which
condensation takes place.
Process of Condensation
The temperature of the air falls in two ways.
Relation between Condensation and Relative humidity:

Condensation is directly related to the relative humidity and rate of cooling
 When the relative humidity of an air is high, a slight cooling is required to bring the temperature
down below dew point.
 But when the relative humidity is low and the temperature of the air is high, a lot of cooling of the
air will be necessary to bring the temperature down below dew point.
Forms of condensation
Condensation takes place in two situations, firstly, when dew point is below freezing point or below
0° C and secondly, when it is above freezing point.
 Dew: When the atmospheric moisture is condensed and deposited in the form of water droplets
on cooler surface of solid objects such as grass blades, leaves of plants and trees and stones, it
is termed as dew.
 Favourable Conditions
o Condensation in dew form occurs when there is clear sky, little or no wind, high relative
humidity and cold long nights.
o Dew is formed when dew point is above freezing point.
o Dew formation can be seen if the water is poured into a glass from the bottle kept in a
refrigerator. The outer cold surface of the glass brings the temperature of the air in contact
with the surface down below dew point and extra moisture gets deposited on the outer wall
of the glass.
 Frost: When the dew point is below freezing

point, under above mentioned conditions, the
condensation of extra moisture takes place in the
form of very minute particles of ice crystals. It is
called frost.
 In this process, the air moisture condenses
directly in the form of tiny crystal of ice.
 This form of condensation is disastrous for
standing crops such as potato, peas, pulses,
grams, etc.
 Mist and Fog: When condensation takes place in the air near the earth’s surface in the form
of tiny droplets of water hanging and floating in the air, it is called mist.
 In mist the visibility is more than one kilometer and less than two kilometers. But when
the visibility is reduced to less than one kilometer, it is called fog.
 Ideal Condition:
o Clear sky, calm and cold winter nights.
Advectional Fog
 Fogs formed by condensation of warm air when it moves horizontally over a cold surface, are known
as advectional fog.
Radiation Fog
 Radiation fog results from 
radiation, cooling of the ground
and adjacent air.
 These fogs are not very thick and
are usual in winters.
 These fogs are thick and
persistent.
 Occurs over warm and cold water
mixing zones in oceans.
Frontal/Precipitation Fog
 Frontal or precipitation fog is
produced due to convergence of
warm and cold air masses where
warm air mass is pushed under by
the heavier cold air mass.
 Precipitation in the warm air mass
condenses to produce fog at the
boundary of the two air masses.
These are called frontal or
precipitation fog.
 Smog: Smog is a fog that has been polluted and discoloured by smoke, dust, carbon monoxide,
sulphur dioxide and other fumes.
 Smog frequently occurs in large cities and industrial centres.
 It causes respiratory illness.
Sulphurous smog Photochemical smog

• Sulphurous smog is also called London • Photochemical smog is also known as summer
smog because first formed in London due smog or Los Angeles smog.
to industrial revolution. • Photochemical smog occurs most prominently
• Sulphurous smog results from a high in urban areas that have large numbers of
concentration of sulphur oxides in the air automobiles (nitrogen oxides are the primary
and is caused by the use of sulphur-bearing emissions).
fossil fuels, particularly coal.
 This type of smog is aggravated by  Photochemical smog forms when nitrogen

dampness and a high concentration of oxides (primary pollutant) and volatile organic
suspended particulate matter in the air. compounds (primary pollutants) react together
in the presence of sunlight to form ozone
(secondary pollutant).
CLOUD
Clouds are visible aggregates of water droplets, ice particles, or a mixture of both along with varying
amounts of dust particles.
 A typical cloud contains billions of droplets having diameters on the order 060.01 to 0.02 mm;
yet liquid or solid water accounts for less than 10 parts per million of the cloud volume.
According to their height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness clouds are grouped under
four types:
Cirrus Clouds Cumulus Clouds
 Formed at high altitudes (8,000-  Look like cotton wool and are generally formed at a height
12,000m) and are made up of ice crystals. of 4,000-7,000 m.
 They are thin and detached clouds having a  They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and
feathery appearance and are always white. there. They have a flat base.
Stratus Clouds Nimbus Clouds
 As their name implies, these are layered  Nimbus clouds are black or dark grey.
clouds covering large portions of the sky.  They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of
 These clouds are generally formed either the earth.
due to loss of heat or the mixing of air  These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the
masses with different temperatures. sun.
 Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses of thick vapour
A combination of these four basic types can give rise to the following types of clouds:
• High Clouds: Cirrus, Cirrostratus, Cirrocumulus.
• Middle Clouds: Altostratus and Altocumulus.
• Low Clouds: Stratocumulus and Nimbostratus (long duration rainfall cloud; rain bands in tropical
cyclones) and Clouds With Extensive Vertical Development: Cumulus and Cumulonimbus
(Thunderstorm Cloud)
PRECIPITATION
• Precipitation is defined as water in liquid or solid forms falling to the earth.
• It happens when continuous condensation in the body of air helps the water droplets or ice crystals to
grow in size and weight that the air cannot hold them and as a result these starts falling on the ground
under the force of gravity.
Forms of Precipitation
Drizzle and Rainfall Snowfall
• Drizzle is a fairly uniform  When condensation
precipitation composed exclusively takes place below
of fine drops of water with diameter freezing point (-0°
less than 0.5 mm. Only when droplets C), the water
of this size are widely spaced are vapour changes into
called rain. tiny ice crystals.
These tiny ice
crystals grow in
size and form ice flakes which become big and heavy
and start falling on the ground. This form of
precipitation is called snowfall.
 Snowfall is very common in Western Himalaya and
mid and high latitude regions in winter.
Sleet Hail
• Sleet is frozen rain, formed when rain • Hail is precipitation of small balls or pieces of ice (hail
before falling on the earth, passes stones) with diameters ranging from 5 to 50mm, falling
through a cold layer of air and freezes. either separately or agglomerated into irregular lumps.
The result is the creation of solid • Hailstones are comprised of a series of alternating layers
particles of clear ice. of transparent and translucent ice.
• It’s usually a combination of small ice
balls and rime.
TYPES OF RAINFALL
When a mass of moist air ascends to high altitudes it cools down to lower temperatures. In doing so it
attains dew point which leads to condensation and precipitation. Thus the cooling of air occurs mainly
when it rises.
There are three important ways in which a mass of air can be forced to rise and each of these
ways produces its own characteristic precipitation or rainfall.
Convectional Rainfall
Orographic or Relief Rainfall

However when these
Moisture laden winds
These clouds cause winds cross over the
blow along mountains
widespread rain on mountain range and
and when their
the windward slopes descend along the
temperature fall below
of the mountain leeward slopes, they
dew point clouds are
range. get warm and cause
formed.
little rain.
Region lying on the

leeward side of the
mountain receiving
little rain is called
rainshadow area .
A famous example of orographic rainfall is Cherrapunji

on the southern margin of the Khasi Hills in
Meghalaya India.
Convergence or Cyclonic Rainfall
When two large air masses of different

When this happens, the rising warm air
densities and temperature meet, the
mass condenses to form clouds which
warmer moist air mass is lifted above the
cause extensive down pour.
colder one.
In Tropical Latitudes this type of

rainfall is due to cyclones and in
This rainfall is associated with thunder Temperate latitudes it is due to
and lightning.
depressions.
Monsoonal Rainfall
• This type of precipitation is characterized by seasonal reversal of winds which carry oceanic
moisture (especially the south-wet monsoon) with them and cause extensive rainfall in south
and southeast Asia.
DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION:
The spatial distribution of precipitation is not uniform all over the world and the average annual
precipitation for the world as a whole is about 97.5 centimetres but the land receives lesser amount
or rainfall than the oceans.
Regional Variations
On the basis of average amount of annual precipitation.
• Regions of Heavy Precipitation: The regions which receive over 200 centimetres of annual
precipitation are included in this category.
 These regions include equatorial coastal areas of tropical zone and west-coastal regions of
temperate zone.
• Regions of Moderate Precipitation: The regions which receive 100 to 200 centimetres of
annual precipitation are included in this category. These regions lie adjacent to the regions of
heavy precipitation.
 Eastern coastal regions of subtropical zone and coastal regions of the warm temperate zone
are included in this category.
• Regions of Less Precipitation: This category includes regions which receive precipitation
between 50 to 100 centimetres.
 These regions lie in the interior parts of tropical zone and eastern interior parts of temperate
zone.
• Regions of Scanty Precipitation: The areas lying in the rain shadows (leeward) side of the
mountain ranges, the interior parts of continents, the western margins of continents along
tropics and high latitudes receive precipitation less than 50 centimetres.
 These regions include tropical, temperate and cold deserts of the world.
Annual Average Precipitation Distribution Of The World:

• Decreases Towards Poleward: Precipitation is greatest in the equatorial region and decreases
towards the poles.
• Decreases Towards Interior: Precipitation is heaviest in the coastal regions and decreases
towards the interior of the continents.
• Eastern/Western Coastal Areas: Eastern coastal areas of tropical lands and western coastal
areas of temperate lands receive heavy precipitation including equatorial regions.
• Windward/Leeward: Precipitation is very heavy on the windward side of highlands; very dry
condition prevail on the leeward side.
• Influence of Currents: Coastal areas adjacent to cold currents are drier than coastal areas near
warm currents.
• Continental Margins: The western margin of tropical land and polar region receive scanty rainfall.
The main reason being that easterlies become dry winds and polar winds are cold and dry.
Seasonal Variations
The regional variations in the distribution of precipitation in different parts of the world are based on
average annual precipitation which do not give us any correct picture of the nature of precipitation,
therefore, it is important to study seasonal variations of precipitation in the world.
• Equatorial Region and Western Part of Temperate Lands: Receive precipitation
throughout the year. The former receive conventional type of rain while the later gets cyclonic
cum orographic type through westerlies.
• Mediterranean Regions: About 2 per cent land areas of the world receive precipitation only
in winter.
 These include Mediterranean regions of the world and Coromandel Coast of India.
 Rainfall less Summer: Due to the seasonal shift in pressure and planetary wind systems,
these regions (Mediterranean) do not get precipitation in summer as they come under sub-
tropical high pressure belts and trade winds which become dry while reaching to the
western margins of continents.
• Remaining Regions: The remaining parts of the world receive precipitation only in summer.
Note:
• The scanty precipitation during short growing season in high latitudes is more effective than
that of heavy precipitation in lower latitudes.
• Likewise, precipitation in the form of dew, fog and mist in some parts like Central India and
Kalahari desert has an appreciable effect on standing crops and natural vegetation.
Factors Affecting Rainfall Distribution

• Moisture Supply To The Atmosphere:
 Equatorial and rest of the tropical region have highest evaporation and hence highest
supply of moisture.
 Coastal areas have more moisture than interior parts of continents.
 Frigid regions have very low evaporation hence very scanty precipitation.
• Wind Direction:
 Winds blowing from sea to land cause rainfall.
 Land bearing winds are dry.
 Winds blowing from higher to lower latitudes will get heated and give no rain while
those blowing from lower to higher latitudes will get cooled and cause rainfall.
 Sub-tropical deserts have very little rainfall because they have off-shore winds.
• Ocean Currents:
 Warm Current are associated with warm moist winds which cause rainfal1, cold current
have cold dry wind and hence no rainfall.
• Presence of Mountain across the direction of wind causes more rainfall on the windward side
and creates rain shadow on the leeward side.
• Pressure Belts: Areas of low pressure attract rain bearing winds while areas of high pressure
do not.
EL NINO
Normal Conditions:
Walker circulation (Normal Years)

 The Walker circulation (Walker cell) is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a
high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean, and a low-pressure system over Indonesia.
 The Walker cell is indirectly related to upwelling off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador. This brings
nutrient rich cold water to the surface, increasing fishing stocks.
During El Nino Year:

 El-Nino is the name given to the occasional development of warm ocean surface waters along the
coast of Ecuador and Peru that normally occurs around Christmas and usually lasts for a few weeks
to a few months.
• In the 1990s, strong El-Nino’s developed in 1991 and lasted until 1 995.
El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

• Southern Oscillation: Southern Oscillation, in oceanography and climatology, is a coherent
inter-annual fluctuation of atmospheric pressure over the tropical Indo-Pacific region.
• El Nino and Southern Oscillation: Coincide most of the times hence their combination is
called ENSO – El Nino Southern Oscillation.
• During Strong ENSO Year: Large-scale variations in weather occur over the world.
• Effects: The arid west coast of South America receives heavy rainfall; drought occurs in
Australia and sometimes in India and floods in China.
Effects of El Nino
On Marine Life: The warmer waters had a devastating effect on marine life existing off the coast of
Peru and Ecuador.
• Fish Farming: Fish catches off the coast of South America were lower than in the normal
year.
• Droughts: Severe droughts occur in Australia, Indonesia, India and southern Africa.
• Heavy Rains: California, Ecuador, and the Gulf of Mexico.
El Nino impact on Indian Monsoons
• Inverse Relation: El Nino and Indian monsoon are inversely related.

• The Location of Low-Pressure: Result the rising of limb over Western Pacific is considered to
be conducive to good monsoon rainfall in India.
• Eastward Shift: from its normal position, such as in El Nino years, reduces monsoon rainfall in
India.
 Example: The most prominent droughts in India have been El Nino droughts, including the recent
ones (2014-16).
Southern Oscillation Index and Indian Monsoons
• The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is a standardized index based on the observed sea level
pressure (SLP) differences between Tahiti and Darwin, Australia.
• The SOI is one measure of the large-scale fluctuations in air pressure occurring between the
western and eastern tropical Pacific (i.e., the state of the Southern Oscillation) during El
Niño and La Niña episodes.
• In general, smoothed time series of the SOI correspond very well with changes in ocean
temperatures across the eastern tropical Pacific.
• The negative phase of the SOI represents below-normal air pressure at Tahiti and above-
normal air pressure at Darwin.
Positive SOI Negative SOI

Tahiti(Eastern Pacific)Pressure greater than that of Port Reverse
Darwin(Western Pacific)
Drought Conditions in Eastern Pacific and good rainfall in Western Reverse
Pacific.
Good for Indian Monsoons Bad for Indian Monsson
INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE

In recent decades, the ENSO-Monsoon relationship has seemed to weaken in the Indian subcontinent
(e.g., in 1997, strong ENSO failed to cause drought in India) because of a phenomenon Just like ENSO
was active in the Pacific Ocean, which was discovered in 1999 and was named the Indian Ocean
Dipole (IOD).
 The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature
between two areas (or poles, hence a dipole) ― a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western
Indian Ocean) and an eastern pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia.
 IOD starts to develop in the equatorial region of Indian Ocean in April and is best devolved in
October.
Positive IOD Negative IOD

 With a positive IOD winds over the Indian Ocean blow  In the negative dipole year
from east to west (from Bay of Bengal towards Arabian (negative IOD), reverse
Sea). happens making Indonesia
 This results in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean much warmer and rainier.
near African Coast) being much warmer and eastern  Negative IOD results in
Indian Ocean around Indonesia becoming colder and dry. stronger than usual
 Positive IOD (Arabian Sea warmer than Bay of Bengal) cyclogenesis in Bay of Bengal.
results in more cyclones than usual in Arabian Sea. Cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea is
suppressed.
• Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric component of the IOD was later discovered and named as
Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation (EQUINOO: oscillation of warm water and atmospheric
pressure between Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea).
• Impact of IOD on Cyclogenesis in Northern Indian Ocean
EL NIÑO MODOKI
El Niño Modoki is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is slightly different from El Niño.
 Conventional El Niño is characterised by strong anomalous warming in the eastern equatorial
Pacific. Whereas, El Niño Modoki is associated with strong anomalous warming in the central
tropical Pacific and cooling in the eastern and western tropical Pacific.
 Such zonal gradients result in anomalous two-cell Walker Circulation over the tropical Pacific,
with a wet region in the central Pacific and dry region in the western and eastern Pacific.
LA NINA
After an El Niño event weather conditions usually return to normal. However, in some years the trade
winds can become extremely strong, and an abnormal accumulation of cold water can occur in the
central and eastern Pacific. This event is called a La Niña.
Effects of La Nina
 Abnormally heavy monsoons in India and Southeast Asia,
 Cool and wet winter weather in south-eastern Africa, wet weather in eastern Australia,
• Cold winter in western Canada and north-western United States,
 Winter drought in the southern United States
*******
CHAPTER-25
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Basis Weather Climate

Basic Nature Weather is the study of atmospheric Climate is the study of the average
conditions for short duration of a weather conditions observed over a
limited area. long period of time for a larger area.
Influenced by Weather is influenced by anyone of Climate is the collective effects of all
its predominant elements i.e., its elements.
temperature or humidity.
Frequency The weather changes very often. It is more or less permanent.
Extent It is experienced over small areas of a It is experienced over a large areas of
country. the continent.
Occurrence A place can experience different types A place can experience only one type
of weather condition in a year. of climate.
Example:
The average of weather conditions is calculated from the data collected for several year (about 35
years) for a larger area. Rajasthan, for example, experiences hot and arid climate, Kerala has tropical
rainy climate, Greenland has cold desert climate and the climate of Central Asia is temperate
continental.
Factors Affecting Climate

Factors which cause the variations in the climate of a place or a region.
 Latitude or Distance From The Equator: The places near the equator are warmer than the
places which are far away from it. This is because the rays of the sun fall vertical on the equator
and slanting in the temperate and polar regions.
 Example: Malaysia which is near the equator is warmer than England which is far away
from the equator.
 Altitude or the Height From The Mean Sea Level: We all know that mountains are cooler
than the plains.
 Example: Shimla situated on a higher altitude is cooler than Jalandhar, although both are
almost on the same latitude.
 Continentally or the Distance from the Sea: The water is a bad conductor of heat i.e. it takes
longer time to heat and longer time to cool. Due to this moderating effect of the sea, places
near the coast have low range of temperature and high humidity. The places in the interior of
the continent do not experience moderating effect of the sea. These places have extreme
temperatures. The places far from the sea have higher range of diurnal (daily) and annual
temperatures.
 Example: Mumbai has relatively lower temperature and higher rainfall than Nagpur,
although both are almost situated on the same latitude.
 Nature of the Prevailing Winds: The on-shore winds bring the moisture from the sea and
cause rainfall on the area through which they pass. The off-shore winds coming from the land
are dry and help in evaporation.
 Example: In India, the on-shore summer monsoon winds bring rains while off-shore winter
monsoon winds are generally dry.
 Cloud Cover: In areas generally of cloudless sky as in deserts, temperature even under shade
are very high because of the hot day time sunshine. At night this heat radiates back from the
ground very rapidly. It results in a large diurnal range in temperature. On the other hand under
cloudy sky and heavy rainfall at Thiruvananthapuram the range of temperature is very small.
 Ocean Currents: The warm ocean currents raise the temperature of the coast and sometimes
bring rainfall, while the cold currents lower the temperature and create fog near the coast.
 Example: Port Bergen in Norway is free from ice even in winter due to warm North
Atlantic Drift while Port Quebec in Canada remains frozen during winter months due to
chilling effect of the Cold Labrador Current in spite of the fact that Port Quebec is situated
in much lower latitude than Port Bergen.
 Direction of Mountain Chains: The on-shore moisture laden winds are forced to rise after
striking against the mountain; and give heavy rainfall on the windward side. These winds
descending on the leeward side cause very low rainfall.
 Example: The great Himalayas check the moisture laden monsoon winds from crossing
over to Tibet. This mountain chain also checks biting polar cold winds from entering into
India. This is the reason for which northern plains of India get rains while Tibet remains a
perpetual rain shadow area with lesser amount of rainfall.
 Slope and the Aspect: The concentration of heat being more on the gentler slope raises the
temperature of air above them. Its lesser concentration along steeper slopes lowers the
temperature. At the same time, mountain slopes facing the sun are warmer than the slopes
which are away from the sun’s rays.
 Example: The southern slopes of Himalaya are warmer than the northern slopes.
 The Nature of the Soil and Vegetation Cover: Stony or sandy soils are good conductor of
heat while black clay soils absorb the heat of the sun’s rays quickly. The bare surface reradiates
the heat easily.
 The deserts are hot in the day and cold in the night. The forest areas have lower range of
temperature throughout the year in contrast to non-forested areas.
WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Three broad approaches have been adopted for classifying climate. They are empirical, genetic and
applied.
Empirical classification Genetic classification Applied classification
It is based on observed data, Attempts to organise It is for specific purpose.
particularly on temperature and climates according to their
precipitation. causes.
EMPIRICAL TYPE:
KOEPPEN’S SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE (1918)
• Observation: Koeppen identified a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate.
• Relations Used: He selected certain values of temperature and precipitation and related them to the
distribution of vegetation and used these values for classifying the climates.
• Based On: It is an empirical classification based on mean annual and mean monthly temperature and
precipitation data.
• Used Designations: Used capital and small letters to designate climatic groups and types.
• Groups: Koeppen recognised five major climatic groups, four of them are based on temperature and
one on precipitation.
A Humid Climates
C
D
E
B Dry Climates
 The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based on seasonality
of precipitation and temperature characteristics.
• The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f, m, w and s.
f Corresponds to no dry season
m Correspond to monsoon climate
W Correspond to winter dry season
s Correspond to summer dry season.
a
b
c Refer to the degree of severity of temperature
d
The B- Dry Climates are subdivided S for steppe or semi-arid

using the capital letters W for deserts.
Climate Groups according to Koeppen

Groups Characteristics
A-Tropical Average temperature of the coldest month is 18 or higher
B-Dry Climates Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation
C-Warm Temperate The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-
latitude)climates year is higher than minus 3C but below 18C
D-Cold Snow Forest Climates The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3C or
below
E-Cold Climates Average temperature for all month is below 10C
H-High Lands Cold due to elevation.
Climatic Types According To Koeppen:

Classification of Climate
Group Type Letter code Characteristics
Tropical wet Af No dry season
A-Tropical Humid Tropical monsoon Am Monsoonal; short dry season

Climate
Tropical wet and dry Aw Winter dry season
Subtropical steppe BSh Low latitude semi-arid or dry
Subtropical desert BWh Low latitude arid or dry
Mid latitude steppe BSk Mid latitude semi-arid or dry
Mid Latitude desert BWk Mid latitude arid or dry
B-Dry Climate
Humid sub-tropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer
C-Warm Mediterranean Cs Hot dry summer
Temperate(Mid- Marine west coast Cf No dry season, warm and cool
Latitude)Climate summer
Humid continental Df No dry season, severe winter
D- Cold Snow Forest Sub arctic Dw Winter dry and very severe
Climates
E-Cold Climates Tundra ET No true summer
Polar ice cap EF Perennial ice
H-Highlands Highland H Highland with snow cover
Group A: Tropical Humid Climates

 Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
 The sun being overhead throughout the year and the presence of Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ) make the climate hot and humid.
 Annual range of temperature is very low and annual rainfall is high.
 The tropical group is divided into three types, namely
Tropical Wet Climate (Af) Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)
 Region: Tropical wet climate is found  Region: Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is
near the equator. found over the Indian sub-continent, North
 Areas: The major areas are the Amazon Eastern part of South America and Northern
Basin in South America, western Australia.
equatorial Africa and the islands of East  Rainfall: Heavy rainfall occurs mostly in
Indies. summer and winter is dry.
 Rainfall: Significant amount of rainfall
occurs in every month of the year as
thunder showers in the afternoon.
 Temperature: The temperature is

uniformly high and the annual range of
temperature is negligible.
 The maximum temperature on any
day is around 30°C while the
minimum temperature is around
20°C.
 Vegetation: Tropical evergreen forests
with dense canopy cover and large
biodiversity are found in this climate
Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)
 Region: Tropical wet and dry climate occurs north and south of Af type climate regions.
 Areas: It borders with dry climate on the western part of the continent and Cf or Cw on the
eastern part.
 Extensive Aw climate is found to the north and south of the Amazon forest in Brazil and
adjoining parts of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, Sudan and south of Central Africa.
 Rainfall: The annual rainfall in this climate is considerably less than that in Af and Am climate
types and is variable also.
 Climatic Condition: The wet season is shorter and the dry season is longer with the drought
being more severe.
 Temperature: Temperature is high throughout the year and diurnal ranges of temperature are
the greatest in the dry season.
 Vegetation: Deciduous forest and tree-shredded grasslands occur in this climate.
Dry Climates: B
 Characteristics: Dry climates are characterised by very low rainfall that is not adequate for
the growth of plants.
 Areas: These climates cover a very large area of the planet extending over large latitudes from
15° - 60° north and south of the equator.
 At low latitudes, from 15° - 30°, they occur in the area of subtropical high where subsidence
and inversion of temperature do not produce rainfall.
 Region: On the western margin of the continents, adjoining the cold current, particularly over
the west coast of South America, they extend more equatorward and occur on the coast land.
 In middle latitudes, from 35° - 60° north and south of equator, they are confined to the
interior of continents where maritime-humid winds do not reach and to areas often
surrounded by mountains.
 Dry climates are divided into:
 Steppe or semi-arid climate (BS) and desert climate (BW).
o They are further subdivided as subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh)
at latitudes from 15° - 35° and mid-latitude steppe (BSk) and mid-latitude desert (BWk)
at latitudes between 35° - 60°.
Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical Desert (BWh) Climates

Subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) have common precipitation and temperature
characteristics.
 Region: Located in the transition zone between humid and dry climates, subtropical steppe
receives slightly more rainfall than the desert, adequate enough for the growth of sparse
grasslands. The rainfall in both the climates is highly variable.
 Rainfall Variability: The variability in the rainfall affects the life in the steppe much more than
in the desert, more often causing famine.
 Rain occurs in short intense thundershowers in deserts and is ineffective in building soil
moisture.
 Fog is common in coastal deserts bordering cold currents.
 Temperature: Maximum temperature in the summer is very high.
 The highest shade temperature of 58° C was recorded at Al-Aziziyah, Libya on 13 September
1922.
 The annual and diurnal ranges of temperature are also high.
Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climates-C

 Region: Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates extend from 30° - 50° of latitude mainly on
the eastern and western margins of continents.
 These climates generally have warm summers with mild winters.
 They are grouped into four types:
Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa) Mediterranean Climate (Cs)
 Region: Humid subtropical climate  Region: As the name suggests, Mediterranean
occurs poleward of Tropic of Cancer and climate occurs around Mediterranean sea, along
Capricorn, mainly in North Indian plains the west coast of continents in subtropical
and South China interior plains. latitudes between 30° - 40° latitudes.
 The climate is similar to Aw climate  Example: Central California, Central Chile,
except that the temperature in winter is along the coast in south eastern and south
warm. western Australia.
 Climate: These areas come under the influence
of sub-tropical high in summer and westerly
wind in winter. Hence, the climate is
characterised by hot, dry summer and mild, rainy
winter.
 Temperature: Monthly average temperature in
summer is around 25° C and in winter below
10°C.
 Rainfall: The annual precipitation ranges
between 35 - 90 cm.
Humid Subtropical (Cfa) Climate Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb)

 Region: Humid subtropical climate lies  Region: Marine west coast climate is located
on the eastern parts of the continent in poleward from the Mediterranean climate on the
subtropical latitudes. west coast of the continents.
 Air Masses: In this region the air masses  The Main Areas Are: North western Europe,
are generally unstable and cause rainfall west coast of North America, north of California,
throughout the year. southern Chile, south eastern Australia and New
 Areas: They occur in eastern United Zealand.
States of America, southern and eastern  Temperature: Due to marine influence, the
China, southern Japan, north eastern temperature is moderate and in winter, it is
Argentina, coastal south Africa and warmer than for its latitude.
eastern coast of Australia.  The mean temperature in summer months
 Rainfall: The annual averages of ranges from 15°-20°C and in winter 4°-10°C.
precipitation vary from 75-150 cm.  The annual and daily ranges of temperature
 Thunderstorms in summer and frontal are small.
precipitation in winter are common.  Rainfall: Precipitation occurs throughout the
 Temperature: Mean monthly year.
temperature in summer is around 27°C,  Precipitation varies greatly from 50-250cm.
and in winter it varies from 5°-12° C.
 The daily range of temperature is
small.
Cold Snow Forest Climates (D)

 Region: Cold snow forest climates occur in the large continental area in the northern
hemisphere between 40°-70° north latitudes in Europe, Asia and North America.
 Cold snow forest climates are divided into two types:.
Cold Climate with Humid Winters (Df) Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)
 Region: Cold climate with humid  Region: Cold climate with dry winter occurs
winter occurs poleward of marine west mainly over North eastern Asia.
coast climate and mid latitude steppe.  Climate: The development of pronounced winter
 Climate: The winters are cold and anti cyclone and its weakening in summer sets in
snowy. The weather changes are monsoon like reversal of wind in this region.
abrupt and short. The frost free season  Temperature: Poleward summer temperatures are
is short. lower and winter temperatures are extremely low
 Temperature: The annual ranges of with many locations experiencing below freezing
temperature are large. point temperatures for up to seven months in a year.
 Poleward, the winters are more  Rainfall: Precipitation occurs in summer. The
severe. annual precipitation is low from 12-15 cm
Polar Climates (E)

 Polar climates exist poleward beyond 70° latitude. Polar climates consist of two types: (i) Tundra
(ET); (ii) Ice Cap (EF).
Tundra Climate (ET) Ice Cap Climate (EF)
 Vegetation: The tundra climate (ET) is so  Region: The ice cap climate (EF) occurs
called after the types of vegetation, like low over interior Greenland and Antartica.
growing mosses, lichens and flowering  Temperature: Even in summer, the
plants. temperature is below freezing point.
 This is the region of permafrost where  Rainfall: This area receives very little
the sub soil is permanently frozen. precipitation.
 The short growing season and water  The snow and ice get accumulated and the
logging support only low growing mounting pressure causes the deformation of
plants. the ice sheets and they break.
 During summer, the tundra regions have  They move as icebergs that float in the Arctic
very long duration of day light. and Antarctic waters.
Highland Climates (H)

 Highland climates are governed by topography.
 In high mountains, large changes in mean temperature occur over short distances.
 Precipitation types and intensity also vary spatially across high lands.
 There is vertical zonation of layering of climatic types with elevation in the mountain
environment.
Evaluation of Koppens’ Scheme:

 Parameters: Koppen used two easily measurable weather elements e.g. temperature and
precipitation as the basis for statistical parameters for the delineation of different climatic regions.
In fact, temperature and precipitation are most widely and most frequently used effective weather
elements as representatives of the effects of climatic controls.
 Basis: His scheme of climatic classification is primarily based on the relationship between
floral types and their characteristics, and climatic characteristics of a given place or a region.
 Effective Precipitation: He also paid due consideration to the loss of moisture through
evaporation as he included effective precipitation, which depends on the rate of potential
evapotranspiration, in his scheme.
 Recognized Associations: Koppen’s scheme appealed more to geographers because the
scheme recognized association between vegetation types and climatic types.
 Simple and Descriptive: scheme is descriptive, generalized and simple and hence it was
widely acclaimed.
In spite of several merits as referred to above the Koppen’s scheme also suffers from some
serious drawbacks:
 Neglect of Weather Elements: Koppen’s gave undue significance to mean monthly values of
temperature and precipitation and neglected other weather elements.
 Example- precipitation intensity, amount of cloudiness and number of rainy days, daily
temperature extreme winds etc.
 Ignored Causative Factors: He made his scheme more descriptive and generalized and
ignored the consideration of causative factors of climate.
 Ignored Airmasses: He did not include the characteristics of different airmasses in his
classification.
 Difficult to Memorise: The use of different letter symbols to indicate different climatic types
and their secondary and tertiary subtypes makes the scheme very difficult to memorise.
 Sceptical Thoughts: Some scientists are still sceptical about complete relationship between
vegetation distribution and climate distribution.
 Rigid Boundaries: Boundaries between different climatic types have been very rigidly
determined which is not justifiable as there are a lot of fluctuations in temperature and
precipitation from year to year at a particular place.
Conclusion:
In spite of above mentioned drawbacks of Koppen’s system of empirical approach to the classification
of world climates, the merits of his scheme still score over demerits and is widely used as general
system of classificatory schemes of world climates.
******

Geography 3 Climatology

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WORLD PHYSICAL & HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

Hadean Eon (4,540 – 4,000 Mya): The Primordial Atmosphere

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE

Composition of the Atmosphere

Important Constituents Of The

 Vertical Composition: The  More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere means

Importance of the Atmosphere:

Structure of the Atmosphere

Stratosphere The Mesosphere

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

INSOLATION (SOLAR RADIATION)

Heating and cooling of the Atmosphere:

Factors Influencing Insolation

The Following Factors Influence the Amount of Insolation Received:

Distance between the Earth and the Sun

Spatial Distribution of Insolation at the Earth’s Surface:

HEAT BUDGET OF THE PLANET EARTH:

Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the Earth’s Surface:

Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution

Horizontal Distribution of Temperature:

Seasonal Temperature Distribution – January

The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of January

SEASONAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION – JULY

The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of July

The range of temperature between January and July

Vertical Distribution of Temperature

Ideal Conditions for Temperature Inversion

Types of Temperature Inversion

Effects of Temperature Inversion

Vertical Variation of Pressure

Why do we not experience strong upward winds?

Horizontal Distribution of Pressure

The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt:

The Sub-tropical High Pressure Belts:

The Sub-polar low Pressure Belts

The Polar High Pressure Belts:

SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE

In Northern Hemisphere In Southern

Pressure Gradient and Winds

The Mountain and Valley Breezes

Loo Hot Harmful Plains of northern India and Pakistan

Forces Affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind

 It acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force.

GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Types of Jet Streams

INDEX CYCLES OF JET STREAMS:

Significance of Jet Streams:

There are four types of fronts:

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPERATE CYCLONES:

Life Cycle of Cyclone

Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate Cyclones

Source Regions and Tracks of Movement

Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones:

Size and Shape Wind Velocity and Strength

• Warm Frontal Precipitation:

 Cold Frontal Precipitation:

Origin of Tropical Cyclones

Structure of Tropical Cyclones

Weather Conditions Associated With Tropical Cyclones:

Distribution of Tropical Cyclones

Tracks of Tropical Cyclones

Regional Names For Tropical Cyclones:

Damage Associated With Tropical Cyclones

Positive Effects of Tropical Cyclones