 Atmosphere:

o The atmosphere of the earth is the layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth
that is retained by Earth’s gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by
absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming surface through heat retention
(greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night
(the diurnal temperature variation). Air also contains a variable amount of water
vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere.
Air content and atmospheric pressure vary different layers and air suitable for
the survival of terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals is found only in Earth’s
troposphere and artificial atmospheres.
o The atmosphere has mass of about 5.5x10^18 kg, three quarters of which is
within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,00ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes
thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between
the atmosphere and outer space. The Karman line at 100 km (62 mi) or 1.57% of
Earth’s radius is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer
space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of
spacecraft at an altitude of around 120km (75 mi) several layers can be
distinguished in the atmosphere.

o The composition of the Earth:

 Air is mainly composed of nitrogen, oxygen and argon, which together
constitute the major gases of the atmosphere. Water vapor accounts for
from around 10 ppmv in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as
much as 5% by volume in hot, humid and air masses, and concentrations
of the atmospheric gases are typically provided for dry air without any
water vapor. The remaining gases, among which are the greenhouse
gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered
air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many
substances of natural origin may be present in locally composition, pollen
and spores, sea spray and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also
may be present as gases as aerosols such as chlorine (elemental or in
compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur
compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide maybe derives
from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.

 Atmosphere, mixture of gases surrounding any celestial object that has a

gravitational field strong enough to prevent the gases from escaping;
especially the gaseous envelope of Earth. The principal constituents of
the atmosphere of Earth are Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%). The
atmospheric gases in the remaining 1% are Argon (0.9%), Carbon Dioxide
 (0.0#%), varying amounts of water vapor, and trace amounts of
hydrogen, ozone, methane, carbon monoxide, helium, neon, krypton,
and xenon.

 The mixture of gases in the air today has had 4.5 billion years in which to
evolve. The earliest atmosphere must have consisted of volcanic
emanations alone. Gases that erupt from volcanoes today, however, are
mostly a mixture of water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and
nitrogen, with almost no oxygen. If this is the same mixture that existed
in the early atmosphere, then various processes would have had to
operate to produce the mixture we have today. One of these processes is
condensation. As it cooled, much of the volcanic water vapor condensed
to fill the earliest oceans. Chemical reactions would also have occurred.
Some carbon dioxide would have reacted with the rocks of Earth’s crust
to form carbonate minerals, and some would have become dissolved in
the new oceans. Later, as primitive life capable of photosynthesis evolved
in the oceans, new marine organisms began producing oxygen. Almost all
the free oxygen in the air today is believed to have formed by
photosynthetic combination of carbon dioxide with water. About 570
million years ago, the oxygen content of the atmosphere and oceans
became high enough to permit marine life capable of respiration. Later,
some 400 million years ago, the atmosphere contained enough oxygen
for the evolution of air-breathing land animals.

 The water vapor content of the air varies considerably, depending on the
temperature and relative humidity. With 100% relative humidity, the
water vapor content of air varies from 190 parts per million (ppm) at -
40oC to 42,000 ppm at 30oC. Minute quantities of other gases such as
ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, are
temporary constituents of the atmosphere in the vicinity of volcanoes
and are washed out of the air by rain or snow. Oxides and other
pollutants added to the atmosphere by industrial plants and motor
vehicles have become a major concern, however, because of their
damaging effects in the form of acid rain. In addition, the strong
possibility exists that the steady increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide,
mainly as the result of the burning of the fossil fuels since the mid-1800s,
may affect Earth’s climate (see Greenhouse Effect).

 Similar concerns are posed by the sharp increase in atmospheric

methane. Methane levels have risen 11% since 1978. About 80% of the
gas is produced by decomposition of rice puddies, swamps, and the
 intestines of the grazing animals, and by tropical termites. Human
activities that tend to accelerate these processes include raising more
livestock and growing more rice. Besides adding to the greenhouse effect,
methane reduces the volume of atmospheric hydroxyl ions, thereby
curtailing the atmosphere’s ability to cleanse itself of pollutants. See also
Air Pollution; Climate; Smog.

 The study of air samples shows that up to at least 88 km (55mi) above sea
level the composition of the atmosphere is substantially the same as at
ground level; the continuous stirring produced by atmospheric currents
counteracts the tendency of the heavier gases so settle below the lighter
ones. In the lower atmosphere, ozone, a form of oxygen with three atoms
in each molecule, is normally present in extremely low concentrations.
The layer of atmosphere from 19 to 48 km (12 to 30 mi) up contains more
ozone, produced by the action of ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Even
in this layer, however, the percentage of ozone is only 0.001 by volume.
Atmospheric disturbances and downdrafts carry varying amounts of this
ozone to the surface of the Earth. Human activity adds to ozone in the
lower atmosphere, where it becomes a pollutant that can cause
extensive crop damage.

 The ozone layer became a subject of concern in the early 1970s, when it
was found that chemicals known as chlorofluocarbons (CFCs), or
cholofluoromethanes, were rising into the atmosphere in large quantities
because of their use as refrigerants and as propellants in aerosol
dispensers. The concern centered on the possibility that these
compounds, through the action of sunlight, could chemically attack and
destroy stratospheric ozone, which protects Earth’s surface from
excessive ultraviolet radiation. As a result, industries in the United States,
Europe, and Japan replaced chlorofluorocarbons in all but essential uses.
See Aerosol Dispenser; Ozone Layer; Photochemistry.

 The atmosphere may be divided into several layers. In the lowest one,
the troposphere, the temperature as a rule decreases upward at the rate
of 5.5oC per 1,000 m (3oF per 3,000 ft). This is the layer in which most
clouds occur (see Cloud). The troposphere extends up to about 16 km
(about 10 mi) in tropical regions (to a temperature of about -79oC, or
about -110oF and to about 9.7 km (about 6mi) in temperate latitudes (to
a temperature of about -51oC, or about -60oF). Above the troposphere is
the stratosphere. In the lower stratosphere the temperature is practically
constant or increases slightly with altitude, especial over tropical regions.
 Within the ozone layer the temperature rises more rapidly, and the
temperature at the upper boundary of the stratosphere, almost 50 km
(about 30mi) above sea level, is about the same as the temperature at
the surface of the Earth. The layer from 50 to 90 km (30 to 35 mi), called
the mesosphere, is characterized by a marked decrease in temperature
as the altitude increases.

 From investigations of the propagation of radio waves, it is known that

beginning at an altitude of 60 km (40 mi), ultraviolet radiation, X-rays,
and showers of electrons from the sun ionize several layers of
atmosphere, causing them to conduct electricity; these layers reflect
radio waves of certain frequencies back to Earth. Because of the
relatively high concentration of ions in the air above 60 km (40 mi), this
layer, extending to an altitude of about 1000 km (600 mi), is called the
ionosphere. At an altitude of about 90 km (55 mi), temperatures begin to
rise. The layer that begins at this altitude is called the thermosphere,
because of the high temperatures reached in this layer (about 1200 oC, or
about 2200oF. The region beyond the thermosphere is called the
exosphere which extends to about 9,600 km (6,000 mi), the outer limit of
the atmosphere.

 The density of dry air at sea level is about 1/800 the density of water; at
higher altitudes it decreases rapidly, being proportional to the pressure
and inversely proportional to the temperature. Pressure is measured by a
barometer and dis expressed in millibars, which are related to the height
of a column of mercury that the air pressure will support; 1 millibar
equals 0.75 mm (0.03 in) of mercury. Normal atmospheric pressure at sea
level is 1,013 millibars, that is, 760 mm (29.92 in ) of mercury. At an
altitude of 5.6 km (3.5 mi) pressure falls to about 507 millibars (380
mm/14.96 in of mercury); half of all the air in the atmosphere lies below
this level. The pressure is approximately halved for each additional
increase of 5.6 km in altitude. At 80 km (50 mi) the pressure is 0.009
millibars (0.0069 mm/0.00027 in of mercury).

 The troposphere and most of the stratosphere can be explored directly

by means of sounding balloons equipped with instruments to measure
the pressure and temperature of the air and with a radio transmitter to
send the data to a receiving station at the ground. Rockets carrying radios
that transmit meteorological-instrument readings have explored the
atmosphere to altitudes above 400 km (250 mi). Study of the form and
 spectrum of the polar lights gives information to a height possibly as
great as 800 km (500 mi).
 GLOSSARY:
1. Atmosphere - the envelope of gases surrounding the earth or another planet.
"part of the sun's energy is absorbed by the earth's atmosphere"

 simple definition of atmosphere?

An atmosphere is the layers of gases surrounding a planet or

other celestial body. Earth's atmosphere is composed of about
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and one percent other gases.

 Atmospheric layers:
 

 The Atmosphere: Composition, General Characteristics and Stability

o The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds Earth. In addition to
containing the oxygen you need to breath; the atmosphere protects you from
the sun’s damaging rays. The atmosphere is always changing. Every breath you
take, every tree that is planted, and every vehicle you ride in affects the
atmosphere’s composition.

o The atmosphere is made up mostly of nitrogen gas. The oxygen you breath
makes up a little more than 20% of the atmosphere. In addition to containing
nitrogen and oxygen, the atmosphere contains small particles, such as dust,
volcanic ash, sea salt, dirt, and smoke. The next time you turn off the lights at
night, shine a flashlight, and you will see some of these tiny particles floating in
the air.

o Water is also found in the atmosphere. Liquid water (water droplets) and solid
water (snow and ice crystals) are found in clouds. But most water in the
atmosphere exists as an invisible gas called water vapor. When atmospheric
conditions change, water vapor can change into solid or liquid water, and rain or
snow might fall from the sky.
o
o Composition of atmosphere:
 Nitrogen – 78% - dilutes oxygen and prevents rapid burning at the earth’s
surface. Living things need it to make proteins. Nitrogen cannot be used
directly from the air. The Nitrogen Cycle is nature’s way of supplying the
needed nitrogen for living things.
 Oxygen – 21% - used by all living things. Essential for respiration. It is
necessary for combustion or burning.
 Argon – 0.9% - used in light bulbs.
 Carbon Dioxide =- 0.03% - plants used it to make oxygen. Acts as a
blanket and prevents the escape of heat into outer space. Scientists are
afraid that the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil are adding more
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
 Water Vapor – 0.0 to 4.0% - essential for the processes. Also prevents
heat loss from the earth.
 Trace gases – gases found only in a very small amounts. They include
neon, helium. Krypton, and xenon.
o

o
o Structure of Atmosphere
o

o As Altitude Increases, Air Pressure Decrease

 The atmosphere is held around the Earth by gravity. Gravity pulls gas, molecules
in the atmosphere towards the Earth’s surface, causing air pressure. Air
pressure is the measure of the force with which air molecules push on a surface.
Air pressure is stronger at the Earth’s surface because more air is above you. As
you move further away from the Earth’s surface, fewer gas molecules are above
you. So, as altitude (distance from sea level) increases, air pressure decreases.
Think of air pressure as a human pyramid. The people at the bottom of the
pyramid can feel all the weight and pressure of the people on top. Air pressure
works in a similar way.

o Atmospheric Composition Affects Air Temperature

 Air temperature also changes as altitude increases. The temperature difference
results mainly from the way the solar energy is absorbed as it moves through
the atmosphere. Some parts of the atmosphere are warmer because they
contain a high percentage of gases that absorb solar energy. Other parts of the
atmosphere contain less of these gases and are cooler.
o 5 major environmental problems explain
 Ozone Depletion
 ozone depletion, gradual thinning of Earth's ozone layer in the
upper atmosphere caused by the release of chemical
compounds containing gaseous chlorine or bromine from
industry and other human activities. The thinning is most
pronounced in the polar regions, especially over Antarctica.
 

 Effects of ozone depletion

o Ozone layer depletion causes increased UV radiation
levels at the Earth's surface, which is damaging to
human health. Negative effects include increases in
certain types of skin cancers, eye cataracts and
immune deficiency disorders.


 Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming 

 The greenhouse effect works much the same way on Earth. Gases
in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, trap heat similar to the
glass roof of a greenhouse.
 The greenhouse effect is the way in which heat is trapped close to
Earth's surface by “greenhouse gases.” 
 The greenhouse effect is the way in which heat is trapped
close to Earth's surface by “greenhouse gases.” These heat-
trapping gases can be thought of as a blanket wrapped around
Earth, keeping the planet toastier than it would be without them.

 The main gases responsible for the greenhouse effect

include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
water vapor (which all occur naturally), and fluorinated
gases (which are synthetic).J
 One example of the greenhouse effect that most of us experience
in everyday life is the warming of a car's interior when the
vehicle is left out in the sun. You've probably noticed that your
car is always much hotter inside than the outside temperature if
it's been sitting there for a while.
 o

 Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth's climate

system observed since the pre-industrial period (between
1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel
burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas
levels in Earth's atmosphere.
 5 causes of global warming?
o Causes of Climate Change
 Heat-trapping Greenhouse Gases And The
Earth's Climate. ...
 Greenhouse Gases. ...
 Reflectivity or Absorption of the Sun's
Energy. ...
 Changes in the Earth's Orbit and Rotation. ...
 Variations in Solar Activity. ...
 Changes in the Earth's Reflectivity. ...
 Volcanic Activity.

 Desertification
 desertification, also called desertization, the process by which
natural or human causes reduce the biological productivity of
drylands (arid and semiarid lands).
 3 causes of desertification?
  The main causes of desertification include:
o Population growth - the population in some desert
areas is increasing. ...
o Removal of wood - in developing countries, people
use wood for cooking. ...
o Overgrazing - an increasing population results in
larger desert areas being farmed.
 What happens in desertification?



 Desertification is the conversion of habitable and fertile

land to uninhabitable desert. When a habitable and fertile
land loses its vegetation due to natural drought or human
activity, the land begins to change. It will become drier due
to lack of plants to shade the ground.
 Signs of desertification
o The signs, magnitude and severity of desertification
can be established through such hydrological
indicators as reduced area of water bodies,
increased runoff and consequently decreased
rainwater infiltration, accelerated soil erosion and
sedimentation, and deteriorated ground-water
resources.

 Deforestation
  Deforestation is the purposeful clearing of forested land.
Throughout history and into modern times, forests have been
razed to make space for agriculture and animal grazing, and to
obtain wood for fuel, manufacturing, and construction.
Deforestation has greatly altered landscapes around the world.
 Causes of deforestation?
 Industrial Agriculture. Look no further than your dinner plate,
because industrial agriculture accounts for around 85% of
deforestation worldwide. ...
 Timber Logging. ...
 Mining. ...
 Expansion and Infrastructure. ...
 Climate Change.
o Positive effects of deforestation
 One of the advantages of deforestation is its being a source of
income for farmers who cut down trees to be made into coal
and be sold as fuel. Moreover, trees from forests are also made
into construction and building materials to build houses.

o
 Loss of Biodiversity
 Biodiversity loss is caused by five primary drivers: habitat loss,
invasive species, overexploitation (extreme hunting and
fishing pressure), pollution, climate change associated with
global warming. In each case, human beings and their activities
play direct roles.
 Biodiversity loss, however, is not just confined to the land. Life in
the oceans is being threatened by overfishing, habitat
degradation, pollution, and acidification due to rising carbon
dioxide levels in the sea water. Corals, for example, have
undergone dramatic declines since the mid-1990s.
 o

 Humidity
o Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. If there is a lot of water
vapor in the air, the humidity will be high. The higher the humidity, the
wetter it feels outside. On the weather reports, humidity is usually
explained as relative humidity.
o Humidity is the presence of water molecules in the air. High humidity
levels are more likely in warm air, because it can hold more water at
higher temperatures. If the air in your home is warm, it will also have the
capacity to hold a lot of moisture.
 What happens when humidity is low?
o Low humidity causes static electricity, dry skin, lips and hair, scratchy
throats and noses, and itching and chapping. Mucous membranes in
nose and throat dry out, increasing your discomfort and susceptibility to
colds and respiratory illness.

 Cloud physics
o Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation,
growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds.
o Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water, tiny crystals of
ice, or both. Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water
 vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a
critical value according to Köhler theory.
o Clouds form when the invisible water vapor in the air condenses into visible
water droplets or ice crystals. For this to happen, the parcel of air must be
saturated, i.e. unable to hold all the water it contains in vapor form, so it starts to
condense into a liquid or solid form.
o No matter what shape or size they are, clouds are essential to life on
Earth. During the day they help protect us from the sun's intense
heat. At night they act as a blanket to keep us from getting too cold. They
also provide precipitation and signal weather changes and patterns.



 General Circulation: Thermal Circulation and Earth’s Rotation
o General Circulation. Local fire-weather elements-wind, temperature,
moisture, and stability-respond continually to the varying patterns of
pressure systems and to the changing properties of huge masses of air
moving in generally predictable circulations over the earth's surface.
o The reason we have different weather patterns, jet streams, deserts and
prevailing winds is all because of the global atmospheric circulation
caused by the rotation of the Earth and the amount of heat different
parts of the globe receive.
