Introduction to the Atmosphere

This section provides a brief overview of the properties associated with the
atmosphere. The general concepts found in this section are:

⦁ The earth's atmosphere is a very thin layer wrapped around a very

large planet.
⦁ Two gases make up the bulk of the earth's atmosphere: nitrogen ( ),
which comprises 78% of the atmosphere, and oxygen ( ), which
accounts for 21%. Various trace gases make up the remainder.
⦁ Based on temperature, the atmosphere is divided into four layers: the
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
⦁ Energy is transferred between the earth's surface and the atmosphere
via conduction, convection, and radiation.
⦁ Ocean currents play a significant role in transferring this heat poleward.
Major currents, such as the northward flowing Gulf Stream, transport
tremendous amounts of heat poleward and contribute to the
development of many types of weather phenomena.

Atmospheric Properties
The thin envelope of air that surrounds our planet is a mixture of gases, each
with its own physical properties. The mixture is far from evenly divided. Two
elements, nitrogen and oxygen, make up 99% of the volume of air. The other
1% is composed of "trace" gases, the most prevalent of which is the inert
gaseous element argon. The rest of the trace gases, although present in only
minute amounts, are very important to life on earth. Two in particular, carbon
dioxide and ozone, can have a large impact on atmospheric processes.

Another gas, water vapor, also exists in small amounts. It varies in

concentration from being almost non-existent over desert regions to about 4%
over the oceans. Water vapor is important to weather production since it
exists in gaseous, liquid, and solid phases and absorbs radiant energy from
the earth.

Structure of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is divided vertically into four layers based on temperature:

the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
Throughout the Cycles unit, we'll focus primarily on the layer in which we live
in the troposphere.

Troposphere

The word troposphere comes from tropein, meaning to turn or change. All of
the earth's weather occurs in the troposphere. The troposphere has the
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following characteristics.

⦁ It extends from the earth's surface to an average of 12 km (7 miles).

⦁ The pressure ranges from 1000 to 200 millibars (29.92 in. to 5.92 in.).
⦁ The temperature generally decreases with increasing height up to the
tropopause (top of the troposphere); this is near 200 millibars or
36,000 ft.
⦁ The temperature averages 15°C (59°F) near the surface and -57°C
(-71°F) at the tropopause.
⦁ The layer ends at the point where temperature no longer varies with
height. This area, known as the tropopause, marks the transition to the
stratosphere.
⦁ Winds increase with height up to the jet stream.
⦁ The moisture concentration decreases with height up to the
tropopause.
⦁ The air is much drier above the tropopause, in the stratosphere.
⦁ The sun's heat that warms the earth's surface is transported upwards
largely by convection and is mixed by updrafts and downdrafts.
⦁ The troposphere is 70% N2 and 21% O2. The lower density of molecules
higher up would not give us enough O2 to survive.

Stratosphere

The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere and extends to 50

kilometers (31 miles) high. Compared to the troposphere, this part of the
atmosphere is dry and less dense. The temperature in this region increases
gradually to -3 degrees Celsius, due to the absorbtion of ultraviolet radiation.
The ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet radiation, is
in this layer. Ninety-nine percent of "air" is located in the troposphere and
stratosphere. The stratopause separates the stratosphere from the next
layer.

Mesosphere

The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 85

kilometers (53 miles) high. In this region, the temperatures again fall as low
as -93 degrees Celsius as you increase in altitude. The chemicals are in an
excited state, as they absorb energy from the Sun. The mesopause
separates the mesophere from the thermosphere.

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 thermosphere

aeroplanes fly in stratosphere.

The regions of the stratosphere and the mesosphere, along with the
stratopause and mesopause, are called the middle atmosphere by scientists.
This area has been closely studied on the ATLAS Spacelab mission series.

Thermosphere

The thermosphere starts just above the mesosphere and extends to 600
kilometers (372 miles) high. The temperatures go up as you increase in
altitude due to the Sun's energy. Temperatures in this region can go as high
as 1,727 degrees Celsius. Chemical reactions occur much faster here than on
the surface of the Earth. This layer is known as the upper atmosphere.

Composition of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is primarily composed of Nitrogen (N2, 78%), Oxygen (O2,

21%), and Argon (Ar, 1%). A myriad of other very influential components are
also present which include the water (H2O, 0 - 7%), "greenhouse" gases or
Ozone (O<SUB3< SUB>, 0 - 0.01%), Carbon Dioxide (CO2, 0.01-0.1%),

Nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) constitute 99% of the dry atmosphere. The
rest of the gases, including GHGs, are collectively classified as "trace" gases
due to their low concentrations. The recent attention given to the greenhouse
effect and global warming is based on the recorded increases in

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concentrations of some of the greenhouse gases due to human activity. Of
particular interest are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
chlorofluorocarbons, and ozone. With the exception of chlorofluorocarbons,
all of these gases occur naturally and are also produced by human activity.

Water vapor is the most important GHG on the planet. Unlike most of the
other atmospheric gases, water vapor is considered to be a 'variable' gas; that
is, the percentage of water vapor in the atmosphere can vary greatly
depending on the location and source of the air. For example, over the
tropical oceans, water vapor may account for 4% of the total volume of gases,
while over deserts or at high altitudes, it may be nearly absent. Water vapor
absorbs heat readily. When discussing gobal warming, however, people often
don't consider water vapor. Why not? The main reason is that human activity
is not directly changing water vapor content. However, we do directly
influence other GHGs. Although other GHGs are individually less important
than water vapor, increasing their concentrations may affect global climate in
significant and measurable ways.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is considered the most important human-influenced

GHG. Scientific measurements reveal an unmistakable global increase that is
rapid and escalating. This increase arises primarily from the burning of fossil
fuels (motorized vehicles, electric power plants, and homes heated with gas
or oil) and the burning and clearing of forested land for agricultural purposes.

Methane (CH4) is largely a product of natural biologic processes, but its

output can be accelerated by human activities. Methane is emitted from the
decay of organic matter in waterlogged soils (for example, wetlands and rice
paddies) and from the digestive tracts of grazing animals (for example,
ruminants). The additions from human activities include the expansion of rice
agriculture, the increased number of livestock, the increased number of
landfills, and leakage from natural gas pipelines.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have no natural source; they are produced

entirely by human activity. CFCs have historically been used widely as
refrigerants in air conditioners, refrigerators, freezers, and heat pumps. They
are found in some foam plastics and used in some electronics manufacturing.
Even though CFC production has been vastly reduced, these compounds
remain in the atmosphere for a long time; we shall see their effects as GHGs
for many years.

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a naturally occurring GHG, which has increased

significantly in recent years due to human activity. N2O is emitted from coal-
burning power plants and can be released from the breakdown of chemical
fertilizers in the soil.

Ozone (O3) is also a greenhouse gas. It is important not to confuse the

presence of the ozone in the stratosphere (a good thing) with the presence of
ozone in the troposphere (a bad thing). In the troposphere, ozone can be a
major component of urban smog damaging crops and aggravating respiratory
problems as well as enhancing the greenhouse effect.

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Atmospheric Processes

Interactions between Atmosphere and Ocean

In the Cycles overview, we learned that water is an essential part of the

earth's system. The oceans cover nearly three-quarters of the earth's surface
and play an important role in exchanging and transporting heat and moisture
in the atmosphere.

⦁ Most of the water vapor in the atmosphere comes from the oceans.
⦁ Most of the precipitation falling over land finds its way back to
oceans.
⦁ About two-thirds returns to the atmosphere via the water cycle.

The oceans and atmosphere interact extensively. Oceans not only act as an
abundant moisture source for the atmosphere but also as a heat source and
sink (storage).

The exchange of heat and moisture has profound effects on atmospheric

processes near and over the oceans. Ocean currents play a significant role
in transferring this heat poleward. Major currents, such as the northward
flowing Gulf Stream, transport tremendous amounts of heat poleward and
contribute to the development of many types of weather phenomena. They
also warm the climate of nearby locations. Conversely, cold southward
flowing currents, such as the California current, cool the climate of nearby
locations.

Energy Heat Transfer

Practically all of the energy that reaches the earth comes from the sun.
Intercepted first by the atmosphere, a small part is directly absorbed,
particularly by certain gases such as ozone and water vapor. Some energy is
also reflected back to space by clouds and the earth's surface.

Energy is transferred between the earth's surface and the atmosphere via
conduction, convection, and radiation.

Conduction is the process by which heat energy is transmitted through

contact with neighboring molecules.

Some solids, such as metals, are good conductors of heat while others, such
as wood, are poor conductors. Air and water are relatively poor conductors.

Since air is a poor conductor, most energy transfer by conduction occurs right
at the earth's surface. At night, the ground cools and the cold ground
conducts heat away from the adjacent air. During the day, solar radiation
heats the ground, which heats the air next to it by conduction.

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Convection transmits heat by transporting groups of molecules from place to
place within a substance. Convection occurs in fluids such as water and air,
which move freely.

In the atmosphere, convection includes large- and small-scale rising and

sinking of air masses and smaller air parcels. These vertical motions
effectively distribute heat and moisture throughout the atmospheric column
and contribute to cloud and storm development (where rising motion occurs)
and dissipation (where sinking motion occurs).
To understand the convection cells that distribute heat over the whole earth,
let's consider a simplified, smooth earth with no land/sea interactions and a
slow rotation. Under these conditions, the equator is warmed by the sun more
than the poles. The warm, light air at the equator rises and spreads northward
and southward, and the cool dense air at the poles sinks and spreads toward
the equator. As a result, two convection cells are formed.

Meanwhile, the slow rotation of the earth toward the east causes the air to be
deflected toward the right in the northern hemisphere and toward the left in
the southern hemisphere. This deflection of the wind by the earth's rotation is
known as the Coriolis effect.

Radiation is the transfer of heat energy without the involvement of a physical

substance in the transmission. Radiation can transmit heat through a vacuum.
Energy travels from the sun to the earth by means of electromagnetic waves.
The shorter the wavelength, the higher the energy associated with it. This is
demonstrated in the animation below. As the drill's revolutions per minute
(RPMs) increase, the number of waves generated on the string increases, as
does the oscillation rate. The same principle applies to electromagnetic
waves from the sun, where shorter wavelength radiation has higher energy
than longer wavelength radiation.

Most of the sun's radiant energy is concentrated in the visible and near-visible
portions of the spectrum. Shorter-than-visible wavelengths account for a small
percentage of the total but are extremely important because they have much
higher energy. These are known as ultraviolet wavelengths.

The Water Cycle

Water, in its different forms, cycles continuously through the lithosphere,

hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Water evaporates into the
atmosphere from the land and the sea. Plants and animals use and reuse
water and release water vapor into the air. Once in the air, water vapor
circulates and can condense to form clouds and precipitation, which fall back
to earth. At one time or another, all of the water molecules on earth have
been in an ocean, a river, a plant, an animal, a cloud, a raindrop, a snowflake,
or a glacier. As far as we know, earth is the only planet with water in three
phases: solid, liquid, and gas. The phase of water is determined by its
temperature and pressure.

Water is essential for life on earth. It is recycled through the water or

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hydrologic cycle, which involves the following processes:

⦁ Evaporation, the changing of water from a liquid to a gas

⦁ Condensation, the changing of water from a gas to a liquid
⦁ Sublimation, the changing of water from a solid to a gas
⦁ Precipitation, the process by which water molecules condense to
form drops heavy enough to fall to the earth's surface
⦁ Transpiration, the process by which moisture is carried through
plants from roots to leaves, where it changes to vapor and is
released to the atmosphere
⦁ Surface runoff, the flowing of water over the land from higher to
lower ground
⦁ Infiltration, the process of water filling the porous spaces of soil
⦁ Percolation, groundwater moving in the saturated zone below the
earth's surface
Through these processes, the amount of water on earth remains nearly
constant and is continually recycled through time. Water molecules may
remain in one form for a very long period of time (for example, water
molecules can be locked in Antarctic ice for thousands of years) and in other
forms for very short times (for example, water molecules in desert rainstorms
spend mere minutes as surface water before evaporating into vapor again).