CHAPTER 3

THE ATMOSPHERE AND ITS MOVEMENT

MODULE 3.1

1. Identify the four gases that make up our atmosphere and give their approximate
percentage.

- The four gases that make up our atmosphere are argon, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and oxygen. The
nitrogen is the most abundant gas in out atmosphere (78 percent), followed by oxygen (21 percent),
then argon (0.93 percent) and carbon dioxide (0.038 percent). Water vapor and other gases exist in
much smaller amount in our atmosphere.

2. What is the atmospheric pressure?

- Atmospheric pressure, also called barometric pressure, force per unit area exerted by an
atmospheric column (that is, the entire body of air above the specified area). Atmospheric
pressure can be measured with a mercury barometer (hence the commonly used synonym
barometric pressure), which indicates the height of a column of mercury that exactly balances
the weight of the column of atmosphere over the barometer. Atmospheric pressure is also measured
using an aneroid barometer, in which the sensing element is one or more hollow, partially evacuated,
corrugated metal disks supported against collapse by an inside or outside spring; the change in the
shape of the disk with changing pressure can be recorded using a pen arm and a clock-driven
revolving drum.

3. Differentiate mercury barometer from aneroid barometer.

- A mercury barometer is a barometer in which the weight of a column of mercury in a

glasstubewith a sealed top is balanced against that of the atmosphere
pressing on an exposedcistern of mercury at the base of the mercury column,
the height of the column varying withatmospheric pressure. While the aneroid barometer is
a device for measuring atmospheric
pressure, often specially calibrated for use as an altimeter, consisting of a box or chamber
partially exhausted of air, having an elastic top and a pointer to
indicate the degree ofcompression of the top caused by the external air.
 4. Draw the mercury and aneroid barometer. Identify.

ANSWER:

I. mercury barometer II.aneroid barometer

5. What happens to the air temperature as the gas molecules that make up the air move
about more rapidly?

ANSWER: The temperature is rising. An analogy would be when boiling water, the water and air
molecules move very quickly to produce vapour.
When freezing water, temperature drops and thus molecules would "freeze" or become slower

6. What is radiant energy?

ANSWER: Radiant energy is the energy of electromagnetic waves. It is a form of energy that can
travel through space. For example, we receive the heat from the sun, which is located very far from
the earth via radiation. The sun's heat is not transmitted through any solid medium, but through a
vacuum. This is possible by electromagnetic waves.
 7. Describe greenhouse effect.

ANSWER: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere
warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere. If a
planet's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) they will radiate
energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it. The intensity
of the downward radiation – that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect – will depend on the
atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains.
Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life. Human activities, primarily the burning
of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have intensified the natural greenhouse effect, causing global
warming. The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing
through glass and warming a greenhouse. The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally
different, as a greenhouse works mostly by reducing airflow and thus retaining warm air inside the
structure.

8. List the components that make up the greenhouse effect.

ANSWER: Components of greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result
from human activities such as burning of fossil fuels such as coal. Greenhouse gases include water
vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. The major greenhouse gases are water
vapor, which causes about 36-70% of the greenhouse effect on Earth (not including clouds); carbon
dioxide, which causes 9-26%; methane, which causes 4-9%, and ozone, which causes 3-7%. It is not
possible to state that a certain gas causes a certain percentage of the greenhouse effect, because
the influences of the various gases are not additive. (The higher ends of the ranges quoted are for the
gas alone; the lower ends, for the gas counting overlaps.) Other greenhouse gases include, but are
not limited to, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and
chlorofluorocarbons.

MODULE 3.2

1. Describe how water moves into and out of the atmosphere

ANSWER: Water moves into and out of the atmosphere in the process of water cycle. Heat from the
Sun causes water to evaporate from the surface of lakes and oceans. This turns the liquid water into
water vapor in the atmosphere.Plants, too, help water get into the atmosphere through a process
called transpiration! After absorbing water from the ground, plants “sweat” water vapor through their
leaves to stay cool.Water can also get into the atmosphere from snow and ice. Instead of melting,
some frozen water changes into water vapor gas and goes into the atmosphere through a process
called sublimation.

On average, water spends about eight days in the atmosphere before it falls back to Earth. It travels
in the wind over oceans and over land. That sounds like quite an exciting trip!When the water vapor
comes out of the air, it often causes precipitation like rain and snow. First, when water vapor is cooled
it transforms into tiny droplets of liquid water or ice crystals that grab onto particles of dust in the
atmosphere. Tons of these little droplets or ice crystals make clouds. When you look at clouds from
the ground, the tiny droplets and ice are too far away to see, but many of them together look like a
cloud. If the droplets or ice crystals get large enough, they fall from the sky as rain or snow.

2. What is cloud?

ANSWER: A cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets, frozen crystals,
or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body. The droplets and
crystals may be made of water or various chemicals. On Earth, clouds are formed as a result of
saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point, or when it gains sufficient moisture (usually in
the form of water vapor) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature.
They are seen in the Earth's homosphere (which includes the troposphere, stratosphere,
andmesosphere).

3. Explain how water vapor condenses into water droplets to form a cloud.

ANSWER: The water evaporated from the hotter surface of the Earth to the atmosphere. Water
molecules will combine with tiny particles of dust, salt, and smoke in the air to form cloud droplets,
which grow and develop into clouds, a form of water we can see. Cloud droplets can vary greatly in
size, from 10 microns (millionths of a meter) to 1 millimeter (mm), and even as large as 5 mm. This
process occurs higher in the sky where the air is cooler and more condensation occurs relative to
evaporation. As water droplets combine (also known as coalescence) with each other, and grow in
size, clouds not only develop, but precipitation may also occur.

4. Draw and identify the standard types of clouds.

ANSWER:
 5. What are the main parts of the water cycle?

ANSWER: The water cycle consists of three major processes: evaporation, condensation, and
precipitation.

Evaporation - The process of a liquid's surface changing to a gas. In the water cycle, liquid water (in
the ocean, lakes, or rivers) evaporates and becomes water vapor. Water vapor surrounds us, as an
important part of the air we breathe. Water vapor is also an important greenhouse gas. Greenhouse
gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide insulate the Earth and keep the planet warm enough
to maintain life as we know it. The water cycle's evaporation process is driven by the sun. As the sun
interacts with liquid water on the surface of the ocean, the water becomes an invisible gas (water
vapor). Evaporation is also influenced by wind, temperature, and the density of the body of water.

Condensation - The process of a gas changing to a liquid. In the water cycle, water vapor in the
atmosphere condenses and becomes liquid. Condensation can happen high in the atmosphere or at
ground level. Clouds form as water vapor condenses, or becomes more concentrated (dense). Water
vapor condenses around tiny particles called cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). CCN can be specks
of dust, salt, or pollutants. Clouds at ground level are called fog or mist.Like evaporation,
condensation is also influenced by the sun. As water vapor cools, it reaches its saturation limit,
or dew point. Air pressure is also an important influence on the dew point of an area.

Precipitation- It describes any liquid or solid water that falls to Earth as a result of condensation in
the atmosphere. Precipitation includes rain, snow, and hail.Fog is not precipitation. The water in fog
does not actually precipitate, or liquify and fall to Earth. Fog and mist are a part of the water cycle
called suspensions: They are liquid water suspended in the atmosphere.Precipitation is one of many
ways water is cycled from the atmosphere to the Earth or ocean.

MODULE 3.3

1. What is an air mass?

ANSWER: Air mass is a volume of air defined by its temperature and water vapor content. Air
masses cover many hundreds or thousands of square miles, and adapt to the characteristics of the
surface below them. They are classified according to latitude and their continental or maritime source
regions.

2. How does as air mass formed?

ANSWER: Air masses are formed when air stagnates for long periods of time over a uniform surface.
The characteristic temperature and moisture of air masses are determined by the surface over which
they form. An air mass acquires these attributes through heat and moisture exchanges with the
surface.
3. List the four types of air masses as you describe each.

ANSWER: There are four types of air masses: Maritime Tropical, Continental Tropical, Maritime Polar
and Continental Polar.

 Maritime tropical - Maritime tropical air masses originate over oceans, within 25 degrees latitude
of the equator. They are associated with warm, humid conditions and high dew points. Clouds
often accompany maritime tropical air masses, ushering in the potential for rain and storms. In
fact, most of the thunderstorms that occur in the U.S. develop in the presence of maritime tropical
air masses. Maritime tropical air masses influence the U.S. more during summer than during
winter, and exert the greatest influence in the Southeastern states.

 Continental Tropical - Continental tropical air masses also form within 25 degrees latitude of the
equator, but unlike maritime tropical air masses, they form over land instead of the sea.
Continental tropical air masses typically spell dry weather, with cloudless skies, low humidity and
negligible precipitation. Daytime temperatures become quite sweltering, but the mercury is apt to
drop off sharply after sunset, as the cloudless skies promote the dispersion of heat into the
atmosphere. Continental tropical air masses normally only influence weather in the U.S. in the
summertime, and are most common in the Southwestern states.

 Maritime Polar - Maritime polar air masses typically form over bodies of water north of 60
degrees latitude in the northern hemisphere and south of 60 degrees latitude in the southern
hemisphere. Maritime polar air masses produce cool, damp conditions. Considerable cloudiness,
including fog, often accompanies maritime polar air masses. Precipitation is also common.
Depending on the time of year, precipitation may come in the form of rain or snow and can be
substantial. In the U.S., maritime polar air masses are usually confined to the Pacific Northwest,
although they occasionally affect New England.

 Continental Polar - Like maritime polar air masses, continental polar air masses originate at high
latitudes, but unlike maritime polar air masses, continental polar air masses form over land.
Continental polar air masses bring about dry and cool to cold weather. Humidity and dew points
are low, and any precipitation that falls tends to be light, due to the high pressure that typically
accompanies these air masses. Some meteorologists recognize a subtype of continental polar air
masses, which they refer to as Arctic or continental Arctic. Basically, such air masses are colder,
harsher versions of the continental polar variety. In the U.S., continental polar and Arctic air
masses most often affect the eastern two-thirds of the country, albeit with diminishing intensity
further south.
 4. How does a meteorologist make weather observations?

ANSWER: Meteorologists are able to predict the changes in weather patterns by using several
different tools. They use these tools to measure atmospheric conditions that occurred in the past and
present, and they apply this information to create educated guesses about the future weather. Always
remember that a weather forecast is an educated guess – meteorologists (and mankind, in general)
cannot control the weather. The best we can do is observe past and present atmospheric patterns
and data, and apply this information to what we think will happen in the future. Meteorologists use the
scientific method on a daily – and even hourly – basis!

Meteorologists use many different tools for different purposes. Most people are familiar with
thermometers, barometers, and anemometers for measuring temperature, air pressure, and wind
speed, respectively. Meteorologists use other tools, as well. For example, weather balloons are
special balloons that have a weather pack on them that measures temperature, air pressure, wind
speed, and wind direction in all the layers of the troposphere.

Meteorologists also use satellites to observe cloud patterns around the world, and radar is used to
measure precipitation. All of this data is then plugged into super computers, which use numerical
forecast equations to create forecast models of the atmosphere. These forecast models can be both
correct and incorrect, so meteorologists must be careful and determine whether they agree with the
model or not. If the meteorologists disagree with the model, then they must determine a different
outlook for their forecast.

5. List the time frame of validity of weather forecasting as you describe each.

ANSWER: Meteorologists explain why forecasts for today’s weather are generally more accurate
than weather forecasts further ahead in the future. Here are some brief explanation on the different
types of forecast ranges.

 A short-range forecast is a weather forecast made for a time period up to 48 hours.Short-range

forecast predictions, where the forecast is made for a time period for today and/or tomorrow (up
to 48 hours), are generally more accurate than the other types of forecasts.
 Extended forecasts are for a period extending beyond three or more days (eg. a three to five-
day period) from the day of issuance.
 Medium range forecasts are for a period extending from about three days to seven days in
advance.
 Long-range forecasts are for a period greater than seven days in advance but there are no
absolute limits to the period.

6. How does a thunderstorm form?

ANSWER: The action of warm air rising and cold air sinking (convection) plays a key role in the formation
of severe thunderstorms. If the warm surface air is forced to rise, it will continue to rise, because it is less
dense than the surrounding air. In addition, it will transfer heat from the land surface to upper levels of the
atmosphere through the process of convect
MODULE 3.4

1. What is climate? How is it different from weather?

ANSWER: Both weather and climate refer to local conditions (temperature, rainfall, wind strength, etc.) in
a particular location or region, but the main difference between them is a matter of time. “Weather” refers
to local conditions on the scale of minutes, hours, days, and even months to years: you can have a
particularly wet month, warm winter, or rainy decade.[2,3] “Climate” is an average of weather conditions
over 30 years or more, and can be assessed for a single location, large area, or globally.[2,3] While
weather can change dramatically in a single location from day to day (for example, cold and rainy one
day, followed by hot, dry conditions the next day), climate generally changes less quickly because it
represents the average of weather conditions over a longer period of time.

2. What are the factors that causes climate variations?

ANSWER:

Latitude or distance from the equator

Temperatures drop the further an area is from the equator due to the curvature of the earth. In areas
closer to the poles, sunlight has a larger area of atmosphere to pass through and the sun is at a lower
angle in the sky. As a result, more energy is lost and temperatures are cooler.
In addition, the presence of ice and snow nearer the poles causes a higher albedo, meaning that more
solar energy is reflected, also contributing to the cold.

Altitude or height above sea level

Locations at a higher altitude have colder temperatures. Temperature usually decreases by 1°C for every
100 metres in altitude.
Distance from the sea
Oceans heat up and cool down much more slowly than land. This means that coastal locations tend to be
cooler in summer and warmer in winter than places inland at the same latitude and altitude. Glasgow, for
example, is at a similar latitude to Moscow, but is much milder in winter because it is nearer to the coast
than Moscow..
Ocean currents
Britain has a maritime climate. A warm ocean current called the North Atlantic Drift keeps Britain
warmer and wetter than places in continental Europe.
Prevailing wind
The prevailing wind is the most frequent wind direction a location experiences. In Britain the prevailing
wind is from the south west, which brings warm, moist air from the Atlantic Ocean. This contributes to the
frequent rainfall. When prevailing winds blow over land areas, it can contribute to creating desert
climates.
 3. How do temperature variations occur over a given area?

ANSWER: The Variation of Temperature

Diurnal Variation of Surface Temperature

The change in surface temperature from day to night is referred to as the diurnal variation. During the 24
hour day/night cycle temperature changes are less pronounced over the sea than over the land. The
diurnal variation in sea-surface temperature is usually less than 1°C, and the air temperature near the
water surface is usually similar.

On the other hand, in desert regions in the interior of continents, surface air temperatures may vary by
26°C from day to night. In Figure 3.1, a typical inland diurnal change of temperature is depicted ranging
between A and B. Near the coast, however, the diurnal variation of temperature depends on the direction
of the wind, being largest if the wind is off the land and small if it is from the sea. Local land and sea
breezes also tend to reduce the range of temperature variations near the coast.

The diurnal variation of surface air temperature tends to be greatest if calm conditions prevail. If it is
windy, mixing of the air occurs through a deeper layer. Mixing within the atmosphere enables the gain of
heat by day and the loss by night to be shared by more molecules of the atmospheric gases. As a result,
the diurnal range of temperature is reduced during windy conditions.

Cloudiness also reduces the diurnal range of temperature. During the daytime clouds reflect radiation
back to space while at night they act like a blanket keeping the air near the earth's surface warmer.
Diurnal variation of surface air temperatures is therefore relatively small during cloudy conditions.

The type of surface (open fields, forests, deserts and oceans) and the ability of the underlying material to
conduct heat to or from the atmosphere affects the diurnal range of air temperature in the lower layers.
However, the nature of the neighbouring terrain is also important, because the temperature at a particular
place may be affected by the flow of warm or cold air from adjacent areas.

Figure 3.1: Surface and vertical variations in temperature.

Temperature Variation in the Vertical within the Troposphere

As already mentioned previously, the temperature decreases with altitude in the troposphere at about 2°C
per 1000 feet (6.5°C per kilometre). This means if the temperature at sea level is 15°C, on average it will
decrease to a value of -15°C at 15 000 feet (i.e. a fall of 30°C).
The rate of change of temperature with altitude is called the temperature lapse rate. Although the typical
lapse rate (Figure 3.1 line E to D) is for decreasing temperature with height there are many variations.
Actual lapse rates, particularly near the earth's surface, vary markedly from the average.

Thin layers of air in contact with the ground, if heated by conduction and radiation from very hot surfaces
will have lapse rates far exceeding the average. For example, a temperature of 44°C at 1.25 m above a
runway surface temperature of 81°C has been observed at Melbourne Airport. In such conditions the
lapse rate would be extreme within a few centimetres of the ground. However, because air is a poor
conductor of heat, extreme lapse rates are not sustained to any depth. Similarly, shallow layers of air in
contact with very cold surfaces may have extreme reversed lapse rates (temperature warms with height).

Inversions

When temperatures increase with altitude an inversion is said to occur across the affected layer, i.e. the
normal change of temperature in the troposphere has been inverted or reversed (Figure 3.1 line B to C).

Inversions limit vertical development of cloud and trap pollutants resulting in reduced visibility. They also
constrain or trap air within confined boundaries and therefore are often associated with turbulence and
wind shear.

The troposphere, where the vast majority of weather develops, is contained by the tropopause inversion
as illustrated previously in Figure 1.1.

Isothermal layers

When temperatures do not change with altitude (the temperature lapse rate is zero) the affected layer is
said to be isothermal, i.e. the temperature remains the same for some vertical distance as illustrated by
the line between D and C in Figure 3.1.

4. Name three major groups of climate that are based on yearly temperature averages.
Describe each.

ANSWER:
POLAR ZONE
The polar climate zones fill the areas within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, extending from 66.5
degrees north and south latitude to the poles. Characterized by a short, cool summer and long,
bitterly cold winter, the polar zone features frequent snowfall, particularly during the winter
months. The far northern portions of Canada, Europe and Russia fall within this climate zone.
Farther north and south, the ice caps that make up Greenland and Antarctica represent a sub-
zone of the polar climate region known as the ice cap zone. Within the ice caps, temperatures
rarely, if ever, rise above freezing, even during the warmest months of the years.

TEMPERATE ZONE
Extending from the southern edge of the Arctic Circle to the Tropic of Cancer in the northern
hemisphere, and the northern edge of the Antarctic Circle to the Tropic of Capricorn in the
southern hemisphere, the temperate climate zone falls between 23.5 degrees and 66.5 degrees
north and south latitudes. Temperate climate zones experience warm to hot summers and cool
winters, with the greatest temperature variations throughout the year of any climate zone.
Climate within the temperate regions ranges from the cold, snowy winters of New England to
the balmy, moderate weather associated with the Mediterranean or Southern California. Much
of the United States, Europe and the southern half of South America fall within this climate
zone.

TROPICAL ZONE
The tropical climate zone stretches from the Tropic of Cancer at 23.5 degrees north latitude to
the Tropic of Capricorn at 23.5 degrees south latitude, with the equator centered within this
zone. Climate within the tropical zone varies from the tropical wet regions of the rain forest, to the
drier arid and semi-arid climate of north Africa or central Australia. Within the tropical wet zone, the
weather remains hot and muggy, with frequent rainfall and little temperature variation. The arid and
semi-arid regions experience wet, warm summers and cooler, drier winters, with much greater
temperature variation than the tropical wet zone.

5. Name the three pairs of cells in the hemisphere due to rotation of the earth. Describe each
pair.

ANSWER: there are three distinct wind cells - Hadley Cells, Ferrel Cells, and Polar Cells - that
divide the troposphere into regions of essentially closed wind circulations. In this arrangement, heat from
the equator generally sinks around 30° latitude where the Hadley Cells end. As a result, the warmest air
does not reach the poles. If atmospheric dynamics were different, however, it is plausible that one large
overturning circulation per hemisphere could exist and that wind from the low-latitudes could transport
heat to the high-latitudes. As an explanation for equable climates, Brian Farrell presented this idea in
1990 and advocated that during equable climates, the Hadley Cells extended from the equator to the
poles (Farrell, 1990).

Hadley Cells are the low-latitude overturning circulations that have air rising at the equator and
air sinking at roughly 30° latitude. They are responsible for the trade winds in the Tropics and control low-
latitude weather patterns. Held and Hou (1980) outlined the dynamics of this circulation through a
simplified model of the Hadley Cell. For the model, there are three main assumptions. First, the Hadley
Cell circulation is constant. Second, the air moving toward the poles in the upper atmosphere conserves
its axial angular momentum, while the surface air moving equatorwards is slowed down by friction. Third,
the thermal wind balance holds for the circulation (Vallis, 2006). For simplicity, the model is also
symmetric around the equator. These initial assumptions make the explanation of Hadley Cell dynamics
much simpler.

Angular momentum is defined as the cross product of a particle's distance from the axis of
rotation, r, and the particle's linear momentum, p. In the Hadley Cell as an air particle moves toward the
high-latitudes, it becomes closer to the Earth's spin axis, so r becomes smaller. If angular momentum is
conserved in the Hadley Cell as Held and Hou (1980) assume, p must become larger to balance the
decrease in r. P equals mass times velocity. Since the mass of the air particle cannot change, the velocity
of the particle must increase. In the case of the Hadley Cell, the velocity in question is the zonal (east-
west) velocity, so as the particle moves poleward, the velocity must increase in the eastward direction.
Eventually, the zonal velocity is so strong that the particle stops moving poleward and only travels to the
east. At this latitude, air sinks, and then to close the loop, it returns to the equator along the surface.
Therefore, because of the conservation of angular momentum, Hadley Cells exist only from the equator to
the mid-latitudes.

This scenario holds as long as the initial assumptions are valid. Brian Farrell, however, argues
that the assumptions are not accurate for equable climates and that during equable climates; angular
momentum is not conserved in poleward moving particles (1990). He claims that angular momentum
sinks, essentially sources of friction, could have been stronger during the Eocene and the Cretaceous.
Farrell estimates that the friction term in his model would increase by eightfold under equable climate
conditions. This change would prevent angular momentum from being conserved. In this situation, the
zonal velocity would not become strong enough to stop air from moving poleward. Instead, air from the
equator would be able to travel all the way to the poles in extended Hadley Cells.

Based off of Venus' atmosphere's behavior, Farrell argues that another way to extend the Hadley
Cells would be to increase the height of the tropopause. This change would increase the poleward
moving air's Rossby number. The Rossby number describes the importance of the Coriolis force in
atmospheric dynamics. A higher Rossby number means that the Coriolis force has a smaller impact on a
particle, so if the height of the tropopause increased enough, the Rossby number would become high
enough to make the Coriolis force negligible. As a result, particles would not diverge from their path as
they moved poleward, and the Hadley Cells would reach the poles. To explain how the tropopause height
could increase, Farrell states that the height is correlated to surface temperature and that a 1°C increase
in sea surface temperature causes the tropopause potential temperature to rise by roughly 7.5°C. Raising
the average equatorial sea surface temperature to 32°C from its current 27°C would increase the
potential temperature of the tropopause by 37°C. There temperature increases would almost double the
static stability at the tropopause. For the height to increase, the stratosphere would also have to become
less stable. If CO2concentrations increased and if stratospheric ozone concentrations decreased, the
stratosphere would cool substantially, and this change would destabilize the stratosphere. As a result of
the alterations to tropospheric and stratospheric stability, the tropopause height would increase. Farrell
estimates the height would have doubled under Cretaceous conditions, and as a result, the Rossby
number would have doubled. This change would have allowed the Hadley Cells to extend to the poles
and would have made equable climates more likely.

While each of these alterations to the atmosphere would extend the Hadley Cells, Farrell found
that a combination of the two effects was necessary to make his model's results agree with proxy data
from equable climates. He graphed the atmosphere's potential temperature versus latitude at different
tropopause height and friction values. The results reveal that as tropopause height and friction increase,
the EPTD decreases. A doubling of the tropopause height combined with an eightfold increase in the
friction term leads to an EPTD of 16°C. This value agrees with Cretaceous climate reconstructions. As a
result, Farrell's theory seems to be a reasonable explanation for equable climates.

The main problem is that Farrell does not provide any explanation for why angular momentum sinks
would have become stronger during the Cretaceous and the Eocene. He provides a few examples of
potential momentum sinks: "small scale diffusion..., cumulus momentums flux..., gravity wave drag..., and
the net westward force arising from potential vorticity mixing by large scale waves" (Farrell, 1990).
However, he does not explain why any of these sinks would have become stronger during the Eocene
and, thus, would have prevented angular momentum from being conserved. This lack of information in
the argument makes the theory harder to accept, and until this portion of the argument is explored in
greater depth, Farrell's theory cannot be accepted as the correct explanation of equable climates.