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UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

In most air pollution work, it is usual to express pollutant concentrations in

parts per million (PPM) which is the volume of pollutant per million volumes
of the air mixture.

1 ppm (by volume) = 1 volume of gaseous pollutant

106 volumes of air

However, gaseous concentrations are also expressed in mass per unit

volume such as ug/m3 or mg/m3. The relationship between ppm and mg/m3
depends on the density of the pollutant, which, in turn, depends on its
pressure and temperature as well as its molecular weight.

Conversion of ppm to mg/m3

mg/m3 = ppm x mol. wt. x 273__ x P

(atm)

Example 1:

Express 9 ppm of CO at 1 atm and 25 OC in mg/m3.

Solution:

 Determine molecular weight of CO =12 + 16 = 28

 Convert temperature from Celsius to Kelvin
o K = OC + 273
o K = 25 + 273 = 298

 Convert ppm to mg/m3

o mg/m3 = ppm x mol. wt. x 273 x P
22.4 T
= 9 x 28 x 273 x 1 = 10.3 mg/m3
22.4 298

Example 2.

The exhaust gas from an automobile contains 1% by volume of carbon

monoxide. Express this concentration in mg/m3 at 25OC and 1 atm.
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Solution:

 Convert percentage (%) CO to ppm

o ppm = 1 % = 1 part CO . = 1 x 10,000 = 10,000 =
100 parts air 100 x 10,000 1,000,000
o ppm = 10,000

 Determine molecular weight of CO

o Mol. wt. = 12 + 16 = 28

 Convert temperature from Celsius to Kelvin

o K = OC + 273
o K = 25 + 273 = 298

 Convert ppm to mg/m3

o mg/m3 = ppm x mol. wt. x 273 x P

22.4 T

o = (10000)(28(273)(1) = 11451.342 mg/m3

(22.4) (298)

Example 3.

The air quality standard for ozone is 0.08 ppm. Express that standard in
ug/m3 at 1 atm pressure and 20 OC.

Solution:
 Determine molecular weight of Ozone
o mol.wt. O3 = 3(16) = 48

 Convert Celsius to Kelvin

 Convert temperature from Celsius to Kelvin

o K = OC + 273
o K = 20 + 273 = 293

 Convert ppm to mg/m3 then to ug/m3

o mg/m3 = ppm x mol. wt. x 273 x P

22.4 T

o = (0.08)(48)(273)(1) = 0.15972696 mg/m3 x 1000 ug/1

(22.4) (293)
= 159.727 ug/m3
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AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY

The Atmospheric Engine

The atmosphere is somewhat like an engine. It is continually expanding and

compressing gases, exchanging heat and generally creating chaos. The driving force of
energy comes from the sun.

Highs and Lows

Air has a mass it also exerts pressure on things under it. Like water, which we
intuitively understand to exert greater pressures o greater depths, the atmosphere
exerts more pressure at the surface than it does at higher elevation.

HIGH & LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM

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WIND FLOW DUE TO PRESSURE GRADIENT

Coriolis effect

The angular thrust added to the effect because the Earth rotates.

Anticyclones & Cyclones

Anticyclones was associated with good weather thus the anticylcones

associated with bad one.

Wind speed apart function of the steepness of the pressure surface. When the
isobars are close together, the pressure gradient is said to be steep and the wind
relatively high.

ANTICYCLONES WITHOUT COROLIS EFFECT

TURBULENCE

Addition of random fluctuations of the wind velocity

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Mechanical Turbulence

The fluctuations in part are caused by the fact that atmosphere is being
sheared. The sheared is being result by the fact that the wind speed is zero at the
ground surface and rises with elevation to near the imposed by the pressure gradient.

Thermal Turbulence

Heating of the ground surface causes turbulence in the same fashion that
heating bottom of a beaker full of water causes turbulence. At some point below
boiling, you can see density currents raising off the bottom.

STABILITY

The tendency of the atmosphere to resist or enhance vertical motion.

UNSTABLE

-mechanical turbulence is enhanced by the thermal structure.

NEUTRAL

-neutral atmosphere is one o in which the thermal structure neither enhance nor
resists the mechanical turbulence.

STABLE

-when the thermal structure inhibits the mechanical turbulence.

 Cyclones are associated with unstable air. Anticyclones associated with stable
air.

Neutral Stability

The lapse rate for a neutral atmosphere is defined by the rate of temperature
increase or decreased experienced by a parcel of air that expands or contracts
adiabatically as it raised through the atmosphere.

Γ (gamma)

Designate “dry adiabatic lapse rate” means temperature decrease (-dT/dz)

which has a value of approximately -1.00 OC/100 m (-0.01 OC/m).
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Unstable Atmosphere

If the temperature of the atmosphere falls greater than Γ the lapse rate is said to
be superadiabatic and the atmosphere is unstable.
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Stable Atmosphere

If the temperature of the atmosphere falls at the rate lower than Γ it is called
sub adiabatic and the atmosphere is stable.

2 Special Cases of Subadiabatic Lapse Rate

 Isothermal

When there is no change in temperature

 Inversion

When the temperature increases with elevation

Examples:
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Given the following temperature profiles, determine whether the atmosphere is

unstable, neutral, or stable.

a) Z, m T (OC)
2 -3.05
318 -6.21

Solution
-dT/dZ = -(T2-T1)/(Z2-Z1)
= -(-6.21+3.05)/(318-2)
= 0.01 OC/m = Γ Hence, atmosphere is neutral.

b) Z, m T (OC)
10 5.11
202 3.09

Solution
-dT/dZ = -(T2-T1)/(Z2-Z1)
= -(3.09-5.11)/(202-10)
= 0.0105 OC/m > Γ Hence, atmosphere is unstable.

c) Z, m T (OC)
18 14.03
286 16.71

Solution
=dT/dZ = =(T2-T1)/(Z2-Z1)
= =(16.71-14.03)/(286-18)
= =0.010 OC/m < Γ Hence, atmosphere is stable.

 Temperature Inversion (Masters, 1991)

 Represent the extreme case of atmospheric stability, creating a virtual
lid on the upward movement of pollution. There are several causes of
inversions, but only two are of major importance from an air quality
standpoint.
 Radiation inversions – are caused by nocturnal cooling of the
earth’s surface, especially on clear winter nights.

The surface of the earth cools down at night by radiating

energy toward space. On a cloudy night, the earth’s radiation
tends to be absorbed by water vapor in the atmosphere, which
in turn reradiates some of that energy back to the ground. On a
clear night, however, the surface more readily radiates energy
to space; thus, the ground can cool much more readily. As the
ground cools, the temperature of the air in contact with the
surface also drops. As is often the case on clear winter nights,
the temperature of the of the air just above the ground
becomes colder than the air above it, creating an inversion.
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 Subsidence inversions – are the result of the compressive

heating of descending air masses in high pressure zones. They
are associated with high-pressure weather systems, known as
anticyclones. Air in the middle of a high-pressure zone is
descending, while on the edges, it is rising. As the air in the
center of the system falls, it experiences greater pressure and
is compressed and heated. As is often the case, this
compressive heating warms the descending air to a higher
temperature than the air below, whose temperature is dictated
primarily by conditions on the ground. The results= is an
inversion.
TERRAIN EFFECTS

Heat Islands

A heat island results from a mass material either natural or anthropogenic that
absorbs the reradiates heat a greater rate than the surrounding area.

 Good news

For ground level sources of automobiles the bowl of unstable air that forms will
allow a greater air volume for dilution of pollutant.

 Bad news

Under stable conditions, plumes from tall stacks would be carried out over the
countryside without increasing ground level pollutants concentrations. Unfortunately
instability caused by the heat island mixes these plumes to the ground level.

Land/Sea Breezes

 Land Breeze

During the night, the land cools more rapidly than the water. The relatively
cooler air over the land flows toward the water.
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Land breeze during the night

 Sea or Lake Breeze

During the morning the land heats faster than water. The air over the land
becomes relatively warm and begins to rise. The rising air replaced by air from over the
water body.

Lake breeze during the day

The effect of the lake breeze on stability is to impose a surface based inversion on the
temperature profile. As the air moves the water over the warm ground it is heated
from below.
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 Stack plumes originating near the shoreline, the stable lapse rate causes a
fanning plume close to the stack.

 The lapse condition grows to the height of the stack as the air moves inland. At
some point inland, a fumigation plume results.

Effect of lake breeze on plume dispersion

Valleys

Peels off the part of the wind and forces it to follow the direction of the valley
floor.

 Under a stagnating anticyclone

The valley will set up its own circulation. Warming of the valley wall cause the
valley air to be warmed. It will became more buoyant and flow up the valley. At night
the cooling process will cause the wind to flow down the valley.

 Valleys oriented in the north-south direction

Are more susceptible to the inversion of the terrain. The valley walls protect the
floor from radiative heating by the sun. Yet the walls are free to radiate heat away to
the cold night sky.

 Under weak winds

The ground cannot heat the air rapidly enough during to dissipate the inversion
that formed during the night
Source: Davis, M.L. and Cornwell, D.A. (1998). Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 3rd ed.