CHAP – TEMPERATURE

Temperature is a measure of heat. It is measured in Celsius (Centigrade) or

Fahrenheit. Melting point of ice and boiling point of pure water on Celsius scale is 0
℃ and 100℃ respectively and on Fahrenheit scale 32℉ and 212℉ resp.
A state is reached when no more heat can be extracted and the temp reaches its
lowest possible value. This minimum temp is the same for all substances and is
called absolute zero (Kelvin).
1 k = -273.16℃
F = 9/5 (C + 32)
C = 5/9 (F - 32)
K = C + 273

Instrument for Measurement

Dry Bulb Thermometer, Wet Bulb Thermometer (the bulb is covered with a muslin
cloth which is moist), Maximum Thermometer (like doctors thermometer), Minimum
Thermometer and Thermograph are used for measuring temperature.
Mercury in thermographs and in upper air temperature measurements Bi-metallic
strip is used. A minimum thermometer has a dumbbell shaped iron index, which
permits alcohol to pass through when temperature rises. When temperature falls,
which has a concave meniscus, drags the index back to indicate minimum
temperature.

Surface Temperature
It is the temp. It is recorded at the height of 4 ft (1.25m) above ground in shade
(inside Stevenson’s screen).

Heat and Temperature

Heat is the sum total of K.E of all the molecules and atoms of a substance.
Temperature is the average of K.E of all molecules and atoms.

Specific heat
It is the heat required to raise temp. of a unit mass of a substance by 1℃. The
specific heat of water is 1, of ice is 0.5 and of the soil is 0.2. Hence, land gets
heated/cooled much faster than water.

Latent Heat
It is defined as the amount of heat absorbed or released during change of phase
from/to solid/liquid/vapour. It is absorbed during change of solid to liquid to gas and
released during the reverse process.

Heat Transfer
It is transferred from one place to another by conduction, convection and radiation.
1. Conduction : Heat is physically transferred by molecules by contact
2. Convection: Hot fluid is bodily transferred to the part of the fluid.
3. Radiation : Everybody radiated heat at its temp. The solar radiation directly heat
up earth without affecting the atmosphere
Other methods of heat transfer are Advection, latent heat, turbulence, up and down
motion of air.
Insulation
Total amount of solar radiation received over a particular area is called Insulation.
Hence, Insulation is maximum when sun is overhead and least when sunrise and
sunset. 1kg maximum Insulation is received over the tropics, the region b/w tropic of
cancer and tropic of Capricorn and least at the Poles.

Solar Radiation
The temp. of the surface of the sun is about 6000℃.
VIBGYOR – The longest waves appear red, the shortest violet. The wavelength
beyond the violet end of the spectrum are called ultra violet (UV) and those on the
other extreme beyond the red wavelength are called Infra Red (IF) waved. The
complete solar radiation, including UV, IF, Visible lighting are responsible for the heat
that the earth receives from the Sun as short wave radiation.
The solar radiation consists of IF 46%, visible 45%, UV 09%

Terrestrial Radiation
The earth radiates at its own temp. and loses heat. These are called terrestrial
radiations which are long waves radiations. These are invisible and mostly IR
radiation. The earth receives heat from sun as short wave radiation and loses heat
as long wave radiations.

Nocturnal Radiation
At night when the short wave radiation (from sun) is absent only the earth radiates
and loses heat. The radiation emitted by the earth at night are called Nocturnal
Radiation.

Green House Effect

Water vapour, lesser amount of CO2, Ozone, Methane and Nitrous oxide absorbs
terrestrial radiation in certain wavelengths and permit remaining to escape. These
gases, therefore, keep the atmosphere warmer, causing an effect similar to Green
House Effect. These gases also re-radiate part of absorbed heat towards the earth.
The water vapour, CO2, thus reduce the nocturnal cooling of the ground to a certain
extent. In the absence of water vapour and CO2 in the atmosphere they would have
been much cooler.

Radiation and Heat Budget

About 30% of solar radiation is reflected back or scattered by the earth surface, 19%
is absorbed by the earth surface.
Absorbed by (70%) : Back scattered by (30%) :
Earth surface ~ 51% Air ~ 6%
Clouds ~ 3% Clouds ~ 20%
Ozone, dust, water vapour ~ 16% Earth surface ~ 4%
In clear weather about 5/6 of the solar radiation reach earth surface, of this energy
earth reflects about 10%. Snow surface reflects 80% of the energy.

Diurnal Variation of Surface Temperature

Diurnal temp. changes are much smaller over the sea and over land. The sea
surface temp. shows a variation from day to night of less than 1℃, whereas over
land, the diurnal variation may be average as much as 20℃. The diurnal variation is
maximum when wind is calm. The diurnal variation is small when winds are strong.
The minimum temp. occurs ½ to 1 hr after sunrise or dawn. (sunrise-dawn &
sunset-dusk)

Effects of Clouds on Surface Temperature

A cloud cover (maybe thin sheet of Cirrostratus) observes the sun and reflects major
part of the radiation back to space and reducing the heat of the earth by day. During
night, the cloud cover absorbs most of the outgoing radiation from earth. Hence,
cloudy nights are warmer.
When sky is covered with low clouds, the diurnal variation of temp. at the ground is
small. The lower the cloud the more effectively it reduces the nocturnal cooling.