Meteorology Handout Final

An Introduction to Meteorology
METEOROLOGY
Lecturer: Capt. G. R. REZAEIAN
Chabahar Maritime University
Capt. G. R. Rezaeian Chabahar Maritime University Page 1

Contents
Contents ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Calculating Sea-Level Barometric Correction ...................................................................... 15
Variation of temperature with height ........................................................................................... 22
Latent Heat ................................................................................................................................. 22
Laps Rate .................................................................................................................................... 22
Dry Adiabatic Laps Rate (DALR) ....................................................................................... 23
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) .............................................................................. 23
Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) ........................................................................................ 23
Stability of Air ............................................................................................................................ 23
Transference of heat .................................................................................................................... 24
Insolation .................................................................................................................................... 25
Season......................................................................................................................................... 26
Evaporation ................................................................................................................................. 27
Condensation .............................................................................................................................. 27
Saturated air ................................................................................................................................ 27
Atmospheric pressure .................................................................................................................. 30
Diurnal variation in relative humidity .......................................................................................... 32
Annual variation in RH ............................................................................................................... 32
Variation of RH with latitude and altitude ................................................................................... 32
Specific humidity ........................................................................................................................ 32
Saturation and dew point ............................................................................................................. 33
Fohn wind effect ......................................................................................................................... 33
Classification of Clouds .............................................................................................................. 38
High Clouds ................................................................................................................................ 38
Cirrus .......................................................................................................................................... 38
Cirrostratus.......................................................................................................................... 38
Cirrocumulus ....................................................................................................................... 38
Mid Clouds ............................................................................................................................. 39
Altostratus ........................................................................................................................... 39
Altocumulus ........................................................................................................................ 39
Nimbostratus ....................................................................................................................... 39
Low Clouds ............................................................................................................................. 40
Cumulus .............................................................................................................................. 40
Stratus ................................................................................................................................. 40
Cumulonimbus .................................................................................................................... 40

Stratocumulus...................................................................................................................... 41
Cloud Movement and Changes .................................................................................................... 45
Thunder and Lightning ................................................................................................................ 46
How do thunderstorms form? .................................................................................................. 46
Where do thunderstorms form? ............................................................................................... 46
Wind ........................................................................................................................................... 52
Pressure gradient ......................................................................................................................... 52
Pressure-gradient force ................................................................................................................ 52
Geostrophic wind ........................................................................................................................ 57
Wind force scale...................................................................................................................... 57
Low pressure system ................................................................................................................... 60
High pressure system .................................................................................................................. 60
Weather ...................................................................................................................................... 60
Buys Ballot’s law ........................................................................................................................ 60
Pressure decreases with increasing altitude .................................................................................. 61
True & Apparent Wind ............................................................................................................... 61
Basic Isobaric Patterns ................................................................................................................ 67
Dew point temperature ................................................................................................................ 70
Frost point ................................................................................................................................... 70
How to use a geostrophic wind scale? ......................................................................................... 70
Doldrums: (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)) ................................................................ 75
Subtropical ridge ......................................................................................................................... 75
Formation ................................................................................................................................... 76
Movement ................................................................................................................................... 76
Trade winds ................................................................................................................................ 76
Weather effects ........................................................................................................................... 77
Monsoon ..................................................................................................................................... 78
South West monsoon; ................................................................................................................. 78
Air mass ...................................................................................................................................... 80
Classification of Air Masses ........................................................................................................ 80
Cold Fronts ................................................................................................................................. 82
Weather sequence ....................................................................................................................... 87
Occlusions .................................................................................................................................. 87
Relationship between Fronts and Isobars ..................................................................................... 90
Families of Depressions .............................................................................................................. 90
Filling up and Dissolution of Depressions ................................................................................... 91

Tropical Revolving Storms (TRS) ............................................................................................... 93

Characteristics............................................................................................................................ 93
Development of Tropical Revolving Storms ............................................................................... 94
Conditions for formation ............................................................................................................ 94
Structure of a Tropical Revolving Storm .................................................................................... 95
Movement ................................................................................................................................... 96
Decay .......................................................................................................................................... 98
Weather conditions..................................................................................................................... 99
How to read synoptic weather charts ..........................................................................................102
Winds in Persian Gulf ................................................................................................................112

METEOROLOGY
Meteorology is the study of the Earth's atmosphere and the variations in temperature and moisture
patterns that produce different weather conditions. Some of the major subjects of study are such
phenomena as precipitation (rain and snow), thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes and typhoons.
The word meteorology derives from the Greek word meteoron, which refers to any phenomenon in
the sky.
Modern meteorology focuses primarily on the typical weather patterns observed, including
thunderstorms, tropical cyclones, fronts, hurricanes, typhoons, and various tropical water waves.
Meteorology is usually considered to describe and study the physical basis for individual events.
For safe navigation on sea the knowledge of adverse weather i.e. large tidal waves, ocean waves,
high speed wind, cyclonic storms, etc is needed which is supplied in weather forecast from
meteorology.

Meteorological Instruments
Thermometer
The thermometer is a device for measuring the temperature. The thermometers are using various
physical properties such as thermal expansion of gases, liquids or solids to determine the current
temperature.
The mercury barometer

It is an instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. It was first invented by an Italian scientist
named Torricelli in 1643.
Principle
In its simplest form, the mercury barometer consists of a
glass tube about one meter long, closed at one end, filled
with mercury and inverted into a bowl containing mercury.
While inverting the tube, a finger should be placed over the
open end and removed only after the end has been
immersed in the mercury in the bowl. It will be noticed that
the mercury level in the tube will drop by a certain amount
and then remain steady. This is because atmospheric
pressure, acting on the surface of mercury in the bowl,
balances the weight of mercury in the tube. Atmospheric
pressure, therefore, is the weight of mercury above the
level of mercury in the bowl.
If any air is present in the top of the inverted tube, the
barometer would show lower than correct readings. If air
was allowed to freely enter the space on top, the level of
mercury in the tube would drop until it became equal to the
level of mercury in the bowl.
Construction of the marine barometer
This is also called the Kew-pattern marine barometer.
It consists of a glass tube scaled at its upper end, with
its lower end immersed in a bowl (cistern) of mercury.
The bore of the tube is narrow for most of its length
but is broader at the top. The narrowness, along most
of its length, reduces the quantity of mercury required
and thereby reduces the weight and cost of the
barometer without loss of accuracy.
At its middle, the bore of the tube gets very narrow
and is hence called a capillary tube. This is to reduce
"pumping" which is described later in this chapter,
under "Other sources of error in the marine
barometer".
The top part is broader to reduce error of capillarity
(which is described later), in order to ensure accurate
observations. An air-trap is provided to prevent any air
from finding its way into the vacuum at the top.

The lower end of the glass tube is immersed in a bowl (cistern) of mercury. The top of the cistern
has one or more holes to admit air into it. These holes are covered with a thin leather washer which
is permeable to air (air can pass freely through it) but impermeable to mercury or dust.
The entire barometer is enclosed in a metal case to protect the glass interior from damage. The top
part of this metal case has millibar markings on it. A sliding cursor, with a vernier scale on it,
allows readings upto 0.1 of a millibar. The vertical movement of the cursor is controlled by a
milled knob.
The barometer is attached by gimbal rings to a horizontal suspension arm. The other end of the
suspension arm fits into a socket which is screwed on to the bulkhead, the suspension arm keeps
the barometer well away from the bulkhead and the gimbals allow the barometer to remain vertical
during rolling and pitching.
An attachment called a Gold slide is fitted on all mercury barometers for easy and quick correction
of barometric readings. The Gold slide is described later in this chapter.
Reasons why mercury is used for barometer

i. Mercury has a high relative density. Therefore, a mercury barometer is less than one meter
high whereas a water barometer would have to be over 10 meters high.
ii. Mercury does not wet the glass surface as other liquids would.
iii. Mercury is easily visible.
iv. Mercury has uniform coefficient of expansion so temperature correction can easily be
applied accurately.
v. Mercury cannot escape easily through the leather washer on top of the cistern during
transportation of the barometer, owing to its high viscosity (thick nature), whereas water or
other such liquids would spill out easily.
vi. Mercury has a low freezing point (about -39°C) and a very high boiling point (over 350°C)
and hence is suitable for marine barometers.
Correction of barometric readings

For the sake of uniformity of climatic records and (or forecasting purposes, all barometric readings
should be reduced to a common datum-sea level in latitude 45° with no error due to temperature.
All barometric readings should therefore be corrected for error before making entries in the mate's
log book, weather log book or weather reports.
(a) Reason for height correction: as explained before, atmospheric pressure decreases as height
increases. The reading on the bridge will, therefore, be lower than the reading at sea level, Since
we have the reading on the bridge, but have to report the pressure at sea level, we have to add a
correction for height, to the bridge reading, at the rate of 1 millibar for every 10 meters above sea
level.

(b) Reason for latitude correction: Since the earth's polar radius is about 13 miles less than its
equatorial radius, the gravitational force at the poles is greater than at the equator, One c.c. of
mercury, therefore, weighs more at the poles than at the equator, if for example we assume that the
pressure at the equator, at 45° latitude and also at the pole was the same at a given instant, the
height of the column of mercury at the pole would be less than that at latitude 45° whereas the
height of the column at the equator would be more than that at latitude 45°, although the actual
atmospheric pressures were equal. This means that the barometer readings in higher latitudes than
45° need a plus correction while those in lower latitudes than 45° need a minus correction to bring
them to the uniform datum of 45° latitude. The rate of change is about 1 millibar for every 12° of
latitude.
(c) Reason for temperature correction: Each mercury barometer is constructed to show correct
readings at a particular temperature called the standard temperature or fiducial temperature, which
is 0°C (273°K).If the temperature of the barometer is different from its standard temperature, the
pressure indicated by the barometer has to be corrected at the approximate rate of 1 millibar for
6°C difference. The correction is additive if the actual temperature is below the standard
temperature and vice versa.

Temperature error is caused by the different coefficients of expansion of mercury, glass and the
metal scale.
(d) Index error: If a barometer does not give the correct pressure in spite of proper corrections
being applied for height, latitude and temperature, the difference between the corrected barometric
pressure and the actual atmospheric pressure is called the index error of the barometer, positive if
the former is less and negative if the former is more. e.g, If corrected barometric pressure is 1004.8
mb and the actual atmospheric pressure is 1005.2 mb, the index error is + 0.4 mb. Index error
should always be applied as per sign, to the barometric reading.
All the four corrections given earlier can be applied by a formula, where each correction is to be
applied according to Its Sign:
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝑳𝒂𝒕 − 𝟒𝟓
= 𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 ± 𝑰𝑬 + +
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 − 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑
+
𝟔
However, the use of this formula is now a thing of the past as all modern mercury barometers
come fitted with a Gold slide which is accurate and quick to consult and which can be preset to
include index error.
Other sources of error in barometric readings

(i) Capillarity: Surface tension causes the surface of mercury in a tube to form a convex meniscus
(upward curvature).
A column of water will have a concave meniscus (downward curvature). The reading should
always be taken at the centre of the meniscus. A piece of white paper held behind the barometer
makes the observation easier.
It occurs because of inter-molecular attractive forces between the liquid and solid surrounding
surfaces.

(ii) Capacity: The height of the mercury column should be measured from the level of mercury in
the cistern. If the pressure rises, the mercury in the column rises but the level in the cistern falls,
and vice versa. This means that the zero of the scale changes with pressure whereas the graduated
part of the scale is fixed at the top. The error liable to be so caused is called error of capacity. Since
the quantity of mercury in the whole barometer is a predetermined amount, error of capacity is
eliminated by the manufacturers, by suitable permanent adjustment in the distance between
graduations on the scale.
(iii) Pumping: Is the oscillation (up and down movement) of the top of the mercury column,
which causes inaccuracies during reading. Pumping is caused by gusts of wind, vessel's vertical
movement (heaving) in a seaway, the pendulum-like sewing of the barometer during rolling and
pitching and due to vibration caused by ship's main engine, generators. etc.
To minimize the pumping error, three sets of readings should be taken-highest and lowest
alternately-and the mean of all six readings should be taken.
(iv) Error due to parallax: Also called

observational error. This is caused if the observer's
eyes is higher than or lower than the level of
mercury during observation. Error of parallax is
eliminated by adjusting the level of the observer's
eye such that the front edge and rear edge of the
bottom of the cursor appear in transit during the
observation.

The Gold Slide

It is an instrument for quick computation of the total correction (due to
index error, height, latitude and temperature which is to be applied to
the barometric reading.
The latitude scale is fixed and not moved during normal use but it can
be shifted up or down after slacking two screws at the back, in order to
pre-set it to allow for index error of the barometer.
The sliding scale on the right hand side can be moved up or down by
the milled wheel provided. The height above sea-level should be made
to coincide with the latitude of the vessel.
The total correction in millibars, is then read off from the lower part of
the sliding scale, in line with the level of mercury in the attached
thermometer. It is a good practice to first-read the attached
thermometer as soon as the barometer is approached. Otherwise, the
body warmth of the observer could affect the reading of the barometer
and thereby cause an error in the total correction computed by the Gold
Slide.
Reading the mercury barometer

1) Note the temperature on the attached thermometer, set the Gold Slide
and obtain the total correction to be applied, including index error.
2) Tap the barometer gently to ensure that the top of the mercury column
has a smooth convex shape if pumping is present, tapping is
unnecessary.
3) Adjust cursor properly, avoiding error of parallax.
4) Allow for pumping, as explained earlier.
5) Read off the barometric pressure, apply total correction and obtain
corrected barometric pressure.
The aneroid barometer

Aneroid means without liquid. A sealed chamber made of very thin
metal, having a partial vacuum inside it, is connected by a system of
levers and springs to a pointer fitted over a circular, graduated scale. The thin metal has an elastic
effect.
When the atmospheric pressure increases, the chamber gets compressed and the inward movement
of its wall is transmitted mechanically to the pointer that then registers a higher reading on the
scale.
When the atmospheric pressure decreases, the opposite happens. The expansion of the chamber is
assisted by a spring.
The larger the chamber, the greater the accuracy of the aneroid barometer.
Errors of an aneroid barometer

For the sake of uniformity of climatic records, and for forecasting purposes, it is necessary to
convert the reading to that at sea level. Hence readings of an aneroid barometer need two
corrections -index error (instrumental error) and height above sea level.
(i) Index error: This is very likely and is caused by imperfect elasticity of the vacuum chamber.
Index error is likely to change and should be obtained at least once in three months. This could be

done by comparison with another aneroid barometer whose index error is known. Representatives
of port meteorological offices in most ports usually bring their aneroid barometer on board for
comparison, free of charge, on a request from the ship.
The index error should be entered on a special card hung near the instrument. If the index error
becomes quite large, it can be reduced, if not eliminated, by a small adjustment on the back of the
instrument, with the use of a screwdriver.

(ii) Height correction: Since atmospheric pressure near sea level falls at the rate of one millibar
for every 10 meters increase of height, the correction may be calculated as follows:
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒃) = 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒂 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 + 𝟏𝟎 (𝒂𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆)
There is no correction to be applied for variation in atmospheric temperature as the manufacturers

allow for it during construction.
Location of an aneroid barometer:

The instrument should be so positioned as to be:
I. Away from undue vibration or sudden jerks (which would cause changes in its index error).
II. Away from draughts of air.
III. Away from places liable to experience abnormal or sudden changes of temperature.
IV. As close to the centre line of the ship as practicable. This would minimize fluctuations caused by
change of height above sea level during rolling.
V. At eye level for ease of observation.
Precautions when using an aneroid barometer

Tap the face of the instrument lightly to release any sticking of levers or pointer due to friction.
Advantages of aneroid barometer

It is a robust and compact instrument. Changes of pressure are easily detectable. For this purpose, a
fixed pointer is provided, attached to the glass face of the instrument. After tapping the instrument,
the fixed pointer is aligned with the dial pointer, taking care to avoid error of parallax. After some
time (about half an hour or more) the instrument is tapped gently again. If the dial pointer now lies
to the right of the fixed pointer, the pressure has risen and vice versa. The amount of rise or fall
can also be noted.
The precision aneroid barometer

This is a compact (small), robust (strong), accurate, aneroid barometer that has replaced the large,
delicate, mercury barometer that was fitted on ships in the earlier days. It has a micrometer
arrangement for reading to 0.1 of a millibar.
Construction
The vacuum capsule consists of three metal chambers attached together like the bellows of an
accordion. The shorter end of a pivoted lever rests lightly on the top of the vacuum capsule with
the help of a hairspring. The pivot is jewelled to eliminate sticking due to friction. Increase or
decrease of atmospheric pressure causes the top of the capsule to move in or out and the longer end
of the lever to move up or down. This movement can be measured by a micrometer arrangement
with a digital display showing the reading in millibars and decimal of a millibar.
To obtain the correct reading, the bottom of the micrometer arrangement should just touch the end
of the lever. To assist in achieving this, a small cathode ray tube (magic eye) and a small battery
are provided. A continuous line on the magic eye indicates contact and a broken line indicates a
break in contact. To prolong the life of the battery, a spring-loaded switch is provided. When the
switch is depressed, the magic eye is energized. When finger-pressure on the switch is released,
the latter automatically switches off.

A scarce Admiralty pattern Negretti & Zambra Precision Aneroid Barometer Mk2 M2236A, with odometer

Reading the precision aneroid barometer

i. Depress the switch and hold it there.
ii. Increase the reading (by slowly rotating the micrometer-head) until the magic eye shows a
continuous line.
iii. Decrease the reading very slowly until the magic eye just about shows a broken line.
iv. Release the switch and read off the pressure in millibars and decimal of a millibar.
Corrections to be applied
i. Index error can creep in due to the imperfect elasticity of the metal cllamber and has to be
applied to the digital reading each time. Index error should be checked once every three
months or so. A card, placed conspicuously near the instrument, should state the date of
comparison for index error, by whom and with what other instrument the comparison was
made and the value of the index error so found.
ii. Height correction is necessary, as in the case of the ordinary aneroid barometer, to convert
the reading at bridge level to that at sea level, at the rate of +0.1 mb per metre height above
sea-level.
Damping minor fluctuations due to gusts

To make the instrument insensitive to sudden, small changes of pressure caused by gusts of wind,
rolling, pitching, heaving, etc" the outer casing is airtight except for one small air-inlet that is fitted
with a damping device.
Calculating Sea-Level Barometric Correction

Barometric pressure that is not corrected to sea-level is usually referred to as absolute barometric
pressure or absolute atmospheric pressure.
The absolute atmospheric pressure is the actual pressure at the location where the measurement is
taken from.
Barograph
The barograph is an aneroid barometer that gives a continuous record of pressure on a paper chart.
Such a chart, with a continuous barograph trace on it, is called a barogram. The barograph is so
adjusted as to allow for index error and also error due to height above sea level. Comparison
should be done once a week, when the paper is changed and, if necessary, adjustment of error
made.
For climatic record purposes, the barograph is always set to UTC (GMT) not to ship's time.
Construction of the barograph

The vacuum chamber consists of a series of metal boxes arranged vertically, resembling the
bellows of an accordion. Change of atmospheric pressure causes the top of the chamber to ascend
or descend and this movement is conveyed by a lever system to a stylus (pen) that moves up or
down on the chart.
The chart is fixed on a cylindrical drum that rotates at a uniform speed of one rotation per week.
The rotation is effected by an eight-day clock mechanism. The clock is, therefore, wound
whenever the chart is changed. The key of the clockwork mechanism can be reached by removing
the lid of the drum.
The tip of the stylus has a detachable pen that contains one drop of slow drying ink, specially
supplied for this purpose. The ink needs to be replenished once a week and this is done by a

dropper and inkbottle provided. The pen should be washed with water or cleaned with methylated
spirit about once a month to ensure that the trace is thin, clear and even. Excess of ink should be
avoided as the ink will not only corrode the pen arm but also cause the normally detachable pen to
stick fast to the pen arm.
The entire barograph is provided with a hinged glass cover, to keep out gusts of wind and dust, and
is mounted on springs and rubber pads to reduce vibration.
In modern barographs, the vacuum chamber is immersed in a brass cylinder of oil. As the chamber
expands, oil is forced out of the top of the cylinder through small holes. When the chamber
contracts, oil is sucked into the cylinder. This dampens the movement of the stylus (like the shock
absorber of a motor car) and prevents small vibrations and gusts from making unwanted squiggles
(embroidery) on the trace, without loss of accuracy of the barograph.
The chart or barogram

The vertical lines of the barogram that indicate UTC are at two-hour intervals and are curved,
having the same radius of curvature as the length of the penarm, so that changes in pressure are
recorded without creating an error in time.
The chart is fixed around the drum by means of two clips, one at the top and one at the bottom or
one long clamp equal to the height of the drum.
The latter end of the chart should overlap its earlier end so that, in the event of the paper not being
changed (due to oversight) at the end of a week, the pen will not catch on the edge of the paper and
tear it.
Before handling the chart for renewal, the pen must be pulled clear of the chart by means of a pen
release lever, provided for this purpose.
Time reference marks

Every day at 12 UTC, a button provided should be pressed a couple of times. This causes the pen-
arm to move up and down slightly creating a time reference mark, for future reference by the
meteorological department, in case the rate of rotation of the drum is slightly in error.
Location on board
i. In the wheelhouse or chart-room, for easy accessibility to the navigating officers.
ii. Out of the way to avoid being bumped into by people.
iii. Away from direct sunlight or other sources of undue heat or cold.
iv. Away from undue vibration.
v. As close to centre line of vessel as practicable.
vi. At eye-level.
Weekly schedule
a. Renew chart
b. Wind the clockwork mechanism.
c. Replenish ink.
d. Compare and adjust reading to eliminate index error and error due to height above sea
level. (v) Wash pen at least once every month.
Advantage of barograph
The barograph gives a continuous record of pressure that can be matched by a barometer only if
the latter is read and recorded every half hour!
The characteristic of the barometric tendency

This is a term used in the weather codes to denote the shape of the trace of the barograph during
the three hours preceding the time of observation.
In the code group 5appp, 'a' stands for the characteristic of the barometric tendency (please see
supplement to this book titled 'Ships Weather Code').

Stevenson Screen
A Stevenson screen is a box, made of a double layer
screens and it is used to shield meteorological instruments
when there is precipitation or the instruments are exposed
to direct heat radiation from outside sources. This shelter
allows free passage of air around the temperature and
humidity sensors. Most of the time the Stevenson screens
is painted white to reflect the sun’s radiation.
Hygrometer
In the classic type with wet and dry bulb hygrometer, one
thermometer bulb is in air and the other is wrapped in a wick
kept moist from a water reservoir. The difference between the
two readings is used to give an accurate calculation of humidity.
Complete with wet and dry bulb tables. C & F
Psychrometer
Relative humidity can also be measured by an instrument called
a sling psychrometer, consists of two thermometers mounted
together with a handle attached on a chain. One thermometer is
ordinary. The other has a cloth wick over its bulb and is called a wet-bulb thermometer.
When a reading is to be taken, the wick is first dipped in water and then the instrument is whirled
around. During the whirling, the water evaporates from the wick, cooling the wet-bulb
thermometer. Then the temperatures of both thermometers are read.
If the surrounding air is dry, more moisture evaporates from the wick, cooling the wet-bulb
thermometer more so there is a greater difference between the temperatures of the two
thermometers. If the surrounding air is holding moisture, there will be less difference and if the
relative humidity is 100% , there is no difference between the two temperatures. Meteorologists
have worked out charts of these differences for each degree of temperature so that the observer can
find relative humidity easily. A sample is shown below:
Anemometer
The anemometers are devices designed to determine the speed of
wind in nautical miles per hours. (Knots)
The Earth’s Atmosphere and its Composition

The air around the earth is called the atmosphere and extends to over 200 km above the surface of
the earth. Different layers of the atmosphere are called by different names. In ascending order, they
are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and the ionosphere. The troposphere affects the

weather while the ionosphere affects navigation and communications when using electro-magnetic
waves.
The atmosphere of earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air that surrounds the
planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by
absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention , and
reducing temperature extremes between day and night .
By volume, dry air contains78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide,
and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average
around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric
pressure vary at different layers.
The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15×1018 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km
(36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner with increasing altitude. The line at
100 km is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space.
The Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere

(Why does the temperature of the atmosphere vary?)
The earth’s atmosphere is most commonly divided into four isothermal layers or spheres, from the
lowest layer to the highest layer are respectively the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere,
and finally the thermosphere. The thickness and the boundary of each layer are not identical
throughout the globe but vary in different time and places (Fig. 1)
Troposphere
The air at the surface up to around 10 kilometers is called the troposphere. The reason it is warmer
at the surface is simple. The air is warmed by heat given off by the Earth. The farther away from
the surface the air moves, the less heat there is to absorb.
The troposphere is thicker in summer than in winter. The troposphere over low latitude regions is
usually thicker than over high latitude regions.
The troposphere over the equator is about 18 kilometers thick, while its thickness in the regions
nearest the two poles is only about eight to nine kilometers.

The temperature in the troposphere usually decreases with height at the average lapse rate of 6.5
°C per kilometer. The air in the troposphere is more unstable and with strong convection. Almost
all the water vapor in the atmosphere exists within this layer, therefore, common weather
phenomena such as clouds, fog, rain, and snow, occur only in this layer. From 10 to 20 kilometers
the atmosphere is stable. This region is called the tropopause.
Stratosphere
From 20 to about 50 kilometers is the stratosphere. In this region the air actually warms with
height. Ozone is concentrated in this part of the atmosphere and it absorbs ultraviolet light from the
Sun. More light is absorbed at higher altitudes compared to the lower stratosphere, so the
temperature increases.
Within the lower part which extends from the top of the troposphere to about 30-35 kilometers the
temperature is almost constant or increases slightly with height. Above 35 kilometers the
temperature actually increases with height at the average rate of 5 °C per kilometer. Since almost
no dust or water vapor from the land surface will reach the stratosphere, the air flow in this layer is
steady. The upper part of the stratosphere experiences an increase of temperature due to the fact
that the sun's ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by the ozone layer. But at 50 kilometers, the
temperature levels out again in a region called the stratopause
Mesosphere
At about 55 km, the mesosphere begins. In the mesosphere, the temperature decreases with height
again, because there is very little ozone to warm up the air.
The region of the mesosphere is about 50 to 80 kilometers in altitude. The temperature in this layer
usually decreases as the height increases up to the top of the mesosphere where the temperature
can be as low as - 95 °C or even lower. The composition of gases in the atmosphere from the
ground to the top of the mesosphere, are almost identical except for water vapor and ozone.
The mesopause divides the mesosphere from the thermosphere.
Thermosphere
Is the section of the atmosphere higher than 90 km? In this region, the temperature increases again.
This time, it is molecular oxygen (O2) that causes the temperature increase. The oxygen absorbs
light from the Sun, and since there is very little air in the thermosphere just a little absorption can
go a long way.
The air in the lower region of the thermosphere is extremely thin, therefore the particles in the air
can easily be ionized, resulting in profuse free electrons in the air. Therefore this layer is also
called the ionosphere. it is very effective in reflecting radio waves.

Fig.1: Vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere
There are 3 states of water which are liquid, solid and gas. All three states exist on earth. Water has
been called the life force. There are names for each of the phase changes of water. They are given
below:
Water going from a solid to a liquid: Melting
Water going from a liquid to a gas: Evaporation
Water going from a solid to a gas: Sublimation
Water going from a liquid to a solid: Freezing
Water going from a gas to a liquid: Condensation
Water going from a gas to a solid: Deposition
Temperature of the atmosphere

S.I. Units of air temperature are degrees Celsius and degrees Kelvin.
Freezing temperature of water = 0°C or 273°K.
Boiling temperature of water = 100°C or 373°K.

Variation of temperature with height

In the troposphere, the temperature of air normally falls steadily as height increases. Sometimes,
local influences cause the temperature of air to:
(a) Increase with height instead of falling. This is called a temperature inversion OR
(b) Remain constant with height. The air is then said to be an isothermal layer. However, both
above conditions, (a) & (b), are temporary and will return to normal subsequently.
Latent Heat
The energy required to change the phase of a substance is known as a latent heat.
In each phase change there will be either an absorption or release of latent heat. Latent heat
absorption cools the surrounding air while latent heat release warms the surrounding air. Below are
each process and whether it absorbs or releases latent heat:
Melting: absorbs latent heat
Evaporation: absorbs latent heat
Sublimation: absorbs latent heat
Freezing: releases latent heat
Condensation: releases latent heat
Deposition: releases latent heat
The word latent means hidden. When the phase change is from solid to liquid we must use the latent heat of
fusion, and when the phase change is from liquid to a gas, we must use the latent heat of vaporisation.
Laps Rate
The lapse rate is defined as the rate at which atmospheric temperature decreases with an increase
in altitude. It averages about 6.5 °C per kilometer in the lower atmosphere (troposphere).
Adiabatic
Applied to the changes in temperature, pressure, and volume in a parcel of air that occur as a
consequence of the vertical movement of the air, and without any exchange of energy with the
surrounding air.
Adiabatic change of temperature

Change of air temperature due to increase or decrease of its volume (height) without exchange of
heat with surrounding.
This is the name for change in temperature, pressure and volume which produced in a substance
when no heat is allowed to reach or leave it while it is being compressed or expanded. When the
air is compressed (volume decreased), its temperature rises, and when it is allowed to expand
(volume increased), its temperature falls.
In one method of refrigeration, a compressed gas is allowed to escape from the cylinder and in
rapid expansion, it cools enough to cause freezing.
Adiabatic Laps Rate

Adiabatic laps rate involves temperature changes due to the rising or sinking of an air parcel.
Adiabatic lapse rates are usually differentiated as dry and saturated.
Wet and dry air

Any parcel or sample of air that is fully saturated is called wet air or saturated air. Any sample of
air that is not fully saturated is called dry air.
Dry Adiabatic Laps Rate (DALR)

The rate at which dry air cools when rising adiabatically through the atmosphere as a result of the
utilization of energy in expansion. It is 9.8°C/km
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR)

The adiabatic cooling rate of a rising parcel of air which is saturated, and in which condensation is
taking place as it rises, so that the energy release of the latent heat of vaporization moderates the
adiabatic cooling. The reduction of the rate of cooling below the dry adiabatic lapse rate of 9.8
°C/km varies with temperature. This results from the greater energy release by condensation from
air at higher temperatures. Thus at a given atmospheric pressure, air at 20°C may have an SALR as
low as 4°C/km, whereas at −40°C the SALR may be close to 9°C/km. The stability or instability of
the atmosphere at any given time for vertical motion is determined by whether the environmental
lapse rate of temperature within it is less than or greater than the adiabatic lapse rate (i.e. less than
or greater than the rate of decrease of temperature of rising parcels of air).
Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)

The rate at which the air temperature changes
with height in the atmosphere surrounding a
cloud or a rising parcel of air. The overall
average rate is a decrease of about 6.5°C/km, but
the rate varies greatly in different regions of the
world, in different airstreams, and at different
seasons of the year. Where the lapse rate of
temperature is negative (temperature increases
with height), an inversion is said to exist.
Stability of Air
Atmosphere is said to be stable when distribution of temperature and humidity with height are such
that any small displacement of parcel of air by force, tend to restore the parcel to its former level.
In other words, a parcel of air which is forced upward or downward, tending to return to its
original position called as stable air. It occurs when lapse rate is less than DALR and SALR
ELR< SALR<DALR
Unstable air
The atmosphere is said to be unstable when distribution of temperature and humidity with height
are such that any small displacement of parcel of air by force, tending to move it further away from
its former level.
In other words, a parcel of air which is forced upward or downward, tending to continue up or
down. It occurs when lapse rate is more than DALR and SALR
SALR<DALR <ELR
Neutral equilibrium of air

When a parcel of air is forced upward or downward, it remains in the same position without any
intension to move further away or return to its original place
If ELR (Environmental Lapse Rate) coincide DALR when parcel is dry or with SALR when parcel
is wet, then parcel of air which is displaced upward, is the same temperature of surrounding air at
that level and have no tendency to return original place.
Conditional Stability
If the environment is such that the actual lapse rate existent is less than DALR but more than
SALR, conditional stability is said to exist SALR<ELR<DALR
This means that if the parcel of air is dry, it is colder (and hence denser) than the surrounding air at
the same level, and would try to return below to its original position i.e., stable equilibrium.
If the parcel of air is saturated, it is warmer (and hence less dense) than the surrounding air at the
same level, and would try to continue upwards, in the direction of the original disturbance i.e.,
unstable equilibrium. In this case, Stability or instability depends on whether the parcel is dry or
saturated; this condition is referred to as conditional stability. SALR < ELR <DALR
Transference of heat
Heat is transferred from one place to another in three ways:

1. Radiation
Thermal radiation generates from the emission of electromagnetic waves. These waves carry the
energy away from the emitting object. Radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent
medium (either solid or fluid). Thermal radiation is the direct result of random movements of
atoms and molecules in matter. Movement of the charged protons and electrons results in the
emission of electromagnetic radiation. The sun is a clear example of heat radiation that transfers
heat across the solar system.
2. Conduction
Conduction transfers heat via direct molecular collision. An area of greater kinetic energy will
transfer thermal energy to an area with lower kinetic energy. Higher-speed particles will collide
with slower speed particles. The slower-speed particles will increase in kinetic energy as a result.
Conduction is the most common form of heat transfer and occurs via physical contact. Examples
would be to place your hand against a window or place metal into an open flame.
3. Convection
When a fluid, such as air or a liquid, is heated and then travels away from the source, it carries the
thermal energy along. This type of heat transfer is called convection. The fluid above a hot surface
expands, becomes less dense, and rises.
.
Insolation
Is the power received on earth per unit area on a horizontal surface, It depends on the height of the
Sun above the horizon.
Insolation onto a surface is largest when the surface directly faces the sun. The amount of heat
energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate, as the angle
at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location, time of day, and season due to the Earth's
orbit around the Sun and the earth's rotation around its tilted axis. Seasonal change in the angle of
sunlight, caused by the tilt of the Earth's axis, is the basic mechanism that results in warmer
weather in summer than in winter. Change in day length is another factor.

One sunbeam one mile wide shines on the ground at a 90° angle, and another at a 30° angle. The
oblique sunbeam distributes its light energy over twice as much area.
Atmospheric temperature
The temperature of air depends on a number of factors, the first of which is amount of heat
entering and leaving the atmosphere. Nearly most of heat is reaching the earth from the sun in
form of wave in very small wavelength which travels through the atmosphere in light speed. No
energy is lost by radiation during passage through the space. On the earth (sea and land) these
waves are partly absorbed by the surface (causing increase of temperature) and partly are reflected
back to the space in the form of long wave radiation. The long wave radiation is partly lost to the
space and partly absorbed by the atmosphere (causing increase of temperature)
Water present in atmosphere as vapour or as cloud absorbs only a small fraction of the incoming
short waves radiation but strongly absorbs the outgoing long wave radiation.
On cloudy nights, part of the outgoing radiation is absorbed by clouds and partly is reflected back
again towards the surface. That's why cloudy day is warmer than clear day. (Greenhouse effect)
Season
A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather, ecology and hours of daylight.
Seasons result from the yearly orbit of the earth around the Sun and the tilt of the earth's rotational
axis relative to the plane of the orbit. In temperate and Polar Regions, the seasons are marked by
changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface.

Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the
sublimation of ice. Unlike other forms of water, water vapor is invisible. Under typical
atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed
by condensation. It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds.
Evaporation
Evaporation is the process by which water is converted from its liquid state to the gaseous state,
also known as water vapor. In other words, water leaves the Earth's surface and enters the
atmosphere as a gas.
Condensation
Condensation is the process by which water vapor is changed back into liquid water. Condensation
is very important to our weather and climate because it is what is responsible for cloud formation.
Without clouds, we would not get to the third phase, called precipitation. Clouds form when water
vapor condenses around small particles, like bits of dust or smoke in the air. Depending on the size
of the drops, these particles may or may not be visible. Even on a clear, cloudless day, water vapor
is always present in the atmosphere. Fog is condensation near the ground.
Fog forms when moist warmer air comes in contact with cooler air near the surface. Just like when
the bathroom mirror gets all foggy during a shower because of condensation, fog also forms
because of this warm air contacting a cooler air mass.
Saturated air
Air that contains the maximum amount of water vapour that is possible at the given temperature
and pressure, i.e. air in which the relative humidity is 100%.
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. Water vapor is the gaseous state of water and is
invisible. Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog.
There are three main measurements of humidity: absolute, relative and specific.

Diurnal variation of atmospheric temperature

Is the variation between a high temperature and a low temperature that occurs during the same day.
It has been observed that atmospheric temperature reaches its maximum at about 1400 Hour's local
time and reaches it's minimum at about half-hour after sunrise. Since this happens once per day
this is called diurnal variation of atmospheric temperature
Diurnal range of atmospheric temperature

The difference between the maximum and minimum values in a day is called the diurnal range of
atmospheric temperature for that day.
Diurnal range of air temperature over land is large (as much as 20°C) whereas over sea, it is very
small (less than 1°C) for the following reasons:
-Land, being a solid, has a low value of specific heat so heats up or cools very quickly. But Sea,
being a liquid, higher value of specific heat so heats up or cools very slowly.
- Heat received from the sun is retained by the top layer of land (only a few centimeters deep) as
land is a poor conductor of heat. But at sea heat is distributed over a large mass of water by
convection currents
-Evaporation of water during day causes adiabatic cooling which balances some of the Heat
received from the sun.
The Unequal Heating of the Earth’s Surface

The relationship between the Earth and the Sun
There are many reasons which explain the unequal or differential heating from pole to pole of the
Earth's surface. The principal factor is the change in the Sun's elevation due to the latitude and
season. The Earth orbits the Sun approximately every 365 days. The Earth also rotates on its own
axis once every 24 hours, giving us our daily and diurnal variation. As the Earth orbits the Sun, we
get seasonal variations which result from changes in the amount of solar radiation reaching each
part of the Earth, hence the variation between daylight and darkness throughout the year.
The Earth's rotational axis is not vertical, but tilted at an angle of 23.5° to the vertical. Because of
this the apparent motion of the overhead sun appears to move from the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N)
at northern hemisphere midsummer (21–22 June) to the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S) at northern
mid-winter (21-22 December). Summer/winter alternate as the northern and southern hemispheres
are alternately tilted towards/away from the Sun.
If the Earth did not tilt on its axis, there would be no seasons at all, and most places, except the
poles, would have 12 hours daylight each day throughout the year.
Every year the polar areas have at least one complete 24-hour period of darkness and one of
daylight. In theory, the poles themselves should have six months of daylight followed by six
months of darkness. In reality, this is not the case because some light from the Sun is bent towards
the Earth making nights slightly shorter than they otherwise would be.

Fig 3: Annual movement of the Earth around the Sun
The equatorial regions do not really have seasons as we know them, as the relative position of the
overhead Sun does not change significantly enough throughout the year.
At high latitudes the Sun's rays reach the Earth's surface more obliquely, so that the energy is
spread over a greater surface area. In addition, more radiation is lost to scattering and absorption as
the path through the atmosphere is longer. In the winter at high latitudes, days are short with
continuous darkness in Polar Regions at mid-winter. Here there is a net loss of outgoing long-wave
radiation into space with no incoming short-wave radiation to compensate. Nearer the equator,
where the sun is near the vertical, at midday the sun's rays strike with greater intensity, as shown in
Figure 4.
Fig 4: The Sun's energy is more concentrated per unit area in A than it is in B.
A and B are equal and parallel beams of light rays from the Sun. At A the Sun is overhead and the
rays are at right angles to the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. At B the rays approach the
atmosphere from an angle and consequently have more atmosphere to travel through - distance A
compared with distance B on Figure 4. Also, being at an angle illuminates a larger surface area of
the Earth's surface. Effectively the energy arriving has to be distributed over a greater area from
source B compared with source A.

Effective use of incoming radiation

Another contributory factor in determining the weather and climate is the amount of the Sun's
energy which is absorbed by the Earth's surface. The amount of reflection by the Earth's surface
is known as albedo. The lower the albedo of a particular surface the more solar radiation is
absorbed. The polar ice sheets reflect incoming short-wave radiation so effectively that there is
little heat available for a rise in temperature. Deserts, on the other hand, reflect only about 25% of
radiation from the Sun and consequently the high rate of absorption means they can get very hot.
The amount of albedo can also depend on the angle of the Sun's rays. For example when the Sun is
high in the sky, the sea absorbs much of the radiation, when it is low in the sky the sea acts rather
like a mirror, reflecting most of the incoming radiation.
Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure exerted by the
weight of air in the atmosphere of Earth . In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely
approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement
point. Low-pressure areas have less atmospheric mass above their location, whereas high-pressure
areas have more atmospheric mass above their location. As elevation increases, there is less
overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation.
Units of atmospheric pressure

Pascal (Pa), equal to one Newton per square meter (N/m²).
1 bar=100000 pascal
1000 mb =1 bar =750.1 mm of mercury
1 bar = 1.02 kg per cm2 or 10.2 t per m2
The average atmospheric pressure at the earth's surface is about 1013 mb.
Mean sea level pressure

The mean sea level pressure (MSLP) is the atmospheric pressure at sea level. This is the
atmospheric pressure normally given in weather reports. Average sea-level pressure is 1013.25
mbar. (101.32 kPa)
Semi-diurnal variation of atmospheric pressure

Due to many causes, which are not fully understood, atmospheric pressure changes with the time
of the day. It has been observed that it is maximum at about 10 & 22 hours and minimum at about
04 & 16 hours Local Mean Time. Since this happens twice a day, it is called semi-diurnal variation
of atmospheric pressure.
The average semi-diurnal range is more in the tropics than in middle latitudes

Altitude variation
Pressure varies smoothly from the Earth's surface to
the top of the mesosphere. As altitude increases,
atmospheric pressure decreases. One can calculate the
atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature
and humidity also affect the atmospheric pressure, and
it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate
figure. The graph above was developed for a
temperature of 15 °C and a relative humidity of 0%.
At low altitudes above the sea level, the pressure
decreases by about 1.2 kPa for every 100 meters.
Isobars
A line drawn on a weather map connecting points of equal pressure is called an "isobar". Isobars
are generated from mean sea-level pressure reports and are given in milibars.
The diagram below shows a pair of sample isobars. At every point along the top isobar, the
pressure is 996 mb while at every point along the bottom isobar, the pressure is 1000 mb. Points
above the 1000 mb isobar have a lower pressure and points below that isobar have a higher
pressure.

Humidity
Humidity is the quantity of water vapour pressure in the atmosphere. is the concentration of
water vapour present in the air.
Absolute humidity
Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour contained in a sample of air. It is usually
expressed in grams per cubic meter (gm/m3).
Relative humidity
Relative humidity is the percentage ratio of the actual water vapour contained in a given sample of
air, to the maximum quantity of water vapour that the sample can hold at that temperature.
If the temperature of the sample of air is raised, its capacity to hold water vapour increases and,
assuming that no water vapour is allowed to come in or go out of the sample of air, relative
humidity decreases - the air becomes relatively drier. The opposite happens if the sample of air is
cooled – its relative humidity increases.
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟

𝑅𝐻% = × 100
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Diurnal variation in relative humidity

The diurnal variation in relative humidity is approximately inverse to that of temperature about
sunrise the relative humidity is maximum and between 14 to 15 hrs minimum relative humidity is
observed.
Annual variation in RH
The annual variation of relative humidity is largely depends upon the locality.
At regions where the rainy season is in summer and winter is dry, the maximum relative humidity
occurs in summer and minimum in winter and at other regions maximum relative humidity occurs
in winter. Over ocean relative humidity reaches maximum in summer.
Variation of RH with latitude and altitude

Relative humidity shows maximum or about 80% at equator. Therefore it decreases to 70% in the
regions of high pressure belts in 30-35 degrees and afterwards increases again to 80 to 90% in the
polar region.
The vertical variation of relative humidity is not governed by any exact law. In or near the clouds
it is 100% but below or above it is different. The moist air masses carried out by advection
(Horizontal movement of air due to temperature difference) at altitudes also change relative
humidity.
Specific humidity
Is a ratio of the water vapor content of the mixture to the total air content on a mass basis.

Saturation and dew point

If a sample of air was progressively cooled, its relative humidity would steadily increase i.e., the
air would become relatively more moist. At some temperature, the air would become wet i.e., its
relative humidity would become 100%. The air is then said to be saturated and the temperature at
which this occurs is called the dew point temperature of that sample of air.
Dew point of a sample of air would depend on its temperature & relative humidity.
In other words, Dew point is the temperature at which condensation to water droplets occurs.
Both relative humidity and dew point of air are found by using a hygrometer or a psychrometer
and then consulting meteorological tables -dry bulb reading on one axis and the difference between
wet and dry readings on the other axis. The point of intersection gives the relative humidity and the
dew point.
Fohn wind effect

Fohn Wind Effect is an effect whereby the leeward side of a mountain range is drier and warmer
than the windward side. This would be more pronounced if the wind was blowing from the sea
towards a coastal mountain range, as the air would then be moist. Fohn wind effect is the direct
result of the difference between the DALR and the SALR of air.
Imagine an onshore breeze, of 25°C temperature and 15°C dew point, blowing against a mountain
range 3 km high.

This onshore breeze begins to ascend and its temperature drops by 10°C per km height (DALR).
On reaching a height of 1 km, the temperature of the air has fallen to 15°C, which is also its dew
point. The air is then saturated. On ascending further the temperature drops by about 5°C per km
height (SALR). The excess moisture in the air is given off as orographic cloud and then heavy rain
falls on the windward side. On reaching the top, the air will still be saturated and its temperature
would be about 5°C.
While descending on the leeward side, the temperature of the air would increase at 10°C per km
(DALR). This is because, once the temperature of the air begins to rise even by a small amount,
the air is not saturated any more. On reaching sea level on the leeward side, the temperature of air
would have increased to 35°C. Since the same air was saturated at 5°C and no water vapour has
been let in or taken out, the dew point of the descending air would be 5°C.
Comparing the temperature and dew point on the windward side (temperature 25°C, dew point
5°C), it is clear that the leeward side is warmer and drier than the windward side. It is also clear
that heavy precipitation occurs only on the windward side and no precipitation occurs on the
leeward side, which is hence referred to as the 'rain shadow area' of the mountain range.

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Three main stages:
There are three main stages in the hydrological cycle - Evaporation, Condensation and Precipitation
Evaporation: is the transformation of water into water vapour. It is accelerated if the air is Warm
and dry
During evaporation, latent heat is absorbed from the surrounding air and from water surface.
Condensation: is the transformation of water vapour into water. It is the opposite of Evaporation.
During condensation, latent heat is given off to the surrounding air.
Condensation occurs if air is cooled below its dew point. This is usually the result of:
• Contact with cold surface of land or sea.
• Adiabatic cooling when air rises.
• Contact with colder masses of air.
Precipitation: is the name given to water drops from clouds, which fall towards the Ground. Whilst
falling through different layers of atmosphere, the water drops may freeze into soft ice (snow) or into
hard ice (hail).
Mist and fog are not called precipitation because the water droplets remain suspended in the air and do
not fall. Sometimes, precipitation evaporates completely, during its transit through the atmosphere, and
does not reach the ground. It may then be visible as vertical streamers below clouds and is called
"Virga".
Dew: When water vapour condenses into droplets of water and gets deposited on exposed surfaces
on or near the ground, it is called dew.
On clear nights, land gives off its heat into space very quickly. If clouds are present they reflect
much of the escaping heat back towards the earth's surface and hence cooling is much slower. By
late night or early morning the surface of the land gets very cold and hence the air in contact with
it may get cooled below its dew point, resulting in the formation of dew. Dew can also be formed
at other times of the day if a warm moist wind blows gently over a very cold land surface. The
presence of water or ice particles on the surface speeds up the formation of dew.

Hoar frost
Hoar frost is the frozen equivalent of dew. Soft white ice crystals in the form of feathers or tree
roots and other surfaces after a clear, calm night, when the air next to the ground has cooled
sufficiently for condensation to occur and the temperature near the ground has fallen below 0°C
Glazed frost: Is a thin, transparent, smooth layer of ice formed when rain or drizzle falls on a surface
whose temperature is below freezing point. Glazed frost can also form if a warm moist current of air
blows over a very cold surface.
In the UK, glazed frost is also called "Black ice" as it cannot be distinguished against a black road
surface. It is dangerous to walk or drive on glazed frost as it is very smooth and slippery.
Rime
If temperature of water droplets is below freezing point (super cooled droplets) in contact to any
cold object they freeze immediately and called as rime
(Rime is the name given to a deposit of ice that forms on the windward side of an exposed object)
Types of precipitation
1) Drizzle: Fine drops of water, diameter less than 0.5 mm. Termed heavy or light
depending on Intensity o-f precipitation. Clouds: St, Sc
2) Rain: Water drops larger than 0.5 mm diameter. Termed heavy or light depending on
intensity of Precipitation. Clouds: Ns, As, Sc, Ac, Cu, Cb.
3) Freezing rain/drizzle: The water drops freeze on impact with cold ground.
Clouds: Same as for rain/drizzle.
4) Snowflakes: Loose clusters of ice crystals, in very soft, small particles having
branches.
Clouds: Ns, As, Sc, Cb.
5) Snow pellets: White opaque grains of ice, very soft and spherical or conical in shape,
diameter between 2 and 5 mm.
Clouds:' Cb in cold weather.
6) Sleet: Sometimes rain and snow fall together or partly melted snowflakes fall. This is
called sleet and is common in the U.K.
Clouds: Same as for snowflakes.
7) Ice pellets: Transparent pellets of ice, frozen hard, less than 0.5 mm diameter.
Clouds: Ns, As, Cb.
8) Hail: Balls of hard ice, 0.5 to 50 mm diameter or more.
Clouds: Cb.

Clouds
When air is cooled below its dew point temperature, the excess water vapour condenses into
Minute (very small) particles of water, which remain suspended in the air. Millions of such
particles, close together, become visible as cloud.
Clouds can form at any height 'from sea level up to the tropopause, they are hence grouped
According to their height of base above sea level
Low clouds consist entirely of water droplets and have their bases between sea level and 2 km
height. Medium clouds have the prefix "Alto" to their names and consist of both, water droplets
and ice Particles, but more of the former. Their bases will be between 2 km and 6 km above sea
level.
High clouds have the prefix "Cirro" to their names and consist entirely of ice crystals. Their bases
will be between 6 km above sea level and the tropopause.
High level clouds: Cirrus (Ci) – Cirrostratus (Cs) – Cirrocumulus (Cc)
Medium level clouds: Altostratus (As) - Altocumulus (Ac) Low level clouds: Cumulus (Cu) -
Cumulonimbus (Cb)
1. Cirrus: Silvery, high clouds appearing like feathers or fibers. Being so high up, they always
have a background of blue sky and, during twilight, often appear bright red or yellow. On dark
nights, cirrus can be detected only by its dimming effect on stars.
2. Cirrostratus: A thin whitish veil of high cloud through which the sun or moon have a watery
look. The outline of the sun and moon are sufficiently clear for altitude observations by a sextant.
3. Cirrocumulus: A high layer of cloud in the form of small flakes or cauliflowers, white in color
with no dark shadows in between.
4. Altostratus: A thin greyish or bluish veil of cloud through which the sun or moon appears very
dim as if seen through frosted glass. The outline of the sun and moon are hazy and not clear
enough for altitude observation by a sextant.
5. Altocumulus: Clouds in patch, layer or sheet form, white or grey or both in colour. Have dark
shadows in between and in regular patterns aligned in one, or sometimes two, directions.
6. Stratus: A low, even layer of dark grey cloud with light and dark patches. It has a dry look and
does not cause precipitation. It resembles fog, but is not experienced at sea level. It can obscure the
sun completely and can greatly weaken daylight
7. Nimbostratus: A low, even layer of dark-grey cloud generally uniform and threatening in
Appearance with no light coloured patches. It has a wet look. If precipitation takes place it is
continuous not intermittent. It can completely obscure the sun and greatly weaken daylight.
8. Stratocumulus: Clouds consisting of a layer or patches of globular masses which appear soft.
They are grey in colour with dark shadows. The patches generally align themselves in regular
patterns in one, or sometimes two, directions.
9. Cumulus: Brilliant white, thick clouds with flat bases and rounded cauliflower-like tops. Dark
Shadows are usually seen in them. The outline of each such cloud is very clear cut
They may have very great vertical extent. Precipitation, if any, caused by even, well developed
cumulus is light.
10. Cumulonimbus: Mass of grey, heavy cloud having its base in low cloud level, of great vertical
Extent, with its top well in high cloud level
The top of a well-developed cumulonimbus cloud will have attached to it, a cap of white cirrus cloud in
the shape of an anvil.

Classification of Clouds
High Clouds
Cirrus
Detached clouds in the form of white, delicate filaments,
mostly white patches or narrow bands. They may have a
fibrous (hair-like) and/or silky sheen appearance. Cirrus
clouds are always composed of ice crystals, and their
transparent character depends upon the degree of separation of
the crystals.
As a rule when these clouds cross the sun's disk they hardly
diminish its brightness. Before sunrise and after sunset, cirrus
is often colored bright yellow or red. These clouds are lit up
long before other clouds and fade out much later.
Cirrostratus
Transparent, whitish veil clouds with a fibrous (hair-like) or
smooth appearance. A sheet of cirrostratus which is very
extensive, nearly always ends by covering the whole sky.
Cirrocumulus
Thin, white patch, sheet, or layered of clouds without
shading. They are composed of very small elements in
the form of more or less regularly arranged grains or
ripples.
In general Cirrocumulus represents a degraded state of
cirrus and cirrostratus both of which may change into it
and is an uncommon cloud. There will be a connection
with cirrus or cirrostratus and will show some
characteristics of ice crystal clouds.

Mid Clouds
Altostratus
Gray or bluish cloud sheets or layers of striated or
fibrous clouds that totally or partially covers the sky.
Altostratus clouds do not produce a halo phenomenon
nor are the shadows of objects on the ground visible.
Sometime virga is seen hanging from Altostratus, and
at times may even reach the ground causing very light
precipitation.
Altocumulus
White and/or gray patch, sheet or layered clouds,
generally composed of laminae (plates), rounded masses or
rolls. They may be partly fibrous or diffuse. When the
edge or a thin semitransparent patch of altocumulus passes
in front of the sun or moon a corona appears. This colored
ring has red on the outside and blue inside and occurs
within a few degrees of the sun or moon.
The most common mid cloud, more than one layer of
Altocumulus often appears at different levels at the same
time. Many times Altocumulus will appear with other
cloud types.
Nimbostratus
The continuous rain cloud. Resulting from
thickening Altostratus, This is a dark gray cloud
layer diffused by falling rain or snow. It is thick
enough throughout to blot out the sun. The cloud
base lowers into the low level of clouds as
precipitation continues.

Low Clouds
Cumulus
Detached, generally dense clouds and with sharp outlines that
develop vertically in the form of rising mounds, domes or towers
with bulging upper parts often resembling a cauliflower. The
sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant white while their
bases are relatively dark and horizontal. Over land cumulus
develops on days of clear skies, and is due diurnal convection. It
appears in the morning, grows and then more or less dissolves
again toward evening.
Stratus
A generally gray cloud layer with a uniform base
which may if thick enough produce drizzle, ice
prisms or snow grains. When the sun is visible
through this cloud, its outline is clearly
discernible.
Often when a layer of Stratus breaks up and
dissipates blue sky is seen.
Cumulonimbus
The thunderstorm cloud, this is a heavy and dense
cloud in the form of a mountain or huge tower. The
upper portion is usually smoothed, fibrous or striated
and nearly always flattened in the shape of an anvil.
Under the base of this cloud which is often very dark,
there are often low ragged clouds that may or may not
merge with the base. They produce precipitation,
which sometimes is in the form of virga.
Cumulonimbus clouds also produce hail and
tornadoes.

Stratocumulus
Gray or whitish patch, sheet, or layered clouds

which almost always have dark tessellations
(honeycomb appearance), rounded masses or
rolls. Except for virga, they are non-fibrous
and may or may not be merged.
They also have regularly arranged small
elements with an apparent width of more than
five degrees (three fingers - at arm's length).
How do clouds form?

Clouds form when the invisible water vapour in the air condenses into visible water droplets or ice
crystals. There is water around us all the time in the form water vapour. There are also tiny
particles floating around in the air such as salt and dust these are called nuclei.
The water vapour and the nuclei are constantly bumping into each other. When the air is cooled,
some of the water vapour sticks to the nuclei when they collide, this is called condensation.
Eventually, bigger water droplets form around the nuclei particles, and these water droplets start
sticking together with other droplets, forming clouds.
Clouds form when the air is saturated and cannot hold any more water vapour, this can happen in
two ways:
1. The amount of water in the air has increased for example through evaporation to the point that
the air cannot hold any more water.
2. The air is cooled to its dew point, the point where condensation occurs and the air is unable to
hold any more water.
The warmer the air is, the more water vapour it can hold. Clouds are usually produced through
condensation. As the air rises, it will cool and reducing the temperature of the air decreases its
ability to hold water vapour so that condensation occurs. The height at which dew point is reached
and clouds form is called the condensation level.
What causes clouds to form?

Surface heating
This happens when the ground is heated by the sun which heats the air in contact with it causing it
to rise. The rising columns are often called thermals. Surface heating tends to produce cumulus
clouds.
FORMATION OF CLOUDS
Clouds are formed in four main ways:
(a) Turbulence:
Strong winds blowing over uneven ground strike against the various obstructions and the

Air gets deflected upwards. This cause thorough mixing of the air and, as the air rises, it cools
Adiabatically
If during this process, the air gets cooled below its dew point, clouds will form. These clouds will
be of an even, layer type (stratus) and their bases will generally be not more than 600m high.
(b) Orographic lifting:

When a warm, moist wind blows against a mountain range, it begins to climb up the mountainside.
During this ascent, it cools adiabatically and after cooling below its dew point,
Orographic clouds are formed. These are of the stratus type. If the mountain is quite high, further
Ascent results in nimbostratus and continuous precipitation.
On the windward side of the mountain peak, Clouds are forming steadily whereas on the leeward
Side, they are dissipating at the same rate.
(c) Convection:

When a parcel of air gets heated due to any local cause,

it expands, becomes less dense than surrounding air, and
rises. This is called convection current. This local
heating can be caused by contact with warm sea or
ground. So long as the parcel is warmer than the
surrounding air at each level, it will continue to rise
(unstable condition of air).
During this ascent, the rising air cools adiabatically and,
when cooled below its dew point, condensation takes
place resulting in convection clouds
That is why a large island (more than about 10 miles
long) in mid ocean may be seen to have a stationary
cumulus cloud above it during daytime.
It is for the same reason that, during daytime, the
coastline of A large landmass may have a long line
cloud above it, parallel to the coast
The greater the ascent of air, the greater the vertical
extent of the cloud

(d) Frontal lifting:

Where a warm air-mass and a cold air-mass are in contact, their line of separation, at sea
Level, is called a front. The boundary between them is not vertical. It is inclined towards the colder
air mass because the cold air, being denser, acts like a wedge and lifts up the warm air.

Cloud Movement and Changes

Presently, clouds cover about 70 percent of the planet’s surface. While important for maintaining
Earth’s temperatures, their constant movement makes them particularly difficult to monitor.
Observing satellite cloud data from 1983 to 2009, Norris and his team concluded that the highest
clouds had moved further upward due to an increase in greenhouse gases, and that storms both
north and south of the equator were moving closer towards the poles. With fewer clouds at their
service, the mid-latitude regions are trapping more heat, and bear particularly high levels of
radiation.
As global warming occurs, there’s the expectation that the storm track will shift closer to the pole,
and the dry areas of the subtropics will expand poleward. An increase of CO2 leads to cooling of
the stratosphere, so it’s cooling down. The troposphere underneath is warming up, and so that
means as the clouds rise up, they can rise up higher than they did before.
Throughout 2016, several drastic events have been linked to climate change. Flooding in Asia,
Europe and North America is often labeled the result of a warming planet. Around the globe,
seasons are shifting, temperatures are climbing, and sea levels are rising.

Thunder and Lightning

A thunderstorm is a series of sudden electrical discharges resulting from atmospheric conditions.
These discharges result in sudden flashes of light and trembling sound waves, commonly known as
thunder and lightning. Thunderstorms are associated with convective clouds and are often
accompanied by precipitation.
How do thunderstorms form?

Thunderstorms develop when the atmosphere is unstable. This is when warm air exists underneath
much colder air. As the warm air rises it cools and condenses forming small droplets of water. If
there is enough instability in the air, the updraft of warm air is rapid and the water vapour will
quickly form a cumulonimbus cloud. Typically, these cumulonimbus clouds can form in under an
hour.
As the warm air continues to rise, the water droplets combine to create larger droplets which freeze
to form ice crystals. As result of circulating air in the clouds, water freezes on the surface of the
droplet or crystal. Eventually the droplets become too heavy to be supported by the updraughts of
air and they fall as hail.
As hail moves within the cloud it picks up a negative charge by rubbing against smaller positively
charged ice crystals. A negative charge forms at the base of the cloud where the hail collects, while
the lighter ice crystals remain near the top of the cloud and create a positive charge.
The negative charge is attracted to the Earth's surface and other clouds and objects and when the
attraction becomes too strong, the positive and negative charges come together or discharge to
balance the difference in a flash of lightning (sometimes known as a lightning strike or lightning
bolt). The rapid expansion and heating of air caused by lightning produces the accompanying loud
clap of thunder.
Where do thunderstorms form?

Thunderstorms are common occurrences on earth. Owing to the fact thunderstorms are created by
intense heating of the earth's surface, they are most common in areas of the globe where the
weather is hot and humid. Land masses therefore experience more storms than the oceans and they
are also more frequent in tropical areas than the higher latitudes. The island of Java is the most
thundery place on earth with 220 days of thunderstorms every year.
Visibility
Visibility is the transparency of the atmosphere and is defined as the maximum distance at which
an object can be clearly seen and distinguished in normal daylight.
Visibility can be reduced by liquid or solid particles in the air as in the following cases:
(a) Mist or fog (b) Precipitation (c) Spray (d) Smoke (e) Dust, etc.
Mist/Fog
Mist is said to exist when visibility is reduced by water particles that have condensed on dust,
minute particles of salt, etc., but are so small that they remain suspended in the air. If mist becomes
dense and reduces visibility to 1 km or less, it is called fog. Mist can occur when relative humidity
is as low as 80%
Mist is always experienced before and after fog.

Haze
If visibility is reduced by solid particles such as dust, sand, volcanic ash, etc., in suspension in the
air, Haze is said to exist. Haze can, in rare cases, reduce visibility to 200 meters or less.
Spray
Spray is the name given to small droplets of water driven by the wind, from the tops of waves.
Spray affects visibility when the wind force is 9 or more (wind speed of over 40 knots).
Fog
Fog is a visible mass consisting of cloud water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air at or
near the Earth's surface. Fog can be considered a type of low-lying cloud and is heavily influenced
by nearby bodies of water, topography and wind conditions.
TYPES OF FOG
1. Radiation fog
Also called land fog because it forms only over land, not over sea. During the night, land gives off
its heat very quickly. On clear nights, the radiation of heat from the land surface into space is
quicker as it is unobstructed by clouds. The air in contact with the ground thus gets cooled and if
cooled below its dew point, a large quantity of dew is deposited. If, however, a light breeze is
blowing, turbulence causes the cold from the land surface to be communicated to the air a couple
of metres above the ground and shallow fog called 'ground fog' results. The visibility at eye level
above this ground fog may be good but, in the fog, it may be only a couple of hundred metres or
less. If the wind is a bit stronger, radiation fog may extend upto a height of about 150 metres or so
above the ground. Strong winds cause too much turbulence, resulting in low clouds (stratus type)
and no fog. Radiation fog, which can form over land only, may drift on to rivers, harbours, lakes
and other coastal regions. For example: fog on the Thames River, Dover Straits, the Sandheads of
the Hooghly, etc.
Radiation fog forms over land because of the large diurnal range of air temperature over land. It
does not form over sea because of the very small diurnal range of air temperature over sea.
Radiation fog reaches its maximum about half hour after sunrise because air temperature is at its
lowest at that time. It generally dissipates after the sun has shone for a few hours and the land
surface has warmed up.
Conditions favourable for radiation fog are:
• Large moisture content in the lower layers of air.
• Little or no cloud at night.
• Light breeze at the surface.

• Cold wet surface of land.
2. Advection fog
Is also called sea fog because it is mostly found over sea. It can, however, form over land also. It is
formed when a moist wind blows over a relatively cold surface of sea or land. When the most air is
cooled below its dew point, the excess water vapour condenses into small droplets of water on dust
or minute particles of salt, resulting in advection fog.
Wind causes advection fog to form and also to spread. If the wind is quite strong, turbulence
causes advection fog to form to considerable depth. However, very strong winds carry the moisture
too high, resulting in low clouds (Stratus type) and no fog. Best examples of advection fog are:
• On the Grand Banks of New Foundland where the warm, moist Westerlies, blowing over the
warm Gulf Stream, cross over the cold Labrador Current.
• Off the east coast of Japan where the warm, moist Westerlies, blowing over the warm Kuro Shio,
cross over the cold Oya Shio.
• The south coast of the UK in winter, whenever SW winds blow. These winds come from lower
latitudes and blow over the sea and are hence warm and moist, compared to the cold land surface.
The possible time of occurrence of advection fog can sometimes be predicted by plotting the
temperature of the sea surface and the dew point temperature of the air as two separate curves
against ship's time as shown in the following figure.
In the case illustrated, it is observed that the two curves appear to converge. By extending the two
lines as shown in dotted lines, it is noticed that the curves would intersect at about 1400 hours. We
can then expect to experience advection fog at about 1400 hours.

3. Steam fog or arctic sea smoke: When very cold, dry air passes over a relatively warm sea
surface, the water vapour, evaporating from the sea surface, is quickly condensed into water-
droplets and it appears as if vertical streaks of smoke are rising from the sea surface. This is called
steam fog or arctic sea smoke as it is commonly seen in the Arctic Ocean.
4. Smog is radiation fog mixed with smoke.

Smoke + Fog =Smog
It is a thick, black, oppressive blanket, which not only wets all exposed surfaces but
also makes them black due to carbon particles in the smoke. Example: London,
Glasgow, Newcastle, Tokyo, Los Angeles, and Calcutta.
5. Hill fog or orographic fog: When a wind comes against a mountain range and begins to
climb over it, it progressively cools adiabatically. After dew point is reached, any further
cooling causes the excess moisture to condense into water droplets forming hill fog or
orographic fog (in Greek, oras Means Mountain).
6. Frontal Fog
Frontal fog arises along the warm front of a depression when warm air rises over cold
air cooling rapidly to below its dew point forming a long narrow strip of fog along the
front. Frontal fog is seen as low cloud, which falls to sea level and also develops as high-
level fog above clear conditions, obscuring high shore features from view. Frontal fog is
not for the most part persistent, but causes problems with pilotage if navigating using
landmarks such as transits or lighthouses.
Warm moist air trapped between two colder fronts may form warm sector mists in the area
of a depression. As occlusion takes place, the compressed warm air becomes saturated,
with only a small drop in temperature as it contacts a cold sea, or air producing the typical
frontal fog.
Freezing mist
Freezing mist is similar to freezing fog, only the density is less and the visibility greater. (When
fog falls below 0 degrees Celsius in temperature it is known as freezing fog.)
Estimating the visibility at sea

The human observer on dry land measures visibility by determining the greatest distance at which
he can distinguish objects against the horizon with the unaided eye. At night an equivalent is
obtained by using lights of known intensities at various distances. At sea the Officer of the watch
has no fixed reference points unless the visibility is very poor and he is using the various objects
on deck or he uses his experience by looking at the horizon and seeing how sharp it is also trying
to see other vessels that he has detected on his radar and so on.
The ability to distinguish objects at night is determined by scattering of light by dust, smoke, water
and other particulate matter in the air. The greater the scattering of light, the poorer will be the
visibility. The extreme case is dense fog at night when light is scattered directly back at your ship’s
fore mast headlights.
Isotherm
Lines joining places having the same atmospheric temperature at the time of observation
Barometric tendency (pressure tendency)

Barometric tendency is the difference between the atmospheric pressure at the time of observation
and the atmospheric pressure three hours earlier. It is expressed in millibars and up to one decimal
of a millibar.

Barometric tendency gives the forecaster a good idea of the rate of change of pressure, which is
useful for predicting the movement of pressure systems (also called isobaric patterns). It is for easy
comparison by the forecaster that barographs and barometer readings should be in accordance with
UTC (GMT) and not ship's time.

Wind
The wind is caused by differences in atmospheric pressure which is mainly caused by temperature
difference. When a difference in atmospheric pressure exists, air moves from the higher to the
lower pressure area, resulting in winds of various speeds.
On a rotating planet, air will also be deflected by the Coriolis Effect, except exactly on the equator.
The deflection is to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
As the air moves from the high-pressure area, its speed increases, and so does its Coriolis
deflection. The deflection increases until the Coriolis and pressure gradient forces are in
geostrophic balance, at this point, the air flow is no longer moving from high to low pressure, but
instead moves along an isobar. The geostrophic balance helps to explain why, in the northern
hemisphere, low-pressure systems (or cyclones) spin counterclockwise and high-pressure
systems (or anticyclones) spin clockwise, and the opposite in the southern hemisphere.
Globally, the two major driving factors of large-scale wind patterns are the differential heating
between the equator and the poles and the rotation of the planet. Outside the tropics and aloft from
frictional effects of the surface, the large-scale winds tend to approach geostrophic balance. Near
the earth's surface, friction causes the wind to be slower than it would be otherwise. Surface
friction also causes winds to blow more inward into low pressure areas.
The geostrophic wind component is the result of the balance between Coriolis force and pressure
gradient force.
Pressure gradient
The pressure gradient is a physical quantity that describes which direction and at what rate
the pressure changes the most rapidly around a particular location. The pressure gradient is a
dimensional quantity expressed in units of pressure per unit length, or Pa/m.
Pressure gradient is the fall of pressure with distance. If the distance between consecutive isobars
is small, the pressure gradient is said to be high and strong winds are expected to blow. If the
distance between consecutive isobars is large, the pressure gradient is said to be small and winds of
lower speed will be expected.
Pressure-gradient force
The pressure-gradient force is the force which results when there is a difference in pressure across
a surface. In general, a pressure is a force per unit area, across a surface. A difference in pressure
across a surface then implies a difference in force, which can result in an acceleration according
to Newton's second law (Second law: In an inertial reference frame, the sum of the forces F on an
object is equal to the mass m of that object multiplied by the acceleration a of the object: F = ma),
if there is no additional force to balance it. The resulting force is always directed from the region
of higher-pressure to the region of lower-pressure.
Wind Measurement
Wind direction is usually expressed in terms of the direction from which it originates. For
example, a northerly wind blows from the north to the south. Weather vanes pivot to indicate the
direction of the wind. Wind speed is measured by anemometers, most commonly using rotating
cups or propellers.
Sustained wind speeds are reported globally at a 10 meters (33 ft) height and are averaged over a
10‑minute time frame. Knowing the wind sampling average is important, as the value of a one-
minute sustained wind is typically 14% greater than a ten-minute sustained wind. A short burst of
high speed wind is termed a wind gust, one technical definition of a wind gust is: the maxima that

exceed the lowest wind speed measured during a ten-minute time interval by 10 knots (5 m/s) for
periods of seconds. A squall is an increase of the wind speed above a certain threshold, which lasts
for a minute or more.
Geostationary satellite imagery can be used to estimate the winds at cloud top based upon how far
clouds move from one image to the next. Wind engineering describes the study of the effects of the
wind on the built environment, including buildings, bridges and other man-made objects.
 Each half of a flag depicts 5 knots (9.3 km/h) of wind.

 Each full flag depicts 10 knots (19 km/h) of wind.
 Each pennant (filled triangle) depicts 50 knots (93 km/h)
of wind.
Coriolis force
On the surface of the earth, winds always try to blow from an
area of high pressure (HP) towards an area of low pressure
(LP), because of gradient force
The effect is strongest at the equator than the north and south
poles. Regions along the equator, therefore, have the highest
temperatures all year round.
Warm equatorial air over very large areas rise up into the atmosphere (low-pressure). This space is
filled with cold, dense air, flooding in from the poles (high-pressure system).
As the earth is constantly rotating, the winds which are blowing from the north and south towards
the equator, is deflected by the earth’s rotation. When moving objects are viewed in a reference
frame, their path looks curved. This is the Coriolis Effect, and it is simply caused by the earth’s
rotation. Coriolis force always acts at right angles to the direction in which
The wind is blowing. This effect makes wind system to be deflected to their right in the northern
hemisphere and to be deflected to their left in the Southern hemisphere
Coriolis force is minimum at the equator and increases as latitude increases, becoming maximum
at the poles.
Winds actually blowing over any area are the resultant of gradient force and Coriolis force.
Because of this, it will be observed that:
• Winds blow spirally inwards towards a depression (LP area surrounded by areas of HP),
anticlockwise in the I\JH and clockwise in the SH.
• Winds bow spirally outward from the centre of an anti-cyclone (HP area surrounded by areas of
LP), clockwise in the NH and anticlockwise in the SH.

G represents Gradient force,

C represents Coriolis force and
W represents the resultant
wind.
Figure 1: Schematic representation of flow around a low pressure area. Pressure gradient force
represented by blue arrows. The Coriolis force, always perpendicular to the velocity, by red arrows. ©
SVG version, Roland Geider (Ogre), of the original PNG, (Cleontuni)

The effect of friction

Friction with the underline area will cause a bit change in the wind direction and also will affect on
the wind speed.
Cyclone or low pressure

Cyclone or low is an area of low pressure surrounded by areas of high pressure. The isobars form
closed shapes. The winds blow spirally inwards, anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The pressure gradient is usually high, resulting in strong
winds. A low is an area of convergence of air, on reaching the centre, the air moves up as a strong
upward current, resulting in cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds of very high vertical extent and
heavy precipitation. Over the actual centre of the low, a thin downward stream of air exists, where
a patch of blue sky may be seen.
As mentioned above, a low is a sign of bad weather and strong winds, clouds, precipitation, etc.
Anticyclone or high
Anticyclone or high is an area of high pressure surrounded by areas of low pressure. The isobars
form closed shapes. The winds blow spirally outwards, clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The pressure gradient is usually low resulting in low
wind speeds. An anticyclone is an area of divergence of air at sea level. This outflow of air is
balanced by a downward current of air at the centre. This descending column of air warms up
adiabatically and becomes relatively drier and drier as it descends. There is therefore, a total
absence of any cloud or precipitation over the anticyclone. An anticyclone is therefore, a sign of
good weather light winds, no clouds (blue sky), no precipitation, good visibility, etc. However, as
the subsiding dry air reaches sea level and blows spirally outwards, quick evaporation takes place
and if the temperature of the sea surface is quite low, mist or fog may form on the outer fringes of
the anticyclone. Even in such cases, visibility at the centre will be good.
Warm and cold anticyclones: If the descending air originally came from a very cold source, it
would be colder than the surrounding air, level for level and also at sea level-it is then called a cold
anticyclone. One example of a cold anticyclone is the high over Siberia during northern winter.
If the descending air originally came from a warm source, it would be warmer than the
surrounding air, level for level and also at sea level-it is then called a warm anticyclone. Examples
of warm anticyclones are the permanent highs of 30°N and 30°S at the centers of oceans.


Geostrophic wind
The geostrophic wind is the theoretical wind that would result from an exact balance between the
Coriolis Effect and the pressure gradient force. This condition is called geostrophic balance.
Low Pressure
Isobars
Pressure
gradiant Force
Geostrophic Current
Coriolis force
High Pressure
The following are a few important definitions concerning wind:
1. Sea (waves): Is the name given to waves, on the sea-surface, created by wind that is presently
blowing. The height of sea disturbance, in open waters, is directly related to the wind force as per
Beaufort scale.
2. Swell: Is the name given to waves, on the seasurface, formed by wind that has subsequently
stopped blowing or is blowing at some other place quite far away. Swell travels quickly and has
been known to have been felt over 1000 miles away. Swell travels radially outwards from the centre
of a storm and is usually the first indication of the presence and bearing (direction) of a TRS.
3. Gust: A gust of wind is the sudden increase of wind speed for a very short period of time. It is
usually caused by terrestrial obstructions to the flow of wind.
4. Squall: A sudden increase of wind force by at least 3 stages of the Beaufort scale (increase of at
least 16 knots wind speed), reaching upto at least force 6 (22 knots) and lasting at least one minute.
A squall is different from a gust of wind by its greater duration.
5. Veering: A clockwise change of direction from which the wind is blowing e.g., from N to I\JE,
'frorn S to SW, from W to NW, etc. .
6. Backing: An anticlockwise change of direction from which the wind is blowing e.g., from N to
NW, from E to NE, from SW to S, etc.
Wind force scale

Historically, the Beaufort wind force scale (created by Beaufort) provides an empirical description
of wind speed based on observed sea conditions. Originally it was a 13-level scale (0-12), but
during the 1940s, the scale was expanded to 18 levels (0-17).[18] There are general terms that
differentiate winds of different average speeds such as a breeze, a gale, a storm, or a hurricane.
Within the Beaufort scale, gale-force winds lie between 28 knots (52 km/h) and 55 knots
(102 km/h) with preceding adjectives such as moderate, fresh, strong, and whole used to
differentiate the wind's strength within the gale category. A storm has winds of 56 knots
(104 km/h) to 63 knots (117 km/h). The terminology for tropical cyclones differs from one region
to another globally. Most ocean basins use the average wind speed to determine the tropical

cyclone's category. Below is a summary of the classifications used by Regional Specialized

Meteorological Centers worldwide:
Beaufort Wind Scale
Wind WMO Appearance of Wind Effects

Force (Knots) Classification On the Water On Land
Less
0 than 1
Calm Sea surface smooth and mirror-like Calm, smoke rises vertically
Smoke drift indicates wind

1 1-3 Light Air Scaly ripples, no foam crests
direction, still wind vanes
Wind felt on face, leaves rustle,
2 4-6 Light Breeze Small wavelets, crests glassy, no breaking
vanes begin to move
Large wavelets, crests begin to break, Leaves and small twigs constantly
3 7-10 Gentle Breeze
scattered whitecaps moving, light flags extended
Moderate Small waves 1-4 ft. becoming longer, Dust, leaves, and loose paper lifted,
4 11-16
Breeze numerous whitecaps small tree branches move
Moderate waves 4-8 ft taking longer form,
5 17-21 Fresh Breeze
many whitecaps, some spray
Small trees in leaf begin to sway
Larger waves 8-13 ft, whitecaps common, Larger tree branches moving,
6 22-27 Strong Breeze
more spray whistling in wires
Sea heaps up, waves 13-19 ft, white foam Whole trees moving, resistance felt
7 28-33 Near Gale
streaks off breakers walking against wind
Moderately high (18-25 ft) waves of greater
Twigs breaking off trees, generally
8 34-40 Gale length, edges of crests begin to break into
impedes progress
spindrift, foam blown in streaks
High waves (23-32 ft), sea begins to roll,
Slight structural damage occurs,
9 41-47 Strong Gale dense streaks of foam, spray may reduce
slate blows off roofs
visibility
Very high waves (29-41 ft) with overhanging Seldom experienced on land, trees
10 48-55 Storm crests, sea white with densely blown foam, broken or uprooted, "considerable
heavy rolling, lowered visibility structural damage"
Exceptionally high (37-52 ft) waves, foam
11 56-63 Violent Storm
patches cover sea, visibility more reduced
Air filled with foam, waves over 45 ft, sea
12 64+ Hurricane completely white with driving spray, •
visibility greatly reduced


Surface wind circulation around high and low pressure centers

Pressure varies from day-to-day at the Earth’s surface or the bottom of the atmosphere. This is in
part because the earth is not equally heated by the sun. Areas where air is warmed often have lower
pressure because the warm air rises and are called low pressure systems. Places where air pressure
is high are called high pressure systems.
Low pressure system

A low pressure system has lower pressure at its center than the areas around it. Winds blow
towards the low pressure and the air rises in the atmosphere. As the air rises, the water vapor
within it condenses forming clouds and often precipitation too. Because of earth’s spin and the
coriolis effect, winds of a low pressure system rotate counterclockwise north of the equator and
clockwise south of the equator. This is called cyclonic flow. On weather maps a low pressure
system is labeled with red L.
High pressure system

A high pressure system has higher pressure at its center than the areas around it. Wind blows away
from high pressure. Winds of a high pressure system rotate in the opposite direction as a low
pressure system. (clockwise north of the equator and counterclockwise south of the equator). This
is called anti-cyclonic flow. Air from higher in the atmosphere sinks down to fill the space left as
air blew outward. On a weather map the location of a high pressure system is labeled with a blue
H.
Weather
Weather is the mix of events that happen each day in our atmosphere. Weather is different in
different parts of the world and changes over minutes, hours, days and weeks. Most weather
happens in the troposphere, the part of Earth’s atmosphere that is closest to the ground.
The weather events happening in an area are controlled by changes in air pressure. Air pressure is
caused by the weight of the huge numbers of air molecules that make up the atmosphere.
Typically, when air pressure is high there skies are clear and blue. The high pressure causes air to
flow down and fan out when it gets near the ground, preventing clouds from forming. When air
pressure is low, air flows together and then upward where it converges, rising, cooling, and
forming clouds.
Buys Ballot’s law

Buys Ballot’s law states that in the Northern Hemisphere a person who stands facing away from
the wind has high pressure on the right and low pressure on the left. In the Southern Hemisphere
the reverse would be true. Because of the weakness of the Coriolis effect (produced by the Earth’s
rotation) in equatorial regions, the law is not applicable there.
Caution when applying buys Ballot's Law

1) Near the equator: Buys Ballot's law should not be applied within a few degrees of the equator. This
is because Coriolis force is negligible at the equator and therefore the winds blow directly across
the isobars from HP to LP areas.
2) In the vicinity of land, the wind experienced May not be the free unobstructed wind. It may be wind
deflected by the land.

Pressure decreases with increasing altitude

The pressure at any level in the atmosphere may be interpreted as the total weight of the air above
a unit area at any elevation. At higher elevations, there are fewer air molecules above a given
surface than a similar surface at lower levels. For example, there are fewer molecules above the 50
km surface than are found above the 12 km surface, which is why the pressure is less at 50 km.
What this implies is that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing height. Since most of the
atmosphere's molecules are held close to the earth's surface by the force of gravity, air pressure
decreases rapidly at first, then more slowly at higher levels.
Since more than half of the atmosphere's molecules are located below an altitude of 5.5
km, atmospheric pressure decreases roughly 50% (to around 500 mb) within the lowest 5.5 km.
Above 5.5 km, the pressure continues to decrease but at an increasingly slower rate. The unit of
pressure is the Pascal (Pa), which is equal to one Newton per meter squared (N/m2). Atmospheric
pressure at sea level normally varies between 940mb and 1050mb. The average pressure at sea
level is 1013.2 hpa (mb).
True & Apparent Wind

There are two kinds of wind, true and apparent. We call the wind that blows across the land or
water the true wind. This is the wind talked about in the weather forecast of 10-15 knots for
instance. It is the wind we feel when we are outside at rest and not moving.
As you might guess the other kind of wind, apparent is the wind that is generated by our movement
in combination with the true wind. The only time there is no apparent wind is when we are at rest
and only feeling the effects of the true wind. When we move and the wind also moves the total
wind we feel is the apparent wind. Stationary objects only feel true wind while all objects in
motion feel apparent wind.
Let's talk about some examples and start with the situation where there is no true wind. This is a
day when it is completely calm with no detectable wind speed when we are standing still.
In this illustration we have calm

conditions so we move ahead at 5 knots
producing an apparent wind of 5 knots
from straight ahead.
On the next day tied up at the dock, we

have a true wind of 10 knots constant
blowing across our port beam.
No wind from our boat's forward
motion. The true wind is 10 knots and
that's what we feel on the boat.
What happens when we go sailing?

The wind will just blow us off the dock.
We raise sails and move ahead on a close
reach at 5 knots. We know the true wind is
10 knots and since we will be moving
forward we will be producing 5 knots of
wind ourselves. How do these combine?
We are combining our boat speed and
direction with the true wind speed and
direction.
We see the combined effects of the true
wind and our boat's motion forward. This
produces the apparent wind, what we
actually feel while sailing on the boat.
Boats always sail in the apparent wind.
Here, note the apparent wind is stronger
than the true wind (the arrow is longer)
and is coming from further towards the
bow.

What if we fall off the wind and head down on a run?

Let's see what the combination of
boat speed and direction along with
the true wind produce now.
As we turn away from the wind the
boat slows down. It slows down
because the apparent wind drops and
the sails become less efficient. In
this simple example we are going in
the same direction as the wind so we
just subtract our boat speed from the
true wind speed and that gives us the
correct apparent wind speed. If we
have a wind speed indicator aboard
it would show the same reading.
Example:

Worked example 1:
Course 045° speed 15 knots. Apparent wind 100° at 20 knots. Find the direction and speed of true
wind.
Solution:
Draw a line representing North-South and take any point A on it. At A, draw an angle equal to the
course (045° in this case) and cut off
AT equal to ship's speed (15 knots in
this case), using any convenient
scale. AT now represents the course
and speed of the vessel.
At A, draw an angle equal to the
apparent wind (100° in this case) and
cut off AO equal to the apparent wind
speed (20 knots in this case), using
the same scale. OA now represents
the apparent wind.
Join OT and this represents the true
wind. Using the same scale as before,
convert distance OT into knots. To
obtain the direction of true wind,
draw a North-South line through T
and read off the angle between it and
OT.
The true wind in this case is 147 at 17
knots.
Note: North-South lines are to be drawn through A and T, never through O.
Worked example 2:
Course 200° speed 14 knots. True wind 300° at 18knots. Find the direction and speed of apparent wind.
Draw a North-South line and take any point A on it.

Draw AT equal to course and speed of vessel (200 at
14 knots), using any convenient scale.
At T draw a North-South line and insert the true wind
OT (300° at 18 knots), using the same scale. Join OA,
which now represents the apparent wind.
Using same scale,· convert distance OA into knots.
The angle that OA makes with the North-South line
at A is the direction of the apparent wind.
Apparent wind in this case is 258.5° at 20.8 knots.
Worked example 3:
Course 160° speed 10 knots. Direction of wind
(obtained by observing line of waves) was 270°.
Wind speed by shipboard anemometer was 17 knots.
What direction and force of wind is to be entered into
the ship's logbook?

Note: (1) A shipboard anemometer measures speed of apparent wind.

(2) The direction of wind obtained by observing the line of waves is the direction of true wind.
1. What Beaufort Force in the Beaufort scale indicates a mean wind speed of 41 – 47knots? (Force 9)
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 1.5 × √41 = 1.5 × 6.4 = 9.6
2. What average wind speed, in the Beaufort scale of wind force, does force 10 indicates? (48-55)
1.63 × 101.5 = 51.54
3. Your vessel is on course 150Tspeed 17knots. The apparent wind is from 40 off the Starboard bow,
speed 15 knots. Find true direction and speed of the wind. (11kts).
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = √172 + 152 − 2 × 17 × 15 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠40 = 11.10

Examples for exercise

4. Your vessel is on course 180Tspeed 22knots. The apparent wind is from 70 off the port bow, speed
20 knots. Find true direction and speed of the wind. (051T, 24kts).
5. Your vessel is on course 135Tspeed 18knots. From the appearance of the sea you estimate the speed
of the true wind as 24.5knots. The apparent wind is 40 on the starboard bow. Determine the speed of
the apparent wind. (36knots)
6. You are underway on course 120T and can make 12knots. The eye of a hurricane bears 150T at
120miles. The hurricane is on course 295 at 20knots. What course should you steer at 12knots to have
the maximum CPA? (348)

Basic Isobaric Patterns

By a study of past weather and weather maps, meteorologists have found that isobaric patterns fall
into seven basic types and the weather associated with each type could be predicted with
reasonable accuracy due to past experience.
Straight Isobars:
Straight isobars are said to exist
when the isobars run straight and
nearly parallel for a few hundred
miles. The pressure gradient is
usually low resulting in low wind
speeds. Wind direction and force
remain constant so long as the
isobars remain unchanged. The
weather associated with straight
isobars cannot be defined as it
depends on the properties of the air
mass in which these isobars exist.
Secondary cyclone or Secondary low:

Secondary cyclone or Secondary low sometimes a low is closely followed by another, within its
pattern of isobars. The first one is called the primary and the second one is called the secondary.
The second is so named only because it formed later but it possesses all the qualities of the primary
and may either fill up and disappear or it may intensify and swallow up the primary.

Anticyclone or high
Anticyclone or high is an area
of high pressure surrounded
by areas of low pressure. The
isobars form closed shapes.
The winds blow spirally
outwards, clockwise in the
northern hemisphere and anti-
clockwise in the southern
hemisphere.
The pressure gradient is
usually low resulting in low
wind speeds.
An anticyclone is an area of
divergence of air at sea level.
This outflow of air is balanced
by a downward current of air
at the centre.
This descending column of air
warms up adiabatically and becomes relatively drier and drier as it descends.
There is a total absence of any cloud or precipitation over the anticyclone. An anticyclone is,
therefore, a sign of good weather -light winds, no clouds (blue sky), no precipitation, good
visibility, etc.
However, as the subsiding dry air reaches sea level and blows spirally outwards, quick evaporation
takes place and, if the temperature of the sea surface is quite low, mist or fog may form on the
outer fringes of the anticyclone. Even in such cases, visibility at the centre will be good.

Col:
Col is an area between two
highs and two lows situated
alternately. Light variable
winds are experienced but not
for long. Sudden change of
weather is likely. Relative
humidity is fairly high and
lightning may be seen. A col
may be situated between a
primary low and secondary
low as shown in the figure
under 'Secondary low' or it
may be situated at the
boundary between two
different air-masses. In the
latter case, the change of
weather will be even more
drastic, especially
temperature. No definite
pattern of weather is associated with a col. Fog may be experienced in autumn. In summer over
land, thunderstorms are frequently associated with a col.
Ridge or wedge of high pressure:

Ridge or wedge is an area of high
pressure jutting into areas of low
pressure. The isobars are curved, with
the high pressure inside, and are
generally far apart. They do not
necessarily form closed shapes. A
ridge may form by itself or it may be
the outer fringes of an anticyclone far
away. The qualities and associated
weather are like that of an
anticyclone-light wind, no clouds, no
precipitation.
A ridge is also experienced between a
primary low and its secondary as
shown in the figure of "Secondary
low", In such a case, the good weather
associated with it will be very short
lived (a couple of hours only).
Trough of low pressure:

Trough is an area of low pressure jutting into areas of high pressure. The isobars are curved with
the low pressure inside but they do not form closed shapes. The pressure gradient is fairly high
resulting in strong winds. The winds blow from the high pressure areas towards the areas of low

pressure, being deflected to the right in

the NH and left in the SH, by Coriolis
force. Bad weather is associated with a
trough. Before the trough, pressure falls
and weather deteriorates. After the
passage of a trough, pressure rises and
weather improves. There are two forms
of trough:
(a) Non-frontal trough: In this case, the
isobars curve gently (change direction
gradually). When a non-frontal trough
passes over an observer the wind veers
gradually in the NH and backs gradually
in the SH. The “U” of the non-frontal
trough always points towards the
equator.
(b) Frontal trough: A Frontal trough
exists at the boundary between two
different air masses. On crossing it, the
isobars change direction suddenly by
about 90°. The “V” formed by the
isobars always points towards the
equator. When a frontal trough passes
over an observer, the wind veers by
about 90° (backs in SH), squalls may be experienced accompanied by lightning and heavy
precipitation. Since one air-mass is replaced by another, a sudden change of temperature also is
experienced on its passage.
Dew point temperature

Is the temperature at which dew forms and is a measure of atmospheric moisture. It is the
temperature to which air must be cooled at constant pressure and water content to reach
saturation. A higher dew point indicates more moisture in the air. A dew point greater than 20°C
(68°F) is considered uncomfortable and greater than 22°C (72°F) is considered to be extremely
humid.
Frost point
It is the dew point when temperatures are below freezing point.
How to use a geostrophic wind scale?

Find the distance between adjacent isobars in the area that you are interested in - making sure that
the isobaric interval is the same as that for which the scale was constructed - often 4 mbar.
(Dividers can be used, but a strip of paper suitably marked is just as good) Using the geostrophic
scale for the correct latitude, put one end of your marked distance on the left-hand end of the scale,
and read off at the right-hand end the geostrophic wind speed for that isobaric spacing at that
latitude.
Remember though that many corrections are needed to find an approximation to the 'real' wind.

Periodic and Local Winds

Local winds occur on relatively small areas. They tend to be short-lived lasting typically several
hours to a day. There are many such winds around the world some of them cold, some warm, some
wet and some dry.
The main types of local winds are:
Sea breezes and land breezes, Anabatic and katabatic winds.
Land breeze
During the night, the land gives off its heat very quickly and the air in contact with it also cools
rapidly resulting in a high pressure over the land. The temperature of the sea surface, and hence the
temperature of the air in contact with it, remains fairly constant resulting in a relatively low
pressure over the sea.
The isobars run roughly parallel to the coast. Since the distance between the HP over land and the
LP over sea is small, the wind blows directly across the isobars "from the land towards the sea".
The land breeze sets in a couple of hours after sunset and blows until about half-hour after sunrise.
Sea breeze
During the day, the land gets extremely hot and the air in contact with it gets heated, resulting in a
low pressure over land. The temperature of the sea surface, and hence the temperature of the air
over it, remains fairly constant resulting in a relatively high Pressure over sea
The isobars run roughly parallel to the coast. Since the distance between the high and

The low pressure areas is quite small and the pressure gradient is fairly high, the wind blows
directly across the isobars from the HP over the sea, towards the LP over land.
The sea breeze usually sets in by about 1000 or 1100 hours local time, reaches a maximum Force
of 3 to 4 by about 1400 hours and dies down about sunset. In rare cases, sea breezes have been
detected as far away as 100 miles from the coast.
Katabatic wind
On clear nights, the land surface radiates its heat into space very quickly resulting in a cold layer of
air next to the land surface. If the ground is sloping, the air on top of mountain is colder and hence
denser than at valley .Air at the top of the hill starts sliding down due to gravitational force and is
called a 'Katabatic wind' (in Greek 'Kata' means 'down')
If the mountain is high and the slope is steep, katabatic winds can reach sea level with force 7 or
more in a very short while.

Anabatic wind
During daytime, the land surface gets heated quickly, resulting in a layer of warm air next to the
land surface. The air on top of the hill is warmer and hence less dense than at the valley. The
relatively colder air moves upward, thus displaced from the valley, slides gently up the mountain
side. This is called an Anabatic wind (in Greek 'Ana' means 'up').
Shamal
Shamal is any NW wind in the Persian or Oman gulfs. It is a warm, dusty, dry wind from
the desert of Arabia. It may change direction and blow from W or SW.
No indication is given by barometric P of the approaching of a Shamal, though the wind
force at winter can reach force 8-9, sometimes with rain squalls, thunder and lightning.
It is more continuous in summer than winter and is most frequent in N PG. Occurrence of
heavy NW swell especially in south of PG

General Pressure and Wind Distribution

The figure gives the general pressure and wind systems which would exist if the entire surface of
the earth was water only. Since such is not the case, variation of the above conditions occurs over
large areas of land.

 Permanent low at equator

 Permanent high at 30 north and south
 Permanent low at 60 north and south
 Permanent high at north and south poles
Doldrums: (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ))

The inter-tropical convergence zone known as the doldrums is the area encircling the earth near the
equator where the northeast and southeast trade winds come together. The ITCZ appears as a band
of clouds usually thunderstorms that circle the globe near the equator.
In the northern hemisphere, the trade winds move in a southwestern direction from the northeast
while in the Southern Hemisphere they move northwestward from the southeast.
When the ITCZ is positioned north or south of the equator these directions change according to
the Coriolis effect imparted by the rotation of the earth. For instance, when the ITCZ is situated
north of the equator, the southeast trade wind changes to a southwest wind as it crosses the
equator. Area of permanent low on the equator.
Subtropical ridge
The subtropical ridge also known as the subtropical high or horse latitudes is a significant belt of
atmospheric high pressure situated around the latitudes of 30°N in the Northern
Hemisphere and 30°S in the Southern Hemisphere. It is characterized by mostly calm winds,
which act to reduce air quality under its axis by causing fog overnight and haze during daylight
hours caused by the stable atmosphere found near its location. Air flows out from its center toward
the upper and lower latitudes of each hemisphere creating both the trade winds and the westerlies.
The subtropical ridge moves poleward during the summer reaching its most northern latitude in
early fall before moving equator-ward during the cold season.

Formation
Heating of the earth near the equator leads to large amounts of upward motion and convection
along the inter-tropical convergence zone. These rising air currents diverge in the upper
troposphere and move away from the equator at high altitude in both northerly and southerly
directions. As it moves towards the mid-latitudes on both sides of the equator the air cools and
sinks. The resulting air mass subsidence creates a subtropical ridge near the 30th parallel of
latitude in both hemispheres.
Movement
The subtropical ridge starts moving poleward in late spring reaching its maximum in early autumn
before retreating equator-ward during the late fall, winter, and early spring.
Trade winds
Trade winds are S.E and N.E winds blowing from subtropical area towards equatorial area in N
and S hemisphere.
The westerlies (blue arrows) and trade winds (yellow and brown arrows)
The trade winds are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics within the
lower portion of the earth's atmosphere in the lower section of the troposphere near the
earth's equator. The trade winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern
Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere, strengthening during the winter.
Trade winds have been used by sailing ships to cross the world's oceans for centuries.
In meteorology, the trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical storms that form over the
Atlantic, Pacific, and southern Indian Oceans and make landfall in North America, Southeast Asia,
and Madagascar and eastern Africa respectively. Trade winds also transport African dust westward
across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean Sea as well as portions of southeastern North
America. Shallow cumulus clouds are seen within trade wind regimes and are capped from
becoming taller by a trade wind inversion which is caused by descending air from higher levels
within the subtropical ridge.
As part of the Hadley cell circulation, surface air flows toward the equator while the high flow is
towards the poles. A low-pressure area of light variable winds near the equator is known as
the doldrums near-equatorial trough, inter-tropical front or the Intertropical Convergence
Zone. When located within a monsoon region, this zone of low pressure and wind convergence is
also known as the monsoon trough. Around 30° in both hemispheres, air begins to descend toward
the surface in subtropical high-pressure belts known as subtropical ridges. The subsident (sinking)
air is relatively dry because as it descends the temperature increases but the absolute humidity (Is
the water content of air at a given temperature expressed in gram per cubic metre ) remains
constant which lowers the relative humidity (the ratio of the actual amount of water vapour in the
air at a certain temperature to the maximum amount of water vapour that it could hold at that

temperature ) of the air mass. This warm dry air is known as a superior air mass and normally
resides above a maritime tropical (warm and moist) air mass. An increase of temperature with
height is known as a temperature inversion. When it occurs within a trade wind regime, it is known
as a trade wind inversion.
The surface air that flows from these subtropical high-pressure belts toward the Equator is
deflected toward the west in both hemispheres by the Coriolis effect. These winds blow
predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the
Southern Hemisphere. Because winds are named for the direction from which the wind is
blowing, these winds are called the northeasterly trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere and the
southeasterly trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere. The trade winds of both hemispheres meet
at the doldrums.
As they blow across tropical regions, air masses heat up over lower latitudes due to more direct
sunlight. Those that develop over land (continental) are drier and hotter than those that develop
over oceans (maritime) and travel northward on the western periphery of the subtropical
ridge. Maritime tropical air masses are sometimes referred to as trade air masses. The one region
of the Earth which has an absence of trade winds is the north Indian Ocean.
Weather effects
Clouds which form above regions within trade wind regimes are typically composed of cumulus
which extend no more than 4 kilometres (13,000 ft) in height, and are capped from being taller by
the trade wind inversion. Trade winds originate more from the direction of the poles (northeast in
the Northern Hemisphere, southeast in the Southern Hemisphere) during the cold season, and are
stronger in the winter than the summer.
Westerlies
The Westerlies are prevailing winds from the west toward the east in the middle latitudes between
30 and 60 degrees latitude. They originate from the high-pressure areas in the horse latitudes and
tend towards the poles. The winds are predominantly from the southwest in the Northern
Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere.
Polar Easterlies
The polar easterlies are the dry cold prevailing winds that blow from the high-pressure areas of
the polar highs at the north and south poles towards low-pressure areas within the westerlies at
high latitudes. Cold air subsides at the poles creating the high pressure forcing an equator-
ward outflow of air that deflect westward by the Coriolis effect. This particular belt of wind begins
at approximately 60 degrees north and south latitude and reaches to the poles. Air from this high-
pressure zone then rushes toward the low-pressure zone surrounding the sub-polar region. This
flow of air is altered by the Earth's rotation and deflected west.
Monsoon trough
The monsoon trough is a portion of the Intertropical Convergence Zone as shown by a line on
a weather map showing the locations of minimum sea level pressure and as such is a convergence
zone between the wind patterns of the southern and northern hemispheres. The term "monsoon
trough" is most commonly used in monsoonal regions of the Western Pacific such as Asia and
Australia.

Monsoon
Is defined as seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the
asymmetric heating of land and sea. Usually the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase
of a seasonally changing pattern although technically there is also a dry phase. The major monsoon
systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons.
The Monsoons of the Indian Ocean

Over the centres of large oceans, there is a permanent low over the equator called the doldrums
(around 1012 mb) and a permanent high at about 300 N and 300 S called the sub-tropical high or
oceanic high (about 1020 to 1025 mb). As shown in the earlier chapter, the trade winds blow from
the oceanic highs, of 300 N & 300 S, towards the doldrums, being deflected by Coriolis force. They
are thus NE trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere and SE trade winds in the Southern
Hemisphere.
Over large landmasses, the atmospheric pressure is low during summer and high during winter.
This seasonal change of atmospheric pressure over large landmasses results in seasonal winds, of
which the Monsoons of the Indian Ocean are a classic example.
In weather bulletins, the India Meteorological Department describes the monsoon as weak (Force 3
& less -less than 11 knots), moderate (Force 4 & 5 11 to 22 knots), strong (Force 6 & 7 -22 to 33
knots) and vigorous (Force 8 and over -34 knots and over).
South West monsoon;

During northern summer, the continent of Asia gets very warm and the resultant low pressure over
it centres over the Thar Desert (NW part of the Indian sub-continent) with a pressure of about 994
mb. This low is considerably lower than the equatorial low of 1012 mb and hence a pressure
gradient exists from the equator towards NW India. The SE Trade winds, blowing from the
0
oceanic high of 30 S towards the equatorial low, cross over the equator and blow, as a strong SW
wind called the SW Monsoon, towards the low over I\lW India. The SW direction is the result of
gradient force and Coriolis force. The SW Monsoon blows from June to October and brings heavy rain
to the West Coast of India, West Bengal, Bangladesh and Myanmar. The wind force is about 7 or 8 in
the Arabian Sea and about 6 or 7 in the Bay of Bengal. The same SW Monsoon is also experienced in
the China Sea.


Northeast monsoon
During northern winter, the continent of Asia gets cold and the resultant high pressure over it centres
over Siberia with a pressure of about 1036 mb. The equatorial low of 1012 mb. being oceanic, remains
practically unaffected by the change of season.
The anticyclonic winds, around the Siberian high, reach the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea as the
NE Monsoon with a force of 3 to 4. Heavy rain falls on the East Coast of India. The NE Monsoon
blows from December to April.
In the China Sea the pressure gradient is larger, resulting in wind force between 5 and 7. The wind
direction in this region is between north and northeast.
Air mass
An air mass is a large body of air whose temperature and relative humidity values are more or
less uniform in a given horizontal plane. Its horizontal dimensions are of the order of hundreds or
even thousands of square kilometers.
The most suitable conditions for the development of an air mass are a combination of a uniform
part of the earth's surface and the presence of a large anti cyclone for at least three days. The
slack surface pressure gradient, and hence low wind speeds, of the anticyclone enables the air
mass to acquire its properties.
Thus the source regions of air masses are generally found in the subtropical, temperate and polar
zones, where uniform surfaces and anticyclonic conditions exist simultaneously. Air masses are
therefore classified as Tropical, Polar or Arctic (Antarctic), to indicate their source regions and
their relative temperatures. Arctic (Antarctic) air masses originate within the Arctic (Antarctic)
circles, and are colder than the Polar air mass which originates to the south (north) of this region.
Air masses are further sub-divided into maritime (high humidity), or continental (low humidity) .
Classification of Air Masses

Air masses are classified as follows:
An absolute classification based on the principal source regions, in which the following
descriptive terms are used to describe the air masses:
(i) Arctic (A)
(ii) Maritime polar (mP)
(iii) Continental polar (cP)

(iv) Maritime tropical (mT)

(v) Continental tropical (cT)
(vi) Equatorial (E).
Factors affecting the properties of an air-mass

• Its source region.
• Its track over the earth's surface.
• The extent of convergence and divergence.
• Its age.
• Its rate of travel.
FRONT
The boundary between two masses of air
having different temperatures is called a
frontal zone or frontal surface, and where it
intersects the surface of the earth it is called a
front. The frontal zone is inclined at an angle
to the surface with the warm air tending to
rise over the cold air.
WARM FRONT
When a warm air mass replaces a cold one, the line on which the frontal surface meets the ground
is known as warm front.
Warm air overlies the cold one which remains as a narrow wedge in contact with ground. At a
warm front, warm air flowing up the frontal surface over a wide area, and this extensive up

sliding of air associated with the convergence of the warm air leading to sequence of clouds and
precipitation. the angle of slope in a warm front is about 1/100 to 1/200.
Cold Fronts
A COLD FRONT is a line along which cold air replaces warm air. In this case, cold air like a
wedge pushes its way under a warm air mass which is thus forced to rise above the cold air. The
cold air, being the denser of the two masses, remains in contact with the ground.
The slope of a cold front is much greater than that of a warm front, usually being about 1/50.
Consequently the upcurrents are more violent and cumulonimbus often appears. Here again there
is a convergent wind field in the lower layers which produces this vertical motion.

On a weather map a red line is used to denote a warm front and a blue line to denote a cold front.
Where colors cannot be used, such as facsimile maps, the following symbols are used. The
symbol is inserted on the side towards which the front moves.

FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS
A frontal depression is a low pressure area formed at the boundary between two different air-
masses.
Frontal depressions occur in middle or high latitudes.
The formation of a frontal depression is called frontogenesis.
The warm air should be travelling faster than the cold air, or they should be travelling in opposite
directions.
• The frontal depression begins as a small bulge of warm air in the cold air.
• The bulge increases in size and the isobars in the cold air bend accordingly.
• Since the density of warm air is less than that of cold air, the bulge is an area of low
pressure, surrounded on three sides by areas of high pressure.
• The bent isobars then take closed shapes and the winds take on a spirally inward
circulation, anticlockwise in the NH.
• The isobars inside the bulge are straight and roughly parallel to the original boundary
between the two masses of air.
• On crossing the front, the isobars change direction by about 90⁰ Because of this, when a
front passes over a place, the wind will suddenly veer in the NH (back in the SH) by
about 900

Life History of a Depression

A depression is defined as a region of
relatively low pressure with closed
isobars. For the formation of a
depression at the polar front, an
essential condition is that the warm air
should be moving to the eastward at a
faster speed than the cold air. We may
therefore have either of the two
situations shown in Figures (a) and (b).
Such a depression begins as a small
wave-like disturbance on a frontal surface. As it develops a circulation it becomes a larger system
and moves away to the E or NE in the northern hemisphere. (Figures 1-4 represent successive
stages in the development of a depression.) The warm air overrides the cold air at the warm front;
the cold air undercuts the warm air at the cold front. Simultaneously a fall of pressure occurs over
the centre; in other words, the depression deepens. Along with the process of development, there
is a general motion of the system as a whole with the approximate direction and speed of the
warm air.


Weather sequence
On the passage of a frontal depression over a stationary observer situated along ABCDE in
figures 4 and 5, a warm front, followed by the warm sector and then by a cold front will be
experienced.
Occlusions
As the depression progresses on its journey, the up sliding of the warm air at the warm front and
the undercutting by the cold air at the cold front gradually diminish the extent of warm air at the
surface, the latter being ultimately lifted from the ground and raised to greater altitudes. This
shutting-off of the warm air from the ground is known as OCCLUSION. When the process has
finished, the depression is said to be OCCLUDED. On the weather map this is shown by the cold
front moving faster than the warm front and catching up with it, first near the centre where the
fronts are close together and then at successively greater distances from the centre.

Figure shows successive stages in the occlusion of a depression. The line at the surface dividing
the cold air which was previously ahead of the warm front from that which was previously
behind the cold front is called an occlusion.
Most of the depressions which reach north-west Europe from the Atlantic are already occluded,
and thus a large proportion of the fronts arriving over' this area are occlusions.
It is unlikely that the air masses on each side of the occlusion will have identical properties in
view of their different history, so that the air following the occlusion may be either warmer or
colder than the air preceding it. In the first event, the occlusion is said to be of the warm front
type, or simply a WARM OCCLUSION; in the second case, the occlusion is of the cold-front
type (COLD OCCLUSION).
General Distribution of Weather in a Warm-sector Depression

Figure below shows a plan of the distribution of cloud and weather in a typical warm-sector
depression, considered as a whole.

Figures a and b show sections taken to the north and south of the centre, taken along the lines
XX' and YY', respectively.

Relationship between Fronts and Isobars

It will be noticed that on any synoptic chart the isobars change direction sharply when they
encounter a front. The change is such that the front lies in a trough of relatively low pressure. Let
us consider Figure above and the changes occurring at the fronts on moving from left to right
along the line YY'. At the cold front the isobars bend sharply towards the centre (or to the left
relative to the direction of motion). Again on passing the warm front the isobars bend in the same
sense. While in the warm sector and proceeding in the direction of the warm-sector isobars, the
pressure remains constant. However, after passing the warm front, cold air is encountered. This is
shallow at first but becomes progressively deeper as one continues in the same direction. Since
cold air is denser than warm, this means that the pressure rises on passing the warm front and
continues to rise as one continues to move further into the cold air following the direction of the
warm-sector isobars. This implies that the isobar in question must be deflected to the left after
passing the warm front. Similar reasoning shows that on crossing the cold front in the opposite
direction, the line of constant pressure must be deflected to the right in the cold air.
Because fronts are associated with pressure troughs, the pressure can be expected to fall as a front
approaches, and to rise, or fall less rapidly, after its passage. The latter can usually be timed by
noting the pressure discontinuity on a barograph.
A frontal passage can also be detected by noting the associated wind veer. If one faces the wind,
the latter will shift towards the right (in the northern hemisphere) as the front passes. In the
vicinity of the British Isles the most common wind sequence experienced in warm sector
depressions is southwesterly ahead of the warm front, veering westerly in the warm sector and
finally veering north-westerly at the cold front. This assumes that the centre passes to the north of
the observer.
Families of Depressions
We have seen how a depression originates as a disturbance on the polar front and dies after its
warm sector has been occluded and the centre has become remote from the main polar front. The
conditions which favored the development of the original depression tend to be reproduced on the
relatively slow moving part of the cold front which, in the typical Atlantic case, lies well to the
south and west of the position reached by the parent depression.

In Figure above, low A is the original (parent) depression, now filling up. It can be seen that in
the vicinity of the incipient low B there is a large wind shear between the northerly flow on the
western flank of low B, and the southwesterly flow on its southern flank. It is also clear that there
will be a strong temperature contrast, in the proximity of low B, between this northerly flow, and
the converging south-westerly flow which derives from the southern side of the more southerly
anticyclone. These conditions favor the development of a depression in the position indicated by
low B. This accordingly deepens and intensifies while the original depression fills up. As the new
depression moves away to the north-east and becomes occluded, the conditions favorable for
cyclogenesis tend to be re-established on the slow-moving portion of its trailing cold front. This
process may be repeated several times' and so gives rise to a series or family of depressions in
which each member tends to originate in something like the same longitude, but with the latitude
displaced successively towards the south? Eventually the cold air behind one of the depressions
sweeps through to the trade winds and the series is broken, the next depression forming much
further north on a regenerated polar front.
The number of depressions in a family varies, but averages about four. The depressions are
normally separated by ridges of high pressure which give brief, fair intervals between rainy
periods. Usually the time interval between such periods in a series of depressions is between 24
and 48 hours.
Filling up and Dissolution of Depressions

Once a depression is fully occluded, it will usually fill up and within a few days will no longer be
recognizable on a synoptic chart. In the typical case of an eastward-moving depression in the
northern hemisphere, by the time the depression is fully occluded it will have moved well to the
north of the surface boundary between the original warm and cold air, and so will have become
remote from the temperature contrast which originally provided the energy for its development.

During the later stages of occlusion and filling the weather usually tends to improve slowly. The
frontal cloud and rain gradually become less extensive, but convective cloud and showers may
increase depending upon the character of the cold air and the other factors to which it is
subjected. Weather in old depressions may thus range from conditions of little cloud to
widespread cloud with showers and sometimes thunderstorms.

Tropical Revolving Storms (TRS)

A Tropical Revolving Storm is a cyclonic disturbance originating in the tropics.
It involves strong convection, frequently extending from the surface to the tropopause.
A tropical revolving storm is a small area of very low pressure, around which winds of gale force
(34 knots or force 8) or more blow spirally inwards, anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
(NH) and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere (SH). In the case of violent tropical revolving
storms, wind speeds up to 130 knots have been experienced with occasional gusts up to 150 knots.
Characteristics
 smaller size than temperate depressions;
 nearly circular isobars
 no fronts
 very steep pressure gradient
 great intensity;
World Meteorological Organisation nomenclature is based on wind speed:

Description Wind speed Beaufort force
Tropical depression <= 33 kts <= 7
Moderate tropical storm 34 - 47 kts 8 and 9
Severe tropical storm 48 - 63 kts 10 and 11
Hurricane or synonym >64 kts 12
Synonyms
Local names of TRSs in various places, and their likely seasons, are given below. For more
detailed information regarding their seasons, frequency of occurrence etc., the appropriate 'Sailing
Directions of that area should be consulted.
Cyclone Indian Ocean (Western Side)

Willy-Willy Indian Ocean (Eastern Side)
Hurricane North Atlantic, Caribbean, central and east North Pacific, and South Pacific.
Typhoon Western North Pacific and South China Sea.
Extreme values of elements:

Pressure 870 hPa
Rainfall 95 mm/h
Storm surge 13 m. (Sea level rise due to low atmospheric pressure, wind and shallow water)
Wind speed 185 kts
Wave height 34 metres
Size Approximate radius of gale force winds, minimum 30 NM, maximum 600 NM
Duration 31 days
Tropical storms are potentially capable of overwhelming the largest and most seaworthy vessels
and should be avoided if at all possible.
The area of greatest danger is the eye where sea waves are both extremely high and approach from
all directions.

Development of Tropical Revolving Storms
Conditions for formation

Considerable energy is required for the formation and development of a tropical revolving storm.
This is derived from energy contained in water vapour and particularly latent heat released by
condensation.
The following conditions are required:

 Sea temperature greater than 26°C over a large area raising air temperature and humidity.
 Atmospheric instability due to high Environment Lapse Rate.
 Instability accentuated by high humidity increasing Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
 Latitude greater than 5° where the Coriolis force is sufficient to provide vorticity, cyclonic
circulation.
 Low wind shear (change of wind speed with altitude) in the troposphere permitting vertical
development.
 Conditions permitting divergence of airflow at altitude, removing air from the area and
reducing atmospheric pressure.
 A tropical disturbance to initiate the process. This is likely to be convection associated with
an easterly wave, the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone.
Tropical Revolving Storm areas and seasons

Areas of tropical revolving storm genesis are in approximately 10° latitude in the warmest areas of
the oceans.
These, with months of highest occurrence and average annual frequency, are:
 North Atlantic August - October 9
 North Indian Ocean May - June, October - November 6
 North Pacific West July - October 26
 North Pacific East August - September 13
 South Atlantic One Tropical Revolving Storm has been recorded, in March 2004.
 South Indian Ocean West January - March 8
 South Indian Ocean East January - March 10
 South Pacific West January - March 6 Global total 79
Tropical Revolving Storm development

TRS originate in latitudes between 5° & 20° and travel between W and WNW in the NH and between
W and WSW in the SH, at a speed of about 12 knots. Somewhere along their track, they curve away
from the equator -curve to N and then recurve to NE in the NH; curve to S and then recurve to SE
in the SH.
0
The recurving is such that the storm travels around the oceanic high (which is situated at about 30
0
N and 30 S in the middle of large oceans). After recurving, the speed of travel increases to about 15
to 20 knots. Sometimes a TRS does not curve or recurve at all, but continues on its original path,
crosses the coast and dissipates quickly thereafter due to friction and lack of moisture.

It is important to note that all TRSs do not follow such definite paths and speeds. In their initial
stages occasional storms have remained practically stationary or made-small loops for as long as
four days.
The life span of a TRS in anything from one to nineteen days, the average being about six days.
Structure of a Tropical Revolving Storm

Elements of the structure:
 Outer convective band of cumulus cloud.
 Annular zone of descending air clear of cloud.
 Inner convective band of deep cumulus, and cumulonimbus extending to the tropopause, in spiral bands
moving toward the centre.
 Eye Wall of high velocity wind moving parallel to the isobars and ascending rapidly.
 Eye, descending air warming adiabatically and cloud free. Horizontal wind speed very low.
 Canopy of cirrus clouds at the troposphere in the divergent outflow, some of which descends in the
annular zone.

1. The eye or vortex: A calm central area of lowest pressure, having a diameter between 4 miles and
30 miles, the average being about 10 miles.
2. The eye-wall: An inner ring of hurricane force winds having a width usually between 4 miles and 30
miles. The winds in the eye-wall blow in a perfectly circular path with a speed as high as 130 knots with
occasional gusts up to 150 knots. The pressure gradient in the eye-wall is very steep and, therefore, the
ba,rograph would register a near vertical trend, downward before the eye and upward behina it, as shown in
the accompanying figure.
3. The Outer storm area: The area surrounding the eye-wall, having a diameter between 50
miles and 800 miles, the average being about 500 miles. Winds in this region are strong (about
force 6 or 7) and the pressure gradient is much less than in the eye-wall.
Movement
Tropical revolving storms move approximately with the flow of air in the troposphere in their
vicinity.
A high proportion of storms move around the oceanic anticyclone into higher latitudes.
Others move westward with a degree of poleward movement.
Movement may be highly erratic within the broad pattern.
Speed varies from approximately 10 kts near the equator to 25 knots in higher latitudes.
 Generally east to west in lower Lats, steered by easterly tropospheric air flow
 Normally recurves between Lats of 20 and 300 N & S of equator (western edge of
anticyclone)
 Speeds about 10 knots before recurving, could be stationary for sometime after
recurving, then could move at about 20 knots
 Tracks after recurving are Northerly and then in the North Easterly direction,
steered by the westerly tropospheric air flow
 It may not recurve, sometimes – caused by position and movement of the
subtropical anticyclone

 Right hand semicircle (RHSC): That half of the storm centre that lies to the right of
the' observer who faces along the path of the storm.
 Left hand semicircle (LHSC): That half of the storm centre that lies to the left of the
observer who faces along the path of the storm.
 The Dangerous semicircle (DSC) – RHSC in the NH and LHSC in the SH, the vessel
must not run before the wind
 The dangerous quadrant – The advance quadrant of the RHSC in the NH and LHSC in
the SH. advance quadrant of the DSC, wherein the TRS may recurve over the vessel
 Navigable semicircle – LHSC in the I\IH and RHSC in the SH. wherein the vessel may
run before the wind
 Eye (Vortex) – general area of calm
 Track – path over which the cyclone has already passed
 Path – (anticipated movement) Predicted route over which the storm centre is likely to
travel
 Trough – The line drawn through the centre of the storm, at right angles to the track
 Vertex – The westernmost longitude reached by the storm centre when recurving takes
place. (point of re-curvature)
Decay
Tropical Revolving Storms endure as long as conditions lie within the necessary parameters.
Decay occurs when the energy required for sustained activity is no longer available.
This occurs when the storm moves over an area where temperature and humidity are reduced.
This may be a land surface in the tropics, or a sea surface in the tropics or higher latitudes where
temperatures are lower.
A Tropical Revolving Storm may cross a landmass, decreasing in intensity, then regenerate over a
warm sea surface again. Tropical Revolving Storms cross the Central American isthmus, the
Philippines archipelago, Taiwan, the Malaysian peninsula, Madagascar and Australia in this way.
A Tropical Revolving Storm may decrease in intensity and lose its tropical characteristics in
middle latitudes (35° - 45°) and become a middle latitude depression.
Weather conditions
From the annular zone to the eye wall:
 Pressure decreases.
 Wind speed increases.
 Angle of Indraft decreases.
 Sea wave height increases.
 Swell wave direction is from wind field
near eye.
 Swell wave height increases.
 Cloud cover is total.
 Precipitation increases in intensity.
In the eye:
 Pressure steadies.
 Wind speed may be low or calm.
 Sea waves may be low.
 Swell waves are extremely high and
moving in all directions.
 Cloud cover may be absent.
 Precipitation may be absent.
From the eye wall to the annular zone

 Pressure increases.
 Wind speed immediately rises to maximum, then decreases.
 Wind direction is opposite to the original.
 Angle of Indraft is zero then increases.
 Sea wave height is maximum, then decreases.
 Swell wave direction is from opposite wind field near eye.
 Swell wave height decreases.
 Cloud cover is total.
 Precipitation is intense then decreases.

WEATHER REPORTING SYSTEM
THE FACSIMILE RECORDER

The facsimile recorder is an instrument that reproduces, on board a ship, an exact copy of a
weather map drawn by a meteorologist ashore, in the office of the local meteorological centre.
The meteorological centre receives weather reports from all stations -land stations, weather
ships, ships of the voluntary observing fleet, etc., and a meteorologist draws a weather map. The
map is then scanned electronically and transmitted by high frequency radio waves using the FM
(frequency modulation) technique, instead of the usual AM (amplitude modulation) technique, to
ensure much clearer and relatively static-free reception on board.
The recorder draws a white, moist, electrosensitive paper over a stainless steel writing surface,
at a steady speed. A stylus moves horizontally across the paper at a suitable sweep frequency. The
radio signals received cause small, electric currents to pass from the stylus to the writing surface,
through the paper. Chemical action discolours the paper wherever the current passes through it and
gradually an exact, black and white copy of the weather map appears on the paper. It will be
noticed that this is very similar to fax machines, using thermo-sensitive paper, found in many
offices ashore.
Facsimile charts fall into two basic categories analysis and prognosis and each is described below.
1. Analysis: is the actual situation existent, at a given time, based on actual reports received.
2. Prognosis: is the predicted situation at a specified future time, based on present indications, as
deduced by an expert on the subject, using his knowledge and skill.
Weather Bulletins
Details of weather bulletins sent out in each area call signs of stations, radio frequencies and
timings are given in the Admiralty List of Radio Signals Volume 3 (ALRS 3).
A weather bulletin would consist of five parts:

Part I: Storm warning in plain language.
Part II: Synopsis of weather conditions in the forecast area, in plain language.
Part III: Forecast in plain language.
Part IV: surface weather analysis synoptic chart in the International Analysis Code (Fleet).
Part V: Data of surface observations from ships and selected land stations and upper-air reports, all
in WMO codes.
Facsimile charts for mariners:
1. Surface weather charts

1.1. Weather analysis charts: These charts give the weather situation, at the preceding
synoptic hour, over the entire area. They show the weather experienced at each land and
ship station, all pressure systems, isobars, wind directions, fronts, frontal depressions, etc.
With the good, basic knowledge of meteorology that a Master is required to possess, he
can size up the overall situation and take any urgent steps that may be necessary to ensure
the safety of his vessel.

1.2. Weather prognosis charts:

These charts are also called prebaratic charts and contain the same type of information as weather
analysis charts but predicted for a specified future time. They may be made 12 hours, 18 hours, 1
day, 2 days, 3 days or 5 days before the specified time, so that a shipmaster may route his vessel
accordingly.
A weather prognosis chart is compiled by a professional meteorologist after studying the weather
analysis chart, upper air charts, thickness charts, atmospheric change of pressure charts, etc., taking
into account various other factors also. The construction of a prognosis chart needs deep
knowledge of weather prediction and expertise gained over several years of study of the weather in
that ocean.
2. Ice charts
2.1. Ice analysis charts: These charts indicate amounts and boundaries of each type of ice, ice-
packs, ice-leads and ice-bergs, based on actual observation.
2.2. Ice prognosis charts: These charts contain the same type of information as ice analysis
charts, but predicted for a specified future time, and are usually made 12 hours and 24
hours in advance.
After studying the situation shown by the ice analysis chart and taking into account
various factors such as winds, currents, temperatures of air and sea, etc., the prognosis
charts are made by experts.
3. Wave charts
3.1. Wave analysis charts: These charts show isopleths (lines joining all places having the same
value) of wave-heights, in metres, and their direction, based on actual reports.
3.2. Wave prognosis charts: These charts show isopleths of wave-heights, in metres, predicted
for a specified future time. They are made by professional meteorologists and based on a
study of weather analysis charts, weather prognosis charts, wave analysis charts, etc.
Both wave analysis and wave prognosis charts are very useful to the Master, in routeing his vessel,
as explained in the next chapter.

Synoptic Charts
The word 'synoptic' simply means a summary of the current situation, so in weather terms, a
synoptic or pressure chart is a map that summarises the atmospheric conditions over a wide area at
a given time.
Temperature, pressure and winds are all in balance and the atmosphere is constantly
changing to preserve this balance. This is why the UK sees such changeable weather.
How to read synoptic weather charts
Pressure pattern
The circular lines you see on the chart are isobars, which join areas of the same barometric
pressure. The pressure pattern is important because we can use it to tell us where the wind is
coming from and how strong it is. It also shows areas of high and low pressure.
Air moves from high to low pressure along a gradient (similar to squash that is left in a glass of
water becoming evenly distributed as it becomes less concentrated). If the difference between
areas of high and low pressure is greater then we have a large gradient and the air will move faster

to try and balance out this difference. This is shown on a synoptic chart with isobars that are very
close together and we feel strong winds as a result.
In terms of the wind direction, air moves around high pressure in a clockwise direction and low
pressure in an anticlockwise direction, so isobars also tell us the direction and speed of the wind.
Cold fronts and warm fronts
Also on a synoptic chart are the lines, triangles and semi-circles representing 'fronts'. With the
atmosphere trying to balance temperature, pressure and wind there are different sorts of air, known
as air masses, circulating around the Earth. The differences are mostly between how warm, cold,
dry and moist the air is, and fronts simply mark the boundary between these different types of air.
Warm and cold fronts
A warm front is shown with a red line and red semi-circles and a cold front with a blue line and
blue triangles. The way in which the semi-circles or triangles point shows the direction in which
the front is moving. The position of a front depends on a number of meteorological factors, such as
changes in wind direction or temperature, which we get from our network of weather observation
sites. A few things to remember are that warm air follows a warm front and cold air follows a cold
front. We also tend to see increased amounts of cloud and rainfall along the front itself.
Sometimes the red or blue line of a front will be broken by crosses. This indicates that the front is
weakening and the difference in the warmth or dryness of the air is becoming less marked.
Occluded fronts
Cold fronts tend to move faster than warm fronts and over time they can catch up with each other
and create an 'occluded' front. This is shown as a purple line with a purple semi-circle and triangle
next to each other. The air trapped between a warm and cold front is called a 'warm sector' and we
often see low cloud and patchy light rain associated with this type of air.
Troughs
Black lines that have no semi-circles or triangles are called 'troughs' and mark areas where the air
is particularly unstable. This means that the air is quite turbulent or moving around a lot, especially
when we have, for example, warm air beneath cold air that wants to rise. We tend to
see showers associated with this type of air, therefore they don't mark any sort of boundary in the
same way that a front does.



‫‪An Introduction to Meteorology‬‬
‫‪Thermometer‬‬ ‫دماسنج‬
‫دماسنج‪ ,‬وسیله ایست که برای اندازه گیری دما بکار میرود‪ .‬با دما سنج میتوان دمای محیط یا دمای آب یا هر سیال دیگری را اندازه‬
‫گیری کرد به شرط اینکه دماسنج مناسب آن سیال موجود باشد‪.‬‬
‫دماسنج ها انواع مختلفی دارند و کاربردهای آنها نیز متفاوت است‪.‬‬
‫دماسنج ها می توانند کاربردهای مختلفی داشته با شند اما ما در این جا فقط به کاربردهای هواشناسی آنها خواهیم پرداخت‪ .‬دماسنج‬
‫ها را بر اساس کاربرد آنها در هواشناسی می توان به صورت زیر دسته بندی کرد‪:‬‬
‫دماسنج خشک (معمولی )‪ :‬برای اندازه گیری دمای هوا در شرایط موجود استفاده می شود و معموال از نوع جیوه ای است‪ .‬در‬
‫مناطق بسیار سرد از دماسنج الکلی استفاده می شود‪ .‬در ایستگاههای ساحلی و دریایی دمای آب نیز اندازه گیری می شود ‪.‬‬
‫دماسنج تر‪ :‬این دماسنج برای اندازه گیری دمای هوا در شرایط شبیه سازی رطوبت نسبی ‪ %100‬استفاده می شود‪ .‬برای این کار از‬
‫یک فیتیله نخی (موسیلین) استفا ده می شود که یک سر آن دور مخزن دماسنج قرار می گیرد و سر دیگر آن داخل یک ظرف آب‬
‫است‪ .‬با این کار رطوبت هوا در اطراف مخزن دما سنج به ‪ 100%‬می رسد و دمای مشاهده شده دمای هوا با رطوبت اشباع است‪ .‬از‬
‫مقایسه دماسنج خشک و تر می توان رطوبت نسبی هوا را تعیین کرد‪ .‬در دماهای باالی صفر‪ ،‬دمای تر همواره کمتر از دمای خشک‬
‫خواهد بود اما در دماهای زیر صفر و رطوبت باال ممکن است دمای تر بیشتر از دمای خشک شود‪.‬‬
‫در دماهای زیر صفر آب در اطراف دماسنج تر یخ می زند و از آنجا که فشار بخار یخ از فشار بخارآب کمتر است مقداری از بخار آب‬
‫موج ود در هوا روی موسیلین می نشیند و گرمای نهان آزاد شده ناشی از آن باعث باال رفتن دمای تر خواهد شد‪ .‬توجه به این نکته‬
‫ضروری است که برای بدست آوردن نتیجه درست‪ ،‬دماسنج تر و دماسنج خشک باید دقیقا یکسان باشند‪.‬‬
‫دماسنج حداکثر‪ :‬این دماسنج برای ثبت باالترین دمایی است که در محل اتفاق می افتد‪ .‬در این دماسنج در نزدیک مخزن یک‬
‫خمیدگی وجود دارد؛ زمانی که دما درحال افزایش است جیوه از سمت مخزن و با فشار ازخمیدگی عبور کرده و باال می رود اما زمانی‬
‫که دما شروع به کاهش کرد این خمیدگی مانع از برگشتن جیوه به داخل مخزن شده و در همان حال باقی می ماند‪ .‬برای این که در‬
‫برگشت‪ ،‬جیوه در اثر فشار وزن خود از خمیدگی عبور نکند این دماسنج را به صورت افقی و با زاویه ‪ 5‬درجه قرار می دهند‪ .‬پس از‬
‫قرائت و ثبت دما برای تنظیم مجدد‪ ،‬دماسنج را چند بار به شدت تکان می دهند تا جیوه به مخزن برگردد و دماسنج با دمای محیط‬
‫یکسان شود‪.‬‬
‫دماسنج حداقل‪ :‬این دماسنج برای ثبت پایین ترین دمایی است که اتفاق می افتد‪ .‬در داخل ستون مایع این دماسنج که معموال‬
‫الکلی است یک شاخص سوزنی شکل قرار دارد که یک سمت آن کمی تخت است و به سمت سطح الکل قرار می گیرد‪ .‬زمانی که دما‬
‫کاهش می یابد ک شش سطحی الکل شاخص را همراه خود پایین می آورد و زمانی که دما افزایش یافت سطح الکل از سطح شاخص‬
‫جدا شده و الکل از کنار شاخص عبور می کند و شاخص در جای خود باقی می ماند‪ .‬برای این که شاخص در اثر وزن خود جابه جا‬
‫نشود این دماسنج به صورت کامال افقی قرار می گیرد‪.‬‬
‫ای ن چهار نوع دماسنج در جعبه ای مشبک و چوبی و به رنگ سفید در ارتفاع ‪ 2‬متری از سطح زمین قرار می گیرند تا از تابش‬
‫مستقیم نور خورشید و جریانات شدید هوا دور باشند‪ .‬به این جعبه ‪ Stevenson screen‬میگویند‪.‬‬
‫دقت دماسنجهای مورد استفاده در هواشناسی بسته به محل مورد استفاده از ‪ 0/1‬تا ‪ 0/5‬درجه سانتی گراد است‪ .‬و بازه اندازه گیری‬
‫آن هم بسته به منطقه ای است که از آن استفاده می شود ‪.‬‬
‫فشارهوا‬
‫مقدار نیرویی است که توسط هوا بر سطح وارد می شود ‪.‬هر چه ارتفاع افزایش یابد از فشار هوا کاسته می شود؛ زیرا در ارتفاعات‬
‫باالتر جو‪ ،‬تعداد مولکول ها کاهش می یابد و در نتیجه از فشار هوا نیز کاسته می شود ‪.‬مطالعۀ فشار جَو یکی از بحث های اساسی‬
‫در هواشناسی است‪ ،‬زیرا اختالف فشار سبب ایجاد باد و انتقال گرما در اتمسفر می گردد ‪.‬به طور مثال می توانیم از هوای متراکم‬
‫‪Capt. G. R. Rezaeian‬‬ ‫‪Chabahar Maritime University‬‬ ‫‪Page 106‬‬

‫داخل یک بادکنک که تحت فشار قرار گرفته است نام ببریم که برای ایجاد تعادل با هوای اطراف خود در هنگام خروج از دهانۀ‬
‫بادکنک‪ ،‬تولید باد می کند‪.‬‬
‫خطوط هم فشار‬
‫در ایستگاه های هواشناسی دیده بانی فشار هم زمان انجام می شود و این فشار ثبت شده پس از انجام تصحیحات الزم‪ ،‬به فشار‬
‫سطح ایستگاه تبدیل می گردد ‪.‬با در دست داشتن فشار سطح ایستگاه به راحتی می توان فشار سطح متوسط دریا را محاسبه نمود ‪.‬‬
‫فشار سطح متوسط دریا پس از محاسبه بر روی نقشۀ سطح متوسط دریا ترسیم می گردد ‪.‬با رسم نمودن اطالعات جوّی در روی‬
‫نقشۀ هواشناسی نقاطی را که دارای فشار یکسان اند به هم وصل می نمایند ‪.‬این خطوط را خطوط هم فشار می نامند‪.‬‬
‫دما‬
‫زمین‪ ،‬تنها نیم میلیونیوم انرژی از مقدار تابش خورشید را دریافت می کند؛ اما همین مقدار انرژی حیات را در سطح کرۀ زمین‬
‫امکان پذیر می کند‪.‬‬
‫خورشید سرچشمۀ اصلی انرژی بیشتر فرایندهایی است که در سیارۀ زمین روی می دهد ‪.‬زمین تقریباً ‪ 99/9‬درصد انرژی خود را از‬
‫تابش خورشید می گیرد ‪.‬بدون تابش خورشید‪ ،‬زمین به تدریج سرد می شود و الیه ای از یخ آن را می پوشاند‪.‬‬
‫( )این انرژی عظیم بر اثر فرایند هسته ای همجوشی یا گرما هسته ای ‪Thermonuclear‬‬
‫در هستۀ خورشید‪ ،‬که دمای آن حدوداً ‪ 15‬میلیون درجۀ سانتی گراد برآورد شده است‪ ،‬تولید می شود ‪.‬در طی این فرایند‪ ،‬هسته‬
‫های هیدروژن به قدری سریع با هم برخورد می کنند که به همدیگر جوش می خورند و اتم هلیم را تشکیل می دهند‪.‬‬
‫گرما و دما‪Heat and Temperature‬‬

‫گرما یکی از شکل های انرژی است که به یک جسم داده می شود تا دمای آن افزایش یابد ‪.‬همچنین می توان گرما را مقدار کار‬
‫انجام شده برای افزایش دمای یک جسم تعریف کرد ‪.‬دما‪ ،‬معیاری است که شدت گرما را از روی آن حس می کنیم ‪.‬سرعت جابه‬
‫جایی یا لرزش مولکول های یک جسم به دمای آن بستگی دارد‪ ،‬به گونه ای که هر قدر دما افزایش یابد‪ ،‬سرعت جابه جایی یا لرزش‬
‫مولکول ها بیشتر می شود ‪.‬جریان گرما همیشه از محلی با دمای زیادتر به طرف محلی می باشد که دمای آن کمتر است‪.‬‬
‫فرایندهای انتقال انرژی گرمایی‬

‫تابش‬

‫تابش‪ ،‬یکی از روش های انتقال انرژی است ‪.‬در فرایند تابش‪ ،‬انتقال انرژی به صورت امواج تابشی است و برای انتقال گرما یا نور به‬
‫وجود مولکول ها نیازی نیست؛ مثالً انرژی خورشیدی در باالی جوّ زمین توسط امواج تابشی‪ ،‬پس از عبور از خأل به زمین می رسد‪.‬‬
‫هدایت یا رسانش‪Conduction‬‬
‫در هدایت یا رسانش‪ ،‬انتقال انرژی) گرما(در یک جسم به وسیلۀ مولکول های‬
‫تشکیل دهندۀ آن جسم صورت می گیرد؛ مثالً اگر انتهای یک میلۀ فلزی داغ‬
‫شود انتهای دیگر آن نیز خیلی زود داغ می گردد‪.‬‬
‫همرفت‬
‫انتقال گرما از راه حرکت و جابه جایی سیّال همرفت نامیده می شود ‪.‬در‬
‫جامدات‪ ،‬جابه جایی گرما از راه فرایند همرفت امکان پذیر نیست ‪.‬در گازها‪،‬‬
‫انتقال گرما از طریق همرفت‪ ،‬سریع تر از مایعات صورت می گیرد‪.‬‬
‫پدیدۀ همرفت‪ ،‬در تغییرات آب و هوایی نقاط مختلف جهان نقش عمده ای دارد‪.‬‬
‫مقیاس های سنجش دما‬

‫اندازه گیری درجۀ حرارت هوا در سطوح مجاور زمین‪ ،‬باالی جَو‪ ،‬دریاها و اقیانوس ها و اعماق خاک‪ ،‬توسط دستگاه هایی به نام‬
‫دماسنج ‪ Thermometer‬صورت می گیرد‪.‬‬
‫در این دستگاه ها ازخواص فیزیکی تغییرپذیری‪ ،‬نظیر انقباض و انبساط طولی یا حجمی و همچنین تغییر مقاومت در اثر تغییرات‬
‫درجۀ حرارت استفاده می کنند‪.‬‬
‫به طور کلی امروزه سه سامانه از مقیاس های سنجش دما مورد استفاده قرار می گیرد ‪:‬فارنهایت‪ ،‬سلسیوس یا سانتی گراد و کِلوین‪.‬‬
‫در سامانۀ فارنهایت آب در ‪ 32‬درجه یخ می زند و در ‪ 212‬درجه می جوشد و این فاصله به ‪ 180‬واحد تقسیم می شود ‪.‬در سامانه‬
‫سانتی گراد یا سلسیوس‪ ،‬آب در صفر درجه یخ می زند و در ‪ 100‬درجه می جوشد ‪.‬از این رو فاصلۀ انجماد و نقطۀ جوش به ‪100‬‬
‫درجۀ سانتی گراد یا سلسیوس درجه بندی می شود ‪.‬سامانه کلوین از صفر مطلق شروع می شود ‪.‬برای تبدیل یک درجۀ سانتی گراد‬
‫به فارنهایت یا بالعکس از فرمول های زیر می توان استفاده کرد‪:‬‬
‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬
‫=𝐹‬ ‫‪𝐶 + 32‬‬ ‫× )‪𝐶 = (𝐹 − 32‬‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬
‫رطوبت‬
‫آب یکی از اجزای بسیار مهم زمین و جَو است و معموالً به سه حالت ماده یعنی گازی شکل) بخار آب(‪ ،‬مایع و جامد) یخ (در‬
‫طبیعت دیده می شود ‪.‬علتش این است که دامنۀ تغییرات دمای مورد نیاز برای تغییر حالت آب در سطح زمین مهیاست‪ ،‬لذا بر‬
‫خالف بعضی از اجسام دیگر هر سه حالت فوق را می توان در جَو مشاهده نمود‪.‬‬
‫هوا دارای بخار آب است‪ ،‬ولی میزان آن با توجه به تغییرات زمان و مکان هیچ گاه از ‪ 4‬درصد در جَو تجاوز نمی کند ‪.‬بخار آب با‬
‫وجود همین میزان اندک‪ ،‬از نظر هواشناسی و اقلیم شناسی نقش بسیار مهمی دارد؛ زیرا منبع اصلی بارندگی‪ ،‬بخار آب موجود در‬
‫هوا ست‪.‬‬
‫منبع اصلیِ بخار آب در هوا از طریق تبخیر تأمین می شود و برای وقوع تبخیر‪ ،‬انرژی زیادی مصرف می شود‪.‬‬
‫این انرژی به صورت نهان از منطقۀ تبخیر به دوردست ها انتقال می یابد و در منطقۀ دیگر یا در سطح دیگری که تراکم به وقوع می‬
‫پیوندد‪ ،‬آزاد می شود‪.‬‬
‫به طور کلی بخش اعظمی از بخار آب در الیه های پایین اتمسفر‪ ،‬یعنی در سطوح نزدیک به سطح تبخیر‪ ،‬متراکم می گردد ‪.‬به این‬
‫ترتیب با افزایش ارتفاع‪ ،‬میزان بخار آب به سرعت افت می کند‪.‬‬
‫فرایند کاملی که مقدار بخار آب را در هوا ثابت نگه می دارد‪ ،‬چرخۀ آب یا سیکل هیدرولوژی نامیده می شود که شامل تبخیر‬
‫مستقیم از آب های سطحی به ویژه اقیانوس ها و زمین مرطوب است ‪.‬از دست رفتن رطوبت نام دارد که مقدار آن در هر منطقه‬
‫متفاوت است ‪.‬تبخیر و تعرّق که شامل » تعرّق « ‪ ،‬گیاه و ورود آن به جَو تبخیر از سطح زمین) خاک (و تعرّق از سطح گیاه می‬
‫باشد‪ ،‬واژه ای ا ست که در مورد مناطقی که دارای پوشش گیاهی ا ست به کار می رود‪.‬‬
‫باران ‪Rain‬‬
‫قطرات آب ریزی است که در نتیجه فشردگی بخار آب موجود در جو زمین شکل میگیرد و هنگامی که به اندازه کافی سنگین شد‪،‬‬
‫تحت تأثیر نیروی گرانش سقوط میکند‪.‬‬
‫باران مؤلفه مهم چرخه آب محسوب میشود و نقش مهمی را در شکلگیری آبهای شیرین سطح زمین ایفا می کند‪ .‬باران شرایط‬
‫مطبوعی را برای ایجاد و حفظ زیست بومهای متنوع طبیعی فراهم و بهرهبرداریهای انسانی را مانند تولید محصوالت کشت زمینی و‬
‫تولید برق در نیروگاهها را هموار میسازد ‪.‬‬
‫وقتی هوای گرم به باالی آسمان صعود میکند‪ ،‬بخار آب را همراه خودش به آسمان می برد‪ .‬در باالی آسمان‪ ،‬بخار آب سرد میشود و‬
‫قطرههای آب دور ذرات ریز گرد و غبار موجود در هوا تشکیل می شود‪ .‬مقداری از بخار آب هم به شکل کریستالهای ریز یخ منجمد‬
‫میشود که قطرات آب سرد شده را جذب میکند‪ .‬قطرات به شکل کریستالهای یخ‪ ،‬منجمد میشود و کریستالهای بزرگ تری را‬
‫تشکیل میدهد که ما آنها را برف ریزه مینامیم‪ .‬موقعی که برف ریزهها سنگین میشوند‪ ،‬پایین میافتند‪ .‬برف ریزهها در مسیرشان‬
‫رو به پایین با هوای گرم تر برخورد میکنند و ذوب میشوند و به صورت قطرات باران در میآیند‪.‬‬
‫بد نیست بدانید کارخانهها‪ ،‬ماشینها‪ ،‬کامیون ها‪ ،‬و وسایلی که دارای دودکش هستند‪ ،‬از سوخت فسیلی نظیر زغال و مواد نفتی‬
‫استفاده می کنند‪ .‬سوخت این دو نوع ماده موادی نظیر اکسید گوگرد و اکسیدهای نیتروژن را وارد هوا میسازد‪ .‬در فضا این اکسیدها‬
‫تغییر میکنند و به گرد و غبار و باران اسیدی تبدیل میشوند‪.‬‬
‫اندازه قطرات باران‬

‫قطر قطرات باران معموأل بیش از ‪ 5/0‬میلیمتر است و قطرات بین ‪ 5/0 - 2/0‬میلیمتر را بارانک یا ریزباران نم نم باران میگویند که‬
‫نوعی از بارش است‪ .‬نم نم باران به وسیلهٔ ابر پوشنی و ابر پوشنکومهای تولید میشود‪ .‬در بسیاری از موارد قطرههای کوچکتر از‬

‫‪ 2/0‬میلیمتر عمومأ پیش از رسیدن به زمین بخار میشود‪ .‬بیشتر بارانها دارای قطرههایی بین ‪ 1‬و ‪ 2‬میلیمتر هستند اما در بعضی‬
‫طوفانها قطرات بزرگتراز ‪ 5‬میلیمتر نیز دیده شدهاست‪.‬‬
‫باران منجمد‬
‫باران منجمد به نوعی باران میگویند که به هنگام بارش دمای سطح زمین زیر نقطهٔ انجماد است‪ .‬بر خالف تگرگ و برف‪ ،‬باران‬
‫منجمد به هنگام بارش کامالً مایع است و هنگام عبور از ارتفاع چند ده متری از سطح زمین که الیهای از هوا با سرمای زیر نقطهٔ‬
‫انجماد است دچار پدیدهٔ فراسرمایش شده و به هنگام برخورد به سطح یا شیئی بالفاصله منجمد میشوند‪ .‬کلفتی یخ ایجاد شده به‬
‫وسیلهٔ باران منجمد ممکن است به چند سانتیمتر برسد‪ .‬کد متار برای باران منجمد ‪ FZRA‬است ‪.‬‬
‫ابر چیست ؟‬
‫ابر تودهای متراکم از بخار است که در طبقات پایینی و میانی اتمسفر تشکیل میشود‪ .‬عناصر تشکیل دهنده این توده بخار همان‬
‫عناصر تشکیل دهنده مایعات سطح سیاره میباشند‪ .‬در مورد سیاره زمین‪ ،‬ابرها از بخار آب تشکیل شدهاند‪.‬‬
‫ابر چگونه تشکیل می شود؟‬

‫هنگامی که هوای گرم از سطح زمین به طرف باال حرکت می کند‪ ،‬کم کم سردتر می شود در نتیجه مقداری از بخار آب آن به دور‬
‫ذره های کوچکی که در هوا پراکنده اند جمع می شود و میلیون ها ذره ی کوچکِ آب پدید می آورد که در هوا شناور می شوند و به‬
‫صورت ابرهای کوچک و بزرگ در می آیند‪ .‬اگر هوا بسیار سرد باشد‪ ،‬بخار آب به طور مستقیم به ذره های ریز یخ تبدیل می شود و‬
‫ابری را به وجود می آورد که از ذره های بسیار زیاد یخ به وجود آمده است ‪.‬‬
‫ابر از بخار شدن آب دریاها و دریاچه ها و رودها و همچنین رطوبت خاک و گیاهان پدید می آید‪ .‬این آب ها پیوسته به صورت بخار‬
‫در می آیند و با هوا مخلوط می شوند‪ .‬به همین سبب‪ ،‬به طور عادی‪ ،‬همیشه در هوا مقداری بخار آب وجود دارد ‪.‬‬
‫بر ای این که بخار آب به صورت ابر در آید‪ ،‬دمای هوا باید آن قدر کاهش یابد که بخار آب موجود در آن به آب یا یخ تبدیل شود‪ .‬از‬
‫این گذشته‪ ،‬ذره های بسیار ریزی مانند گَرد و غبار‪ ،‬دود‪ ،‬خاکسترِ آتشفشانی‪ ،‬بلورهای ریز نمک و گَرده ی گیاهان باید در هوا پراکنده‬
‫باشند تا بخار آب دور آن ها جمع شود و تشکیل ابر بدهد‪.‬‬
‫نقش ابرها در آب و هوا‬

‫ابرها آبِ بخار شده ی زمین را بار دیگر به صورت باران و برف به زمین باز می گردانند‪ .‬فرو ریختن باران و برف‪ ،‬رودها و چشمه ها را‬
‫پر آب می کند ‪.‬ابرها در گرم و سرد شدن سطح زمین و چگونگی آب و هوا نقشی مهمی دارند‪ .‬روزهای ابری معموالً سردتر از روزهای‬
‫آفتابی هستند‪ ،‬زیرا ابرها بیشتر انرژی نور خورشید را به فضا باز می گردانند‪.‬‬
‫زمین در شب مقداری از گرمای خود را از دست می دهد و سرد می شود اما معموالً شب های ابری گرمتر از شب هایی هستند که‬
‫هوا صاف است‪ ،‬در این شب ها‪ ،‬گرما در الیه های پایین جو‪ ،‬میان ابرها و سطح زمین‪ ،‬به دام می افتد‪ .‬به همین سبب ابرهایی که در‬
‫الیه های پایین جو هستند‪ ،‬بیش از ابرهای باالی جو از پراکنده شدن گرمای زمین جلوگیری می کند‪ .‬در ایستگاه های هواشناسی‬
‫کارشناسان برای پیش بینی هوا و دمای آن‪ ،‬چگونگی ابرها و نوع آن ها را نیز عالوه بر عوامل دیگر در نظر می گیرند‪.‬‬

‫دستههای ابر‬
‫ابرها دارای چند دسته اصلی هستند که هر کدام از این دسته های اصلی خود به یک یا چند دسته دیگر تقسیم میشوند‪.‬‬
‫در نامگذاری ابرها از کلمات التین با ریشه یونانی استفاده میشود‪ .‬این نامگذاری با توجه به نوع و شکل و همچنین خصوصیات ابر‬
‫انجام میگیرد‪.‬‬

‫هواشناسی خلیج فارس‪ ،‬دریای مکران و دریای خزر‬

‫مشخصات خلیج فارس‬
‫خلیج فارس در جنوب ایران قرار دارد‪ .‬این خلیج توسط تنگۀ هرمز به دریای مکران و از طریق آن به اقیانوس هند مرتبط است‪ .‬از بین‬
‫همۀ کشورهای همسایۀ خلیج فارس‪ ،‬ایران بیشترین مرز آبی مشترک را با خلیج فارس دارد‪ .‬طول مرز آبی ایران با خلیج فارس با‬
‫احتساب جزایر‪ ،‬در حدود ‪ 1۸00‬کیلومتر و بدون احتساب جزایر در حدود ‪ 1۴00‬کیلومتر است‪ .‬طول خلیج فارس از تنگۀ هرمز تا‬
‫آخرین نقطۀ پیشروی آن در جهت غرب‪ ،‬در حدود ‪ ۸05‬کیلومتر است‪ .‬عریض ترین بخش خلیج فارس ‪ 1۸0‬مایل است‪ .‬عمیق ترین‬
‫نقطۀ خلیج فارس با عمق ‪ ۹۳‬متر در ‪ 15‬کیلومتری تنب بزرگ و مناطق کم عمق آن در سمت غرب است‪ .‬همچنین جزایر متعددی‬
‫در خلیج فارس وجود دارد‪.‬‬
‫خلیج فارس تحت تأثیر سه سامانۀ آب و هوایی اصلی‪ ،‬شاملِ واچر خند سرد سیبری‪ ،‬کم فشار سودان و مانسون های ‪Monsoon‬‬
‫هند است‪ .‬این ناحیه تحت تأثیر بادهای غالب از شمال شرق موسوم به باد شمال است که در قسمت های جنوبی تغییر جهت می‬
‫دهد و به طرف شمال تمایل پیدا می کند‪ .‬این بادها باعث به وجود آمدن امواج و جریان های سطحی می گردند‪ .‬در ضمن پدیدۀ گرد‬
‫و غبار از مهم ترین ویژگی هواشناسی نواحی شمال غرب خلیج فارس محسوب می شود‪.‬‬
‫‪Local Winds‬‬ ‫بادهای محلی‬

‫انواع بادهای خلیج فارس‬
‫‪Winds in Persian Gulf‬‬
‫باد نشئی )‪ ( nashi‬باد سرد و خشکی است که در آخر پاییز و از جهت شمال شرقی می وزد و در جابجا کردن ابر یا در‬
‫اصطالح محلی در نو و کهنه کردن ابرها تاثیر دارد و پس از آن احتمال بارندگی وجود دارد‪.‬‬
‫باد سهیلی‪ sohely‬باد جنوب تا جنوب شرقی تابستانه که تولید امواج بلند می نماید‪ .‬بادی است مرطوب و از سمت طلوع‬
‫ستاره سهیل می وزد ‪.‬‬
‫باد کوش ‪ Kowsh‬در زمستان و تابستان می وزد زمستان تولید باران می کند وایسادی هوا کم می شود و به همان اندازه در‬
‫تابستان باعث شرجی زیاد می شود و موج آن بزرگتر از موج شمال است‪.‬‬
‫باد شمال ‪Shamal‬‬

‫از بادهای دائمی است که از سوی شمال غربی می وزد و در گویش محلی به باد شمال معروف است ‪.‬این باد اغلب در بخش شمالی‬
‫خلیج فارس می وزد‪.‬‬
‫پایداری باد شمال در تابستان بیشتر از زمستان است ‪.‬بین خرداد تا ‪ 25‬تیرماه بیشترین مداومت این باد وجود دارد ‪.‬وزش این باد در‬
‫زمستان ناگهانی است و به طور ناگهانی در چند دقیقه از باد مالیم جنوب شرقی به باد شمال غربی تغییر می یابد ‪.‬این باد در‬
‫زمستان به همراه رگبار و باران است ولی در تابستان خشک و همراه با آسمان صاف و بدون ابر است ‪.‬وزش شدید و ناگهانی باد‬
‫شمال برای کشتیها و قایقهای کوچک خطرناک است‪.‬‬
‫بادکوری ‪ Kory‬باد سردی است که در زمستان بعد از باران می آید و هوا خیلی سرد می شود مخصوصا روی دریا به آن باد‬
‫پس بارونی هم می گویند و معموال یک روز بیشتر نمی آید‪.‬‬

‫باد عقربی‪ :‬بادی است که در تابستان از جنوب از روی عقرب می آید و نم و شرجی زیادی دارد‪.‬‬
‫باد ایوگی همیشه در زمستان می آید و تولید ابر میکند‪.‬‬
‫باد فارسی«کوه باد»‪ :‬این باد نشانه تغییر آب و هوا است‪ .‬با گرد و خاک و احتمال ریزش باران همراه است و باعث طوفان می‬
‫گردد‪ .‬موسم وزش آن اواخر شهریور و اوایل مهر است و ممکن است سالی یک یا ‪ 2‬دفعه و بیشتر ایجاد طوفان کند‪ .‬از آن جهت‬
‫فارسی گویند که از جهت بالد فارس می وزد‪.‬‬
‫ممکن است دهه ی اول فروردین به طور ناگهانی و در مدت زمان کمی هم بوزد که اگر در خشکی بوزد همراه با گرد و خاک زیاد و‬
‫گاهی توام با کمی باران است وقتی روی دریا بوزد باعث موج بزرگ می شود که ممکن است باعث غرق شدن لنج و قایق شود ولی‬
‫این باد زیاد دوام ندارد و بعد از چند ساعت تمام می شود و به باد آخر هم معروف است‪.‬‬
‫باد دوالب ‪ :‬همان گرد باد است به طور ناگهانی می آید دوام چندانی ندارد در همان لحظه ی وزش باد دریا را زیر و رو می کند و‬
‫تولید موج سنگینی می کند اگر لنج و قایق درم سیرش باشد ممکن است که غرق شود و اگر در خشکی بوزد درختان را از ریشه در‬
‫می آورد این باد بیشتر در برج عقرب (آبانماه) می وزد و اکثر ناخدایان کم و بیش از عالیم قبلی آن خبر دارند و احتیاط الزم را‬
‫میکنند‪.‬‬
‫باد بری‪ :‬نسیم مالیمی است که بیشتر در فصل تابستان از سمت خشکی به سمت دریا می وزد و نسیمی خنک و دلنواز است اگر‬
‫روی دریا باشی احساس خنکی میکنی‪.‬‬
‫باد شرطه‪ :‬به باد موافق میگویند که برای دریانوردی برای لنج های بادبانی بسیار خوب است‪.‬‬
‫اثرات مه غبار بر تصادمات دریایی خلیج فارس و دریای مکران‬

‫کاهش دید افقی در واقع یکی از عوامل جوّی تأثیرگذار در تصادمات دریایی است‪ ،‬چنانکه در کنوانسیون های دریایی‪ ،‬تمهیدات الزم‬
‫از جمله نصب و استفاده از وسایل کمک ناوبری متناسب الزامی گردیده است ‪.‬در بررسی سوانح دیده می شود که در برخی موارد‬
‫یکی از عوامل محیطی بروز تصادم‪ ،‬کاهش دید افقی بوده است‪.‬‬
‫از اولین عوامل کاهش دهندۀ دید افقی در منطقه است و با تعداد تصادمات » پدیدۀ مه غبار « عامل محیطی دریایی رابطۀ منطقی‬
‫دارد ‪.‬در نهایت‪ ،‬نتیجه گیری کلی این است که با در نظر گرفتن رابطۀ منطقی موجود میان پدیدۀ مه غبار و تصادمات‪ ،‬در مناطقی‬
‫چون تنگۀ هرمز و خصوصاً غرب آن و نیز منطقۀ ورودی اروند‪ ،‬که دارای تعداد روزهای با کاهش دید و نیز تعداد تصادمات بیشتری‬
‫بوده اند‪ ،‬الزم است به هنگام تردد‪ ،‬با دقت و هوشیاری بیشتری ناوبری شود‪.‬‬
‫اقلیم دریای مکران) سواحل مکران(‬

‫دریای مکران در جنوب استان سیستان و بلوچستان است‪ ،‬منطقۀ سیستان و بلوچستان با توجه به موقعیت جغرافیایی‪ ،‬از یک طرف‬
‫تحت تأثیر جریان های جوّی متعدد مانند جریان بادی شبه قارۀ هند و به تبع آن باران های موسمی اقیانوس هند است و از طرف‬
‫دیگر تحت تأثیر فشار هوای زیاد عرض های متوسط قرار دارد و گرمای شدید مهم ترین پدیدۀ مشهود اقلیمی آن است ‪.‬در وضعیت‬
‫هواشناسی این منطقه‪ ،‬بادهای شدید موسمی‪ ،‬طوفان های شن‪ ،‬رگبارهای سیل آسا‪ ،‬رطوبت زیاد و مه صبحگاهی پدیده های قابل‬
‫توجه می باشند‪.‬‬
‫این استان دو فصل متمایز تابستان گرم و طوالنی و زمستان کوتاه دارد ‪.‬زمستان با درجه حرارت معتدل و خنک در ماه های آذر‪،‬‬
‫دی و بهمن و تابستان گرم در بقیه ماه های سال تداوم دارد‪.‬‬

‫بارندگی در استان عمدتاً در ماه های زمستان صورت میگیرد و میزان متوسط سالیانۀ آن حدود ‪ 70‬میلی متر و بسیار نامنظم است ‪.‬‬
‫میزان متوسط رطوبت نسبی در سواحل دریای مکران‪ ،‬حدود ‪ 70‬تا ‪ 80‬درصد در دی ماه است که در تابستان کاهش می یابد ‪.‬در‬
‫نواحی ساحلی دریای مکران به علت رطوبت ناشی از مجاورت با دریا‪ ،‬آب و هوای گرم با رطوبت بیشتری همراه است‪.‬‬
‫بادهای دریای مکران‬

‫منطقۀ سیستان و بلوچستان در مسیر فعل و انفعاالت جوّی‬
‫میان کانون های پرفشار در شمال شرق کشور و کانون های‬
‫کم فشار در جنوب شرق قرار گرفته و وزش بادهای آن به‬
‫شدت متأثر از این فعل و انفعاالت است ‪.‬این امر موجب می‬
‫شود که این دشت از نظر جریان های هوا در منطقه ای‬
‫فعال قرار داشته باشد‪.‬‬
‫بادهای نام بردۀ زیر در منطقۀ دریای مکران می وزند‬

‫بادهای صد و بیست روزه سیستان‪ :‬بادهای ‪ 120‬روزه سیستان از ‪ 15‬خرداد لغایت ‪ 15‬مهر به مدت ‪ 120‬تا ‪ 1۳0‬روز می‬
‫وزند و گاهی حتی تا ‪ 170‬روز نیز به طول میانجامد‪.‬‬
‫حداکثر سرعت باد در تیرماه ‪ 100‬کیلومتر در ساعت است که در دریای عمان و سواحل مکران بیشتر است‪ .‬متوسط سرعت باد در ماه‬
‫های تابستان در حدود ‪ 26‬کیلومتر در ساعت و در ماه های زمستان ‪ 1۳‬کیلومتر در ساعت برآورد شده است‪.‬‬
‫این باد دارای جهت شمالی یا شمال غربی میباشد و وزش آن در بخش های شرقی دریای عمان و سواحل مکران به وضوح بیشتر از‬
‫بخش های غربی آن است‪ .‬لذا کشتی ها و شناورهای سطحی که در این منطقه از غرب به شرق تردد مینمایند همواره باید انتظار‬
‫وضعیت جوی بدتر را داشته باشند‪ ،‬چنانچه مسیر حرکت آنان از دریای عمان به سمت بندرعباس باشد وضعیت جوّی بهتری را تجربه‬
‫خواهند نمود‪.‬‬
‫باد قوس‪ :‬این باد در آذر ماه میوزد و سبب بارندگی مختصر در منطقه می شود‪.‬‬
‫باد پلپالسی (باد پرستو)‪ :‬این باد از اواسط اسفند شروع شده و وزش آن نشانهٔ آغاز فصل بهار است‪.‬‬
‫باد قبله (باختر)‪ :‬این باد در فصول مختلف سال از سمت غرب استان می وزد‪.‬‬
‫باد لوار‪ :‬این باد ادامهٔ بادهای موسمی اقیانوس هند است که منطقه سیستان را دربر گرفته و با جهت شمال شرقی ‪ -‬جنوب غربی‬
‫می وزد‪.‬‬
‫اقلیم دریای خزر‬

‫آب و هوا و اقلیم دریای خزر بین جنوب و شمال آن بسیار تفاوت دارد ‪.‬متوسط درجۀ حرارت نیمۀ شمالی دریای خزر در سال بین‬
‫‪10‬الی ‪ 17‬درجۀ سانتیگراد است در حالی که در نیمۀ جنوبی آن بین ‪ 18‬الی‪ 20‬درجه است‪.‬‬
‫رطوبت هوا از جنوب به شمال در منطقۀ میانی دریا و نیز از شرق به غرب در نواحی ساحلی افزایش می یابد ‪.‬رطوبت هوا در ماه های‬
‫فصل سرد سال زیاد تغییر نم یکند و مقدار رطوبت در سواحل ایران در این زمان) تابستان (از ‪ 70 %‬بیشتر است‪.‬‬
‫مقادیر بارندگی در سواحل دریای خزر به عبور سامانه های جبهه ای و نیز وضعیت سواحل اطراف آن منطقه بستگی دارد ‪.‬مقدار‬
‫بارندگی در سواحل ایران به علت هوای مرطوب بین ‪ 1000‬الی ‪ 1200‬میلیمتر در سال است‪.‬‬
‫بیشترین مقدار پوشش ابر در فصول سرد سال و در منطقۀ جنوب غرب تا شمال غرب دریا اتفاق می افتد ‪.‬کمترین مقدار ابر در‬

‫فصل تابستان و در شرق دریا اتفاق میافتد‪.‬‬
‫وزش باد‬
‫جهت و قدرت وزش باد بر روی آب های دریای خزر به سه عامل زیر بستگی دارد‪:‬‬
‫‪1‬جریان مشخص کلی هوای مستقر در منطقه؛‬
‫‪2‬شرایط اقلیمی سواحل منطقه مورد نظر؛‬
‫‪3‬درجۀ حرارت دریا و اختالف آن با ساحل‪.‬‬
‫بادهای محلی دریای خزر‬
‫خزری ‪:‬باد محلی غالب در منطقۀ دریای خزر باد خزری است که جهت وزش آن شمال غربی است و شدت آن با عبور جبهه های‬
‫سرد هوا افزایش می یابد ‪.‬اگر زمان وزش بادهای شمال و شمال غربی طوالنی مدت باشد باعث پیشروی آب دریا در ساحل میگردد‪.‬‬
‫گرم باد ‪:‬این نوع باد از بادهایی است که از جنوب غرب می وزد و چون از ارتفاعات البرز آرارات پایین می آید به تدریج رطوبت‬
‫خود را از دست می دهد و گرم تر می شود ‪.‬این پدیده خود اعالم هشداری برای آتش سوزی در جنگل ها و مراتع است‪.‬‬
‫مه و کاهش دید افقی ‪:‬شرایطی که باعث کاهش دید افقی می شود انواع مه در منطقه است که بیشترین نوع آن‪ ،‬مه جبهه ای یا‬
‫تشعشعی است‪.‬‬
‫یخبندان ‪:‬در نیمۀ شمالی دریای خزر شرایط یخ زدگی دریا و تشکیل یخبندان در دریا در ماه های سرد سال وجود دارد و تا اوایل‬
‫بهار ادامه می یابد ‪.‬تا کنون هی چگونه ی خزدگی و ی خبندان در جنوب دریای خزر گزارش یا مشاهده نشده است‪.‬‬

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An Introduction to Meteorology

Lecturer: Capt. G. R. REZAEIAN

Chabahar Maritime University

Capt. G. R. Rezaeian Chabahar Maritime University Page 1

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Tropical Revolving Storms (TRS) ............................................................................................... 93

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The mercury barometer

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Reasons why mercury is used for barometer

Correction of barometric readings

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Capt. G. R. Rezaeian Chabahar Maritime University Page 8

Other sources of error in barometric readings

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(iv) Error due to parallax: Also called

Capt. G. R. Rezaeian Chabahar Maritime University Page 10

The Gold Slide

Reading the mercury barometer

The aneroid barometer

Errors of an aneroid barometer

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There is no correction to be applied for variation in atmospheric temperature as the manufacturers

Location of an aneroid barometer:

Precautions when using an aneroid barometer

Advantages of aneroid barometer

The precision aneroid barometer

Capt. G. R. Rezaeian Chabahar Maritime University Page 13

Capt. G. R. Rezaeian Chabahar Maritime University Page 14

Reading the precision aneroid barometer

Damping minor fluctuations due to gusts

Calculating Sea-Level Barometric Correction

Construction of the barograph

Capt. G. R. Rezaeian Chabahar Maritime University Page 15

The chart or barogram

Time reference marks

The characteristic of the barometric tendency

Capt. G. R. Rezaeian Chabahar Maritime University Page 17

The Earth’s Atmosphere and its Composition

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The Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere

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Capt. G. R. Rezaeian Chabahar Maritime University Page 20

Fig.1: Vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere

Temperature of the atmosphere

Capt. G. R. Rezaeian Chabahar Maritime University Page 21

Variation of temperature with height

Adiabatic change of temperature

Adiabatic Laps Rate

Wet and dry air

Dry Adiabatic Laps Rate (DALR)

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR)

Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)

Neutral equilibrium of air

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Diurnal variation of atmospheric temperature

Diurnal range of atmospheric temperature

The Unequal Heating of the Earth’s Surface