Consolidated Concepts of

Civil Engineering
(Crust to Core with One Liner Concepts)

ALL INDIA JE/AE EXAM

(SSC JE, DMRC, PSU’S)
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Contents
HYDROLOGY
1. PRECIPITATION AND ITS MEASUREMENT 3—12
1.1 World’s Water Resources .................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Hydrological Cycle ................................................................................................................................................ 4
1.3 Types of Precipitation ........................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Measurement of Precipitation ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.5 Draught .................................................................................................................................................................. 11

2. EVAPORATION AND ITS MEASUREMENTS 13—16

2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Dalton’s Law ......................................................................................................................................................... 13
2.3 Transpiration ........................................................................................................................................................ 15

3. STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT 17—19

3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Gauging site and Discharge measurement .................................................................................................... 17

4. HYDROGRAPH 20—22
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 20
4.2 Unit Hydrograph ................................................................................................................................................. 20
4.3 Infiltration Indices ................................................................................................................................................ 22
4.4 Runoff Computation .......................................................................................................................................... 22

5. FLOOD AND FLOOD ROUTING 23—24

5.1 Floods, Flood Routing and Flood Control ..................................................................................................... 23
5.2 Flood Routing ....................................................................................................................................................... 24

SOIL MECHANICS
1. PROPERTIES OF SOIL 3—24
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 27
1.2 Geological Cycle .................................................................................................................................................. 27
1.3 Types of Soil .......................................................................................................................................................... 27
1.4 Properties of Soil .................................................................................................................................................. 28
1.5 Index Properties ................................................................................................................................................... 29
1.6 Laboratory Determination ................................................................................................................................ 32
1.7 Consistency of soil ............................................................................................................................................... 35
Consistency limit, Laboratory Determination .............................................................................................. 35
Casargrande’s Method ....................................................................................................................................... 36
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1.8 Atterberg’s Indicies ............................................................................................................................................. 37

Density index or Relative density, ................................................................................................................... 38
Toughness Index (IT), Shrinkage Index (IS), ................................................................................................. 39
Volumetric Shrinkage (V.S.), Shrinkage Ratio (S.R) .................................................................................... 40
1.9 Clay Minerology .................................................................................................................................................. 41
1.10 Particle Size Distribution .................................................................................................................................... 42
Mechanical analysis ............................................................................................................................................. 42
1.10 (a) Sieve Analysis ........................................................................................................................................ 42
1.10 (b) Sedimentation Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 43
Pipette Analysis, Hydrometer Analysis ......................................................................................................... 44
1.11 Particle Size Distribution Curve ....................................................................................................................... 45
Uniformity Coefficient (Cu), Coefficient of curvature (CC) ...................................................................... 45
1.12 Soil Structures ....................................................................................................................................................... 46
Shapes of Soil particles ........................................................................................................................................ 47
1.13 Classification of Soil ............................................................................................................................................. 47
Coarse soil classification, Fine Soil Classification .......................................................................................... 49
Boundary soil ........................................................................................................................................................ 49
Indian Standard Classification System (ISCS) ............................................................................................... 49
Fine soil, Group Index Method ......................................................................................................................... 50

2. SOIL HYDRAULICS 25—35

2.1 Basic Terms ........................................................................................................................................................... 51
2.2 Darcy’s Law .......................................................................................................................................................... 51
Seepage Velocity (VS) ......................................................................................................................................... 52
Validity of Darcy’s law ....................................................................................................................................... 52
2.3 Factors Affecting Permeability of soil ............................................................................................................. 52
Poiseuille’s Law .................................................................................................................................................... 52
2.4 Determination of co-efficient of permeability ............................................................................................... 53
Permeability of stratified soil deposit .............................................................................................................. 54
2.5 Well hydraulics ..................................................................................................................................................... 55
Aquifer, Unconfined Aquifer ............................................................................................................................ 55
Confined Aquifer, Transmissibility (T), Coefficient of absolute permeability (Ko) ............................. 56
2.6 Soil Water .............................................................................................................................................................. 56
2.7 Effective Stress ...................................................................................................................................................... 58
2.8 Seepage .................................................................................................................................................................. 58
Seepage Pressure (Ps), Seepage Force (j), Application of seepage ........................................................... 59
2.9 Piping Failure ........................................................................................................................................................ 59
2.10 Flow Net ................................................................................................................................................................ 60

3. COMPRESSIBILITY AND COMPACTION 36—46

3.1 Consolidation ....................................................................................................................................................... 62
Initial Consolidation ............................................................................................................................................ 62
Primary consolidation (10), Secondary Consolidation (20) ........................................................................ 62
Hydrodynamic Lag, Consolidation Curve .................................................................................................... 63
3.2 Coefficient of Compressibility .......................................................................................................................... 63
3.3 Compression Index ............................................................................................................................................. 64
Compression Index according to skempton ................................................................................................. 64
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3.4 Coefficient of Volume Change (mv) ............................................................................................................... 64

Normal Consolidated Clay (NCC) .................................................................................................................. 65
Over Consolidated Clay (OCC) ....................................................................................................................... 65
Over Consolidation Ratio (OCR) ..................................................................................................................... 65
3.5 Settlement in soil .................................................................................................................................................. 65
3.6 Terzaghi’s Theory of Consolidation ................................................................................................................ 66
Degree of consolidation (U) .............................................................................................................................. 66
Measurement of Consolidation ........................................................................................................................ 67
3.7 Compaction .......................................................................................................................................................... 68
3.8 Standard Proctor Test ......................................................................................................................................... 68
Zero Air void Line ............................................................................................................................................... 68
Constant Air Void Line ...................................................................................................................................... 69
3.9 Factors Affecting Compaction in Soil .............................................................................................................. 69
Conditions of Compaction, Field Compaction Method ............................................................................. 71

4. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL 47—53

4.1 Shear Strength ...................................................................................................................................................... 73
4.2 Mohr’s Columb Theory ..................................................................................................................................... 74
4.3 Measurement of Shear Strength ...................................................................................................................... 74
Conditions of shear Test .................................................................................................................................... 75
4.4 Direct Shear Test .................................................................................................................................................. 75
4.5 Tri-axial Shear Test .............................................................................................................................................. 76
4.6 Relation between Principal Stresses at Failure .............................................................................................. 77
4.7 Unconfined Compression Test ......................................................................................................................... 77
Important Unique Mohr’s Stress circle ........................................................................................................... 78
4.8 Vane Shear Test ................................................................................................................................................... 78
4.9 Skempton’s pore water pressure parameters ............................................................................................... 79

5. EARTH PRESSURE THEORY 54—57

5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 80
Retaining Wall, Back Fill, Wedge Failure ........................................................................................................ 80
5.2 Theory of Plasticity/Plastic Equilibrium ......................................................................................................... 80
5.3 Earth Pressure At Rest Condition .................................................................................................................... 81
5.4 Coefficient of Earth Pressure ............................................................................................................................ 82
5.5 Rankine’s Theory ................................................................................................................................................. 82
Rankine’s Theory for Cohesive Soil (c – f) ..................................................................................................... 83

6. BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL 58—65

6.1 Foundation ............................................................................................................................................................ 84
Footing, Gross Pressure Intensity (GPI) (q) ................................................................................................... 84
Net Pressure Intensity (NPT) (qn or qnet), Ultimate bearing capacity ...................................................... 85
Net ultimate bearing capacity, Safe bearing capacity .................................................................................. 85
6.2 Types of Shear failure ......................................................................................................................................... 85
6.3 Terzaghi’s Analysis .............................................................................................................................................. 85
6.4 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity of Soil ..................................................................................................... 86
6.5 Penetration Tests ................................................................................................................................................. 87
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) ....................................................................................................................... 87
Cone Penetration Test (CPT) ............................................................................................................................ 88
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6.6 Plate Load Test ..................................................................................................................................................... 88

6.7 Types of Foundation ........................................................................................................................................... 90
Mat foundation/Raft, Pile foundation, End bearing pile, Friction pile .................................................... 90
Under reamed pile ............................................................................................................................................... 91

7. VERTICAL STRESSES 66—68

7.1 Boussinesq’s Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 92
7.2 Westergaard’s Theory ........................................................................................................................................ 93
Boussinesq’s Result .............................................................................................................................................. 93
7.3 Stress Isobar Method .......................................................................................................................................... 94
7.4 Newmark’s Influence ......................................................................................................................................... 94

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
1. WATER DEMAND 97—101
1.1 Population Forecasting ....................................................................................................................................... 97
(a) Arithmetic Increase Method (AIM) ............................................................................................................ 97
(b) Geometric Increase Method (GIM) ............................................................................................................ 97
(c) Incremental Increase Method (IIM) ........................................................................................................... 98
(d) Logistic Curve Method ................................................................................................................................ 98
1.2 Per Capita Demand ............................................................................................................................................. 99
1.3 Types of Demands ............................................................................................................................................... 99
1. Domestic water demand, 2. Industrial water demand, 3. Commercial and Institutional
Water Demand, 4. Demand for Public use, 5. Theft and Losses, 6. Fire Demand
1.4 Factors Affecting Water Demand ................................................................................................................. 101
1.5 Peak Factor ......................................................................................................................................................... 101

2. QUALITY OF WATER 102—113

2.1 InTroduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 102
2.2 Physical Parameters .......................................................................................................................................... 102
1. Taste and Odour, 2. Color, 3. Temperature,
4. Turbidity, 5. Suspended Solids, 6. Electrical conductivity ..................................................................... 104
2.3 Chemical Water Quality Parameters ............................................................................................................. 105
1. Total Solids, 2. Chloride Content, 3. Nitrogen Content
4. Alkalinity, 5. PH, 6. Hardness, 7. Fluoride Content, 8. Metals ............................................................ 109
2.4 Biological Water Quality Parameters ............................................................................................................ 112
Pathogens, Coliforms, Measurement of Coliforms, Water borne disease ........................................... 113

3. TREATMENT OF WATER 114—133

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 114
3.2. Screening ............................................................................................................................................................. 114
3.3. Aeration ............................................................................................................................................................... 115
3.4 Sedimentation ..................................................................................................................................................... 116
Design of Sedimentation Tank ....................................................................................................................... 117
3.5. Coagulation Aided With Sedimentation ...................................................................................................... 119
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Types of Coagulants ......................................................................................................................................... 119

Mixing Basins, Mechanical Mixers .................................................................................................................. 121
3.6. Filtration .............................................................................................................................................................. 121
Mechanism of Filtration ................................................................................................................................... 121
3.7 Types of Filters ................................................................................................................................................... 122
Slow Sand Filter (SSF), Rapid Sand Filter (RSF) .......................................................................................... 123
Double Filtration, Pressure Filters ................................................................................................................. 125
3.8. Disinfection ......................................................................................................................................................... 125
Method of Disinfection ..................................................................................................................................... 125
1. Physical Methods, 2. Chemical Methods, 3. Chlorination ................................................................... 100
3.9 Measurement/Test for Residual Chlorine ................................................................................................... 128
3.10. Softening of Water ............................................................................................................................................ 129
3.11. Miscellaneous Treatment ................................................................................................................................. 130
3.12 Sources of Water ................................................................................................................................................ 131
3.13 Intakes Structures .............................................................................................................................................. 132
Types of Intake ................................................................................................................................................... 132
3.14 Well ....................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Types of Wells, Open Well, Tube Wells ........................................................................................................ 132

4. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 134—137

4.1 Types of Distribution System .......................................................................................................................... 134
1. Dead End System/ Tree System, 2. Ring System, 3. Grid System, 4. Radial System .................... 135
4.2 Pipes ...................................................................................................................................................................... 135
Types of Pipes (i) Metallic Pipes (ii) Non-Metallic Pipes ............................................................................ 136
4.3 Water Meters ...................................................................................................................................................... 136
Type of Water Meters ....................................................................................................................................... 136
4.4 Valves ................................................................................................................................................................... 137
Types of Valves .................................................................................................................................................. 137

5. WASTE WATER ENGINEERING, SEWER AND ITS TYPES 138—147

5.1 Sewage ................................................................................................................................................................. 138
5.2 Sewerage System / Sewage System ............................................................................................................. 138
Types of Sewerage System .............................................................................................................................. 138
5.3 Characteristics of Sewage ................................................................................................................................ 139
5.4 Chemical Parameters ........................................................................................................................................ 139
Types of BOD, Measurement of BOD, Calculation of BOD ...................................................................... 142
5.5 Disposal of Effiluent .......................................................................................................................................... 143
Disposal in River ................................................................................................................................................ 143
5.6 Zone of Pollution in river system .................................................................................................................. 144
Zone of Clear water, Zone of Degradation ................................................................................................. 144
Zone of Active Decomposition, Zone of Recovery ................................................................................... 145
5.7 Disposal on Lakes .............................................................................................................................................. 145
Stratification of Lake, Productivity of Lake ................................................................................................. 145
Eutrophication of Lakes, Senescent Lake ..................................................................................................... 146
5.8 Disposal in Oceans ............................................................................................................................................. 146
5.9 Disposal on Land ............................................................................................................................................... 147
5.10 Population Equivalent ...................................................................................................................................... 147
5.11 Relative Stability (S) ........................................................................................................................................... 147
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6. DESIGN OF SEWERS 148—150

6.1 Sewer .................................................................................................................................................................... 148
6.2 Mainholes ............................................................................................................................................................ 148
6.3 Cleaning of Sewers ............................................................................................................................................ 149
Time of Concentration ..................................................................................................................................... 149
Self-Cleansing Velocity ..................................................................................................................................... 149
6.4 Design considerations of Sewers .................................................................................................................... 149
6.5 Hydraulic Characteristics ................................................................................................................................. 150
6.6 Egg Shaped Sewer ............................................................................................................................................. 150

7. TREATMENT OF SEWAGE 151—159

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 151
Preliminary Treatment ..................................................................................................................................... 151
7.2 Screening ............................................................................................................................................................. 151
Communitors and Macerator ......................................................................................................................... 151
7.3. Grit Chamber / Detritus Tank ....................................................................................................................... 152
7.4 Skimming Tank .................................................................................................................................................. 152
7.5 Primary Sedimentation .................................................................................................................................... 153
7.6 Secondary Biological Treatment ..................................................................................................................... 153
7.7 Aerobic Treatment Units .................................................................................................................................. 154
1. Trickling filter, 2. Oxidation Pond, 3. Activated sludge process .......................................................... 156
7.8 Anaerobic Decomposition Units .................................................................................................................... 157
1. Septic Tank, 2. Imhoff Tank ........................................................................................................................ 158
7.9 Secondary Sedimentation Tank ...................................................................................................................... 158
Sludge Digestion ................................................................................................................................................ 159

8. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 160—162

8.1 Solid Waste .......................................................................................................................................................... 160
8.2 Principle of Solid Waste Management .......................................................................................................... 160
1. Land Sanitary Filling Method, 2. Disposal by Composting Method .................................................. 161
3. Pulverization, 4. Thermal Pyrolysis and Incineration ........................................................................... 162
5. Autoclave Method ......................................................................................................................................... 162

9. NOISE POLLUTION 163—165

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 163
Sound, Noise ....................................................................................................................................................... 163
9.2 Level of Noise ..................................................................................................................................................... 164
Average Level of Sound ................................................................................................................................... 164
9.3 Types of Hearing Loss ...................................................................................................................................... 165
Acceptable Limits ............................................................................................................................................... 165

10. AIR POLLUTION 166—169

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 166
Oxides of Sulphur (SOx), Oxides of Carbon ................................................................................................. 166
Hydrocarbon, Aerosols .................................................................................................................................... 167
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10.2 Lapse Rate ........................................................................................................................................................... 168

Inversion Lapse .................................................................................................................................................. 169
10.3 Traps ..................................................................................................................................................................... 169
Classification of Traps based on use .............................................................................................................. 169

BASIC MEASUREMENT
1. BASIC MEASUREMENT 173—176
1.1 Estimate ............................................................................................................................................................... 173
1.2 Soling, Brick size ................................................................................................................................................ 174
1.3 DPC - Damp proof course ............................................................................................................................... 175
1.4 Earth work .......................................................................................................................................................... 175
1.5 Stone and Brick Work ...................................................................................................................................... 175
1.6 Steel and Iron work ........................................................................................................................................... 175
1.7 Plastering and Pointing .................................................................................................................................... 175
Degree of accuracy in estimation ................................................................................................................... 176

2. VALUATION 177—180
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 177
2.2 Purpose of valuation ......................................................................................................................................... 177
2.3. Rent Fixation, Types of Expenditure ............................................................................................................. 177
2.4 Scrap Value ......................................................................................................................................................... 178
2.5 Salvage Value ..................................................................................................................................................... 178
2.6 Sinking Fund ....................................................................................................................................................... 178
2.7 Market Value ...................................................................................................................................................... 178
2.8 Book Value .......................................................................................................................................................... 178
2.9 Depreciation ........................................................................................................................................................ 179
1. Straight Line Method, 2. Constant Percentage Method ...................................................................... 179
2.10 Mortgage Loan ................................................................................................................................................... 179
2.11 Free hold property ............................................................................................................................................ 179
2.12 Lease hold property .......................................................................................................................................... 180
2.13 Capital Cost ........................................................................................................................................................ 180
2.14 Year purchased ................................................................................................................................................... 180
2.15 Capitalised value ................................................................................................................................................ 180
2.16 Annuity ................................................................................................................................................................ 180
2.17 Distress value ...................................................................................................................................................... 180
2.18 Sentimental value .............................................................................................................................................. 180
2.19 Rateable value .................................................................................................................................................... 180
2.20 Accommodation value ..................................................................................................................................... 180

3. MATERIAL AND ESTIMATION 181—183

3.1 Overhead cost ..................................................................................................................................................... 181
3.2 Classification of Project .................................................................................................................................... 181
Major Work, Minor work, Petty work, Some Important Points ............................................................ 181
3.3 Type of Area ....................................................................................................................................................... 182
1. Plinth Area, 2. Floor Area, 3. Circulation Area, 4. Carpet Area ......................................................... 183
3.4 Technical Sanction .............................................................................................................................................. 183
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4. RATE ANALYSIS 184—189

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 184
4.2 Rate Analysis Depends Upon .......................................................................................................................... 184
4.3 Task work (Turnout) ........................................................................................................................................ 184
Lead, Lift, Conversion of lift into lead .......................................................................................................... 185
4.4 TRAP ..................................................................................................................................................................... 185
4.5 RCC WORK ........................................................................................................................................................ 186
4.6 Schedule of Bar ................................................................................................................................................... 186
4.7 Earth Work ......................................................................................................................................................... 187
1. Mid Sectional Area Method, 2. Mean Sectional Area Method ........................................................... 187
3. Prismoidal Formula Method, 4. Trapezoidal Method: ........................................................................ 188
4.8 Method of Building Estimate ........................................................................................................................... 188
1. Long wall and Short wall method, 2. Centre line method ................................................................ 188
4.9 Schedule of Rates ............................................................................................................................................... 188
Quantity survey, Factors affecting the Rate Analysis ................................................................................ 188
4.10 Measurement of dry volume .......................................................................................................................... 189
Cement - Concrete work, Lime Concrete, Flooring Work, Mortar ...................................................... 189
Plastering work, Brick work, Special Condition ......................................................................................... 189

5. CONTRACT AND TENDER 190—192

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 190
5.2 Requirement of Contract ................................................................................................................................. 190
5.3 Type of Contract ................................................................................................................................................ 190
5.4 Earnest money ................................................................................................................................................... 191
5.5 Security money .................................................................................................................................................. 191
5.6 Tendor, Types of Tender, Procedure of Inviting the Tender ................................................................... 191

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURE

1. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 195—202
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 195
1.2 Indian Standard Structural Steel Sections or IS Rolled Steel Sections ..................................................... 196
1.3 Permissible Stresses in Steel Structures [WSM] ........................................................................................... 198
1.4 Permissible Stresses in Steel Structures (LSM) ............................................................................................ 200
1.5 Factor of Safety (FOS) ....................................................................................................................................... 200
1.6 Bearing stress ...................................................................................................................................................... 201
1.7 Stiffness criteria (permissible Deflections) .................................................................................................... 201

2. RIVETING / BOLTING 203—217

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 203
Specifications for pitch, Gauge distance, End distance and Edge distance ............................................ 204
2.2 Assumptions in the Design of Riveted Joints .............................................................................................. 206
2.3 Types of Joints .................................................................................................................................................... 206
2.4 Failure of Rivetted or Bolted Joint ................................................................................................................. 207
Analysis of lap joint, Analysis double cover butt joint .............................................................................. 208
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2.5 Rivet value (RV) ................................................................................................................................................. 212

2.6 Efficiency of a joint () ...................................................................................................................................... 212
2.7 Arrangements of Rivets ................................................................................................................................... 213
2.8 Eccentric Connections ....................................................................................................................................... 214

3. WELDED CONNECTIONS 218—224

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 218
Minumum size of weld (Smin), Maximum size of weld (Smax), Effective length of weld ..................... 219
3.2 Slot Welding ........................................................................................................................................................ 220
3.3 Eccentric connection .......................................................................................................................................... 222
Type 1 – Eccentric welded connection ........................................................................................................... 222
Type 2 – Eccentric welded connections ......................................................................................................... 223

4. DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBER 225—231

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 225
4.2 Grip length (lg) ................................................................................................................................................... 226
4.3 Lug Angle ............................................................................................................................................................ 226
4.4 Slenderness ratio for different members ..................................................................................................... 227
4.5 Net effective area calculation .......................................................................................................................... 228
4.6 Design of Lug Angle ......................................................................................................................................... 230
4.7 Design Steps of Tension members ................................................................................................................ 231

5. COMPRESSION MEMBERS 232—240

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 232
5.2 Effective length of compression members .................................................................................................. 232
5.3 Euler’s critical load/Buckling load/crippling load ...................................................................................... 233
5.4 shape factor ......................................................................................................................................................... 235
5.5 Struts (compression member of trusses) ..................................................................................................... 236
5.6 Analysis of struts ............................................................................................................................................... 238
5.7 Design STEPS of compression members ...................................................................................................... 240

6. DESIGN OF LACINGS 241—244

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 241
Single Lacing, Double lacing ............................................................................................................................ 241
6.2 Design of battening ........................................................................................................................................... 243

7. COLUMN SPLICES 245—248

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 245
7.2 Column bases ..................................................................................................................................................... 246
7.3 Slab bases ............................................................................................................................................................. 247
7.4 Gusseted column bases .................................................................................................................................... 247

8. DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS 249—258

8.1 Design of beams ................................................................................................................................................ 249
8.2 Lateral beams ..................................................................................................................................................... 249
8.3 Primary criteria in beams design ................................................................................................................... 250
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8.4 Secondary Criteria in beam design ............................................................................................................... 251

8.5 Design of built-up beams ................................................................................................................................. 254
8.6 Design of connection and check for shear ................................................................................................... 255
8.7 Criteria for Restrainment ................................................................................................................................ 257

9. GANTRY GIRDERS AND PLATE GIRDERS 259—263

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 259
9.2 Plate Girders ....................................................................................................................................................... 260
9.3 Design of end bearing stiffeners .................................................................................................................... 262
9.4 Design of vertical stiffeners ............................................................................................................................. 263

10. ROOF TRUSSES 264—267

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 264
10.2 Load on roof trusses ......................................................................................................................................... 265
10.3 Design of Purlin ................................................................................................................................................. 265

11. PLASTIC ANALYSIS 268—270

11.1 Plastic theory ...................................................................................................................................................... 268
11.2 Collapse Loads (Wc) .......................................................................................................................................... 269

STRENGTH OF MATERIAL
1. PROPERTIES OF METALS, STRESS AND STRAIN 273—283
1.1 Important Mechanical Properties ................................................................................................................... 273
1.2 Stress and Strain ................................................................................................................................................. 274
Stress, Strain ........................................................................................................................................................ 275
1.3 Stress-Strain curve of Mild Steel for Tension Under Static-Loading ....................................................... 275
1.4 Modulus of Elasticity ......................................................................................................................................... 276
1.5 Types of Failure in metal .................................................................................................................................. 276
Tension failure in Metal, Compression failure in Metal ............................................................................ 277
1.6 Stress-Strain diagram for various type of Steel/Material ......................................................................... 277
Ductile Material, Brittle Material, Behaviors of various materials .......................................................... 278
1.7 Deflection of various member under loading condition .......................................................................... 278
Axial Elongation (D) of Prismatic Bar due to External Load .................................................................... 278
Deflection of Bar (D) due to Self-weight ....................................................................................................... 279
Deflection (D) of Tapered Bar ......................................................................................................................... 279
1.8 Equivalent Young’s modulus of Parallel composite bar ........................................................................... 279
1.9 Elastic constants ................................................................................................................................................. 280
1.10 Poission’s Ratio   280
Value of  for various materials, Relation between E, G, K,   280
1.11 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN ................................................................................................................................... 281
Under Tri-axial Loading, Under Hydrostatic Loading .............................................................................. 281
Uni-Axial Loading on Rectangular Parallel piped ...................................................................................... 281
Triaxial loading on Rectangular Parallel Piped ............................................................................................ 282
Volumetric Strain of Cylindrical Bar ............................................................................................................. 282
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1.12 Strain Energy ...................................................................................................................................................... 282

1.13 Thermal Stress and Strain ................................................................................................................................ 283

2. BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR FORCE 284—288

2.1 Types of Loads ................................................................................................................................................... 284
Equilibrium Equations ...................................................................................................................................... 284
2.2 Types of Supports and beams ........................................................................................................................ 285
Support, Types of Beams ................................................................................................................................. 285
2.3 Bending Moment At a Section ........................................................................................................................ 286
Moment at a point ............................................................................................................................................. 286
2.4 Shear Force at a section .................................................................................................................................... 286
Variation of shear force diagram and Bending moment diagram with Load ..................................... 286
Relationship between Shear Force, Bending Moment and Load Intensity .......................................... 286
2.5 Shear force diagram and bending momemt diagram for special loading case ................................... 287

3. BENDING STRESS IN BEAMS 289—295

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 289
3.2 Flexure Equation OR Bending Equation ....................................................................................................... 289
3.3 Section Modulus (Z) .......................................................................................................................................... 289
Variation of Bending Stress ............................................................................................................................. 291
3.4 Flexural Rigidity (EI) ......................................................................................................................................... 291
3.5 Comparision of the moments of Square section in different positions ................................................. 292
3.6 ComparISION of weight of circular section ................................................................................................ 293
Solid Circular Section, Hollow Circular Section .......................................................................................... 293
3.7 Composite Sections ........................................................................................................................................... 295

4. BEAM OF UNIFORM STRENGTH 296—298

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 296
Case 1: When a simply supported beam is subjected to a point load of W (KN) at the center. ...... 296
Case 2: A cantilever beam carries a point load of W(KN) at its free end. ............................................. 297
Case 3: A cantilever beam carries a UDL of W (KN/m) throughout its span. .................................... 298

5. SHEAR STESS IN BEAMS 299—304

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 299
5.2 Shear Stress variation for Rectangular Section ........................................................................................... 300
5.3 Shear Stress Variation for Triangular Section ............................................................................................. 301
5.4 Variation of shear stress of Various Section ................................................................................................ 302
5.5 Shear Stress variation for Diamond Section ................................................................................................ 303
5.6 Shear stress variation for Circular Section ................................................................................................... 304

6. TORSION 305—309
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 305
Torsion Equation, Assumptions of Torsion Equation ............................................................................... 305
6.2 Polar Moment of Inertial for different sections .......................................................................................... 306
6.3 Relationship between Bending stress and shear stress ............................................................................. 306
Ratio of Bending Stress to Shear Stress ........................................................................................................ 307
Ratio of Shear Stress to Bending Stress ........................................................................................................ 307
 ( xxii )

6.4 Torsional Rigidity (GJ) ...................................................................................................................................... 307

6.5 Design of Shaft ................................................................................................................................................... 307
Power ................................................................................................................................................................... 308
6.6 Composite section/Shaft in parallel .............................................................................................................. 308
Analysis, Shaft in Series .................................................................................................................................... 309

7. COLUMN 310—314
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 310
7.2 Euler’s Theory .................................................................................................................................................... 310
Euler buckling load ............................................................................................................................................ 310
7.3 Effective length ................................................................................................................................................... 311
7.4 Euler’s Critical Stress/Euler buckling stress ................................................................................................ 312
Slenderness Ratio (l) .......................................................................................................................................... 312
7.5 Euler’s Critical Stress ......................................................................................................................................... 312
7.6 Rankine theory ................................................................................................................................................... 312
7.7 Rankine Merchant theory ................................................................................................................................ 313
No Tension Zone ............................................................................................................................................... 313
7.8 Strain Energy ...................................................................................................................................................... 313
Strain Energy Due to Axial loading or Direct loading ............................................................................... 313

8. SPRING 315—316
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 315
Closed coiled spring, Open coiled spring ..................................................................................................... 315
8.2 Arrangement of springs ................................................................................................................................... 316
Springs in series ................................................................................................................................................. 316
Springs in parallel .............................................................................................................................................. 316

9. THIN AND THICK SHELL 317—318

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 317
9.2 Stress on Thin cylindrical shell ........................................................................................................................ 317
1. Hoop stress (sh), 2. Longitudinal stress .................................................................................................... 317
9.3 Hoop strain and longitudinal strain .............................................................................................................. 318
Thick Cylindrical shell ....................................................................................................................................... 318

10. PRINCIPLE STRESSES 319—322

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 319
10.2 Mohr Circle ......................................................................................................................................................... 320
Geometrical features of Mohr circle .............................................................................................................. 320
Principal plane, Shear plane (S) ..................................................................................................................... 321
10.3 Maximum and minimum principal stress .................................................................................................... 321
10.4 Combined stress ................................................................................................................................................ 322

11. DEFLECTION IN BEAMS 323—341

11.1 Double Integration Method ............................................................................................................................ 323
11.2 Area moment method ...................................................................................................................................... 326
11.3 ConjugatE beam method ................................................................................................................................ 337
 ( xxiii )

11.4 Strain Energy Method ...................................................................................................................................... 338

11.5 Method of Superposition ................................................................................................................................. 339
11.6 Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem ....................................................................................................................... 341

12. THEORY OF FAILURE 342—346

12.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 342
12.2 Maximum Principle Stress theory (Rankien’s theory) .............................................................................. 342
12.3 Maximum Shear Stress theory (Guest’s and Tresca’s theory) ................................................................ 343
12.4 Maximum distortion Energy Theory (Mises and Henky’s Theory) ..................................................... 343
12.5 Maximum Principle Strain Energy Theory (st. Venant’s theorem) ........................................................ 344
12.6 Maximum Total Strain Energy Theory [Haigh’s theory and Beltrami’s theory] ................................ 345
12.7 Shape of the safer regions ............................................................................................................................... 346

REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)

1. RCC 349—361
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 349
1.2 Compressive strength test (Cube test, Cylinder test) ............................................................................... 350
1.3 Characteristic strength ..................................................................................................................................... 351
1.4 Effect of creep ..................................................................................................................................................... 351
1.5 Flexural tensile strength of Concrete or Modulus of rupture (FCR) ..................................................... 352
1.6 Quality of water for concrete .......................................................................................................................... 353
1.7 Method of RCC Design .................................................................................................................................... 353
1.8 Limit state method (LSM) ................................................................................................................................ 354
1.9 Analysis of beam section ................................................................................................................................. 355
1.10 Moment of resistance (MOR) .......................................................................................................................... 356
1.11 Doubly Reinforced BEAM .............................................................................................................................. 357
1.12 Stress in steel due to compression ................................................................................................................. 358
1.13 Flanged Beams .................................................................................................................................................. 359

2. CONCEPT OF SHEAR 362—368

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 362
2.2 Types of shear Reinforcements ...................................................................................................................... 363
2.3 Design of shear Reinforcement ...................................................................................................................... 364
2.4 Bond and anchorage ......................................................................................................................................... 365
2.5 Development length (LD) ................................................................................................................................ 366
2.6 Check for development length ...................................................................................................................... 367
2.7 Anchorage length .............................................................................................................................................. 367
2.8 Curtailment of bars ........................................................................................................................................... 368

3. DESIGN 369—381
3.1 Design of Beams ................................................................................................................................................ 369
3.2 Control of Deflection ........................................................................................................................................ 371
3.3 Permissible values of Deflection ..................................................................................................................... 371
3.4 Side face Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................... 372
3.5 Exposure Conditions ........................................................................................................................................ 372
 ( xxiv )

3.6 Lateral Restraints ............................................................................................................................................... 373

3.7 Design of Slab ..................................................................................................................................................... 373
3.8 Flast Slab .............................................................................................................................................................. 375
3.9 Design of Compression Member ................................................................................................................... 377
3.10 Column by Working stress method (WSM) .............................................................................................. 379
3.11 P-M Interaction Curve ..................................................................................................................................... 381

4. DESIGN OF FOOTING 382—386

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 382
4.2 Check for one way punching .......................................................................................................................... 382
4.3 Check for two way punching ......................................................................................................................... 383
4.4 Classification of foundation ............................................................................................................................. 383

5. WORKING STRESS METHOD 387—390

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 387
5.2 Modular Ratio (m) ............................................................................................................................................. 387
5.3 Assumptions ....................................................................................................................................................... 388
5.4 Types of Section ................................................................................................................................................. 388
5.5 Doubly Reinforced Beam Section ................................................................................................................... 389

6. STAIR CASE 391—392

Tread, Riser, Nosing, Flight, Going, Waist slab, Pitch, Vertical head room,
Indian standard recommendation, Loading condition ........................................................................................ 391

7. PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE 393—396

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 393
7.2 Analysis of pre–stressed members ................................................................................................................ 394
7.3 Types of prestressing system .......................................................................................................................... 394
7.4 Losses in prestressing ....................................................................................................................................... 395

8. WATER TANK AND RETAINING WALL 397—398

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 397
8.2 Retaining walls ................................................................................................................................................... 397
8.3 Torsion ................................................................................................................................................................. 398

SURVEYING
1. BASIC OF SURVEYING 401—404
1.1 Well-conditioned Triangle ............................................................................................................................... 401
1.2 Types of Chain Lines ........................................................................................................................................ 401
1.3 Error and Correction ........................................................................................................................................ 402
Sources of Error, Types of Error, Errors in Chaining ................................................................................ 403
1.4 Tapes ..................................................................................................................................................................... 403
Tape correction ................................................................................................................................................... 404
 ( xxv )

2. LINEAR MEASUREMENT 405—409

2.1 Direct Measurement ......................................................................................................................................... 405
2.2 Chain .................................................................................................................................................................... 405
Types of Chains ................................................................................................................................................. 406
2.3 Accessories Used in Chaining ......................................................................................................................... 407
2.4 Angle Setting devices ........................................................................................................................................ 408
2.5 Methods of Ranging ......................................................................................................................................... 409

3. COMPASS SURVEY 410—413

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 410
Difference between Prismatic Compass and Surveyor Compass. ......................................................... 410
3.2 Angle of Dip ........................................................................................................................................................ 410
3.3 Local Attraction .................................................................................................................................................. 411
3.4 Units of Angle Measurement Systems .......................................................................................................... 411
3.5 Important Terms ............................................................................................................................................... 411
(i) Bearing, (ii) True meridian and true bearing, ......................................................................................... 411
(iii) Magnetic meridian and magnetic bearing, .......................................................................................... 411
(iv) Magnetic declination : ................................................................................................................................ 411
3.6 Designation of Bearing ..................................................................................................................................... 412
(i) Whole Circle Bearing System (WCB), ..................................................................................................... 412
(ii) Quadrantal System of Bearing (QSB) ...................................................................................................... 412
Limits of Accuracy ............................................................................................................................................. 413

4. TRAVERSING 414—417
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 414
Methods of Angular Measurement, Direct Angle, Deflection Angle ..................................................... 414
4.2 Latitude and Departure .................................................................................................................................... 415
Checks in closed traverse, Closing Error or Error of Closure ................................................................ 415
4.3 Relative Error of closure (Re) .......................................................................................................................... 416
4.4 Adjustment of Traverse ................................................................................................................................... 416
1. Arbitrary Rule, 2. Bowditch Rule, 3.Transit Rule

5. THEODOLITE 418—419
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 418
Types of Theodolite ........................................................................................................................................... 418
5.2 Terms in Theodolite .......................................................................................................................................... 418
5.3 Methods of Measurement of horizontal angles .......................................................................................... 419
Repetition Method, Reiteration Method ...................................................................................................... 419
5.4 Types of Vernier ................................................................................................................................................ 419

6. TACHEOMETRY 420—423
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 420
6.2 Method of tacheometry ................................................................................................................................... 420
6.3 Distance formula ................................................................................................................................................ 421
Static method, Movable Hair Method, Tangential Method: .................................................................... 423
 ( xxvi )

7. PLANE TABLE SURVEY 424—427

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 424
7.2 Accessories used in Plane table survey ......................................................................................................... 424
7.3 Setting up the plane table board .................................................................................................................... 425
7.4 Methods of plane table survey ....................................................................................................................... 426

8. EARTHWORK CALCULATION 428—429

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 428
8.2 Area by approximate method ........................................................................................................................ 428
1. Average Ordinate Rule, 2. Trapezoidal Rule,
3. Simpson’s 1/3 Rule, 4. Offset at Irregular Interval ............................................................................. 428
8.3 Measurement of volume .................................................................................................................................. 429

9. CURVES 430—434
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 430
Types of Curves ................................................................................................................................................. 430
9.2 Horizontal Curve .............................................................................................................................................. 430
9.3 Element of a simple circular Curve ............................................................................................................... 431
Relation between Degree (D) and Radius ® Curve ................................................................................... 431
9.4 Setting Out of a Simple Curve ........................................................................................................................ 432
Methods of Setting Out .................................................................................................................................... 432
Rankine method of Deflection Angle, Two Theodolite Method ............................................................. 434

10. CONTOURING 435—437

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 435
10.2 Contour Interval (CI) ....................................................................................................................................... 435
Factors Affecting Contour Interval ............................................................................................................... 435
10.3 Characteristics of Contour Lines .................................................................................................................... 436
Methods of Contouring ................................................................................................................................... 436
10.4 Use of Contour ................................................................................................................................................... 437

11. LEVELLING 438—444

11.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 438
Principle of levelling .......................................................................................................................................... 438
11.2 Terms in levelling .............................................................................................................................................. 438
11.3 Methods of Leveling ......................................................................................................................................... 439
Types of Direct Levelling ................................................................................................................................. 440
11.4 Defects of a lens ................................................................................................................................................. 440
11.5 Methods of reducing Level (R.L) .................................................................................................................... 441
11.6 Sensitivity of Bubble tube (a) .......................................................................................................................... 441
11.7 Curvature and Refraction ................................................................................................................................ 442
11.8 Distance of visible horizon .............................................................................................................................. 443
11.9 Dumpy level ....................................................................................................................................................... 443
Reciprocal levelling ............................................................................................................................................ 444
11.10 Use of inverted staff .......................................................................................................................................... 444
 ( xxvii )

12. THEORY OF ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT 445—448

12.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 445
Types of Errors ................................................................................................................................................... 445
12.2 Terminologies USED in Theory of Errors .................................................................................................... 445
Observation, Observed Value, True Value, Most Probable Value, True Error, Residual Error ...... 445
12.3 Law of Weight .................................................................................................................................................... 446
12.4 Most Probable Value (M.P.V) ......................................................................................................................... 446
Principle of least square, Probable Error in a Measurement: .................................................................. 447
Error in Computed Result: .............................................................................................................................. 447

FLUID MECHANICS
1. FLUID MECHANICS 451—462
1.1 Fluid Mechanics : Application of load and its Effects ................................................................................. 451
1.2 Properties of the fluids ..................................................................................................................................... 451
1. Density/Mass density () ............................................................................................................................. 452
2. Specific weight/ weight density (W) ......................................................................................................... 452
3. Specific Gravity (G) ....................................................................................................................................... 452
Relative Density (RD) ....................................................................................................................................... 453
1.3 Newton's Law of viscosity ............................................................................................................................... 453
1.4 Viscosity () ........................................................................................................................................................ 454
Main reason of viscosity in Liquid or Gas .................................................................................................... 454
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity ............................................................................................................... 454
Southerlan Equation ......................................................................................................................................... 455
1.5 Types of fluids .................................................................................................................................................... 455
Newtonian Fluids .............................................................................................................................................. 455
Non-Newtonian fluids ...................................................................................................................................... 455
Ideal fluids ........................................................................................................................................................... 457
1.6 Compressibility () ............................................................................................................................................ 457
1.7 Surface Tension () ............................................................................................................................................ 458
Application of surface tension ........................................................................................................................ 459
1.8 Capillarity ............................................................................................................................................................ 460
Capillary Rise / Fall ........................................................................................................................................... 460
1.9 Vapour pressure or saturated vapour pressure (Pvs) .............................................................................. 461

2. FLUID STATICS 463—467

2.1 Pressure and it’s types ...................................................................................................................................... 463
1. Atmospheric pressure (Patm), 2. Guage pressure (Pguage) ...................................................................... 464
3. Absolute Pressure (Pabs), 4. Vacuum pressure (Pvacuum) ........................................................................ 464
2.2 Hydrostatic pressure Law ............................................................................................................................... 464
2.3 Barometer ............................................................................................................................................................ 465
2.4 Manometer ......................................................................................................................................................... 465
Classification of Manometers, Piezometer .................................................................................................. 465
Simple U-tube manometer, Inclined U-tube manometer ......................................................................... 466
Inverted U-tube manometer, Characteristics of a good manometric fluid .......................................... 467
 ( xxviii )

3. HYDROSTATIC 468—470
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 468
3.2 Hydrostatic force on Plane surface body ..................................................................................................... 468
Hydrostatic force (F) or Total pressure force(F) ......................................................................................... 468
Centre of pressure for different cases on submerged body .................................................................... 469
3.3 Hydrostatic forces on curved surface ........................................................................................................... 470
Horizontal Component of Force (FH) .......................................................................................................... 470
Vertical Component of Force (FV) ................................................................................................................ 470

4. BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION 471—474

4.1 Archimede’s principle ....................................................................................................................................... 471
4.2 Centre of Buoyancy .......................................................................................................................................... 471
4.3 Principle of Floatation ....................................................................................................................................... 472
4.4 Types of equilibrium ......................................................................................................................................... 472
4.5 Stability condition for submerged body ...................................................................................................... 472
Stability condition for a completely submerged body under angular displacement ......................... 472
Stability condition for a partially submerged body under angular displacement .............................. 473
Metacentre, Metacentric height (GM), Calculation of Metacentric height ............................................ 474

5. FLUID KINEMATICS 475—483

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 475
5.2 Type of fluid flow .............................................................................................................................................. 475
1. Steady and Unsteady flow, 2. Uniform flow and Non-uniform flow ............................................... 476
3. Laminar and Turbulent Flow, 4. Rotational and Irrotational flow ..................................................... 477
5.3 Tools to study fluid flow .................................................................................................................................. 478
5.4 Velocity and acceleration ................................................................................................................................. 479
Velocity, Acceleration ....................................................................................................................................... 479
5.5 Continuity Equation ......................................................................................................................................... 480
5.6 Rotation (W) ....................................................................................................................................................... 481
5.7 Velocity potential function () ......................................................................................................................... 481
5.8 Stream Function () .......................................................................................................................................... 482
5.9 Cauchy–Reimann Equation ............................................................................................................................. 482
5.10 Circulation and vorticity .................................................................................................................................. 483
Circulation (G) .................................................................................................................................................... 483
Vorticity (W) ....................................................................................................................................................... 483

6. FLUID DYNAMICS 484—492

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 484
6.2 Euler’s and Bernoulli’s Equations of flow ..................................................................................................... 484
Assumptions of Bernoulli ................................................................................................................................ 485
6.3 Application of Bernoulli’s Equation ............................................................................................................... 485
1. Venturimeter, Inclined Venturimeter, Coefficient of Discharge (CD) ............................................... 487
General Dimensions of Venturimeter, Principle of venturimeter .......................................................... 489
2. Orificemeter .................................................................................................................................................... 489
3. Pitot tube ......................................................................................................................................................... 490
Velocity of Flow in Pipes .................................................................................................................................. 490
 ( xxix )

6.4 Vortex .................................................................................................................................................................. 491

Vortex motion, Forced Vortex motion, Free vortex motion .................................................................. 491
Generalised Equation of vortex motion, Equation for forced Vortex motion .................................... 492

7. LAMINIAR AND VISCOUS FLOW 493—500

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 493
Pressure energy in pipe flow .......................................................................................................................... 494
7.2 Pipe flow and Flow in plates ........................................................................................................................... 494
1. Pipe flow .......................................................................................................................................................... 494
2. Flow between the two Parallel Plates ....................................................................................................... 498
7.3 Correction Factor .............................................................................................................................................. 500

8. FLOW THROUGH PIPES 501—509

8.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 501
8.2 Major Loss ........................................................................................................................................................... 501
8.3 Minor loss ............................................................................................................................................................ 503
8.4 Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL) and Total Energy Line (TEL) ................................................................. 504
Rules to draw HGL and TEL ........................................................................................................................... 504
8.5 Compound pipe ................................................................................................................................................. 505
Pipes in Series, Pipes in Parallel, Equivalent Pipe ....................................................................................... 506
8.6 Power transmission through pipes ............................................................................................................... 506
8.7 Water Hammer .................................................................................................................................................. 507
Gradual closure for the valve .......................................................................................................................... 508
Sudden closure of the valve when the pipe is rigid ................................................................................... 508
Sudden closure of valve when the pipe is elastic ........................................................................................ 508
8.8 Syphon ................................................................................................................................................................. 509

9. NON–DIMENSIONALANALYSIS 510—512
9.1 Rayleigh’s – Method ......................................................................................................................................... 510
Rules for choosing repeating variables ........................................................................................................ 510
9.2 Model and Prototype ........................................................................................................................................ 511
Geometric similarity, Kinematics Similarity, Dynamic similarity ........................................................... 512

10. ORIFICES AND MOUTHPIECE 513—516

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 513
10.2 Discharge through a rectangular orifice ....................................................................................................... 514
10.3 Mouthpiece ......................................................................................................................................................... 514
Internal mouthpiece or Rentrant mouthpiece or Boarda’s Mouthpiece ............................................... 515
10.4 Boarda’s Mouthpiece ........................................................................................................................................ 516

11. NOTCHES AND WEIRS 517—520

11.1 Notch .................................................................................................................................................................... 517
11.2 Weir ...................................................................................................................................................................... 517
Discharge through a rectangular notch or weir ......................................................................................... 517
Discharge through a triangular notch or weir ............................................................................................ 518
11.3 Discharge through A Trapezoidal notch or weir ....................................................................................... 518
 ( xxx )

11.4 Cipolletti Weir .................................................................................................................................................... 518

11.5 Discharge over a broad – Crested weir ........................................................................................................ 519
11.6 OGEE Weir .......................................................................................................................................................... 519
11.7 Sutro weir ............................................................................................................................................................ 519
Velocity of approach (Va) ................................................................................................................................ 520
11.8 Submerged Flow weir ...................................................................................................................................... 520

12. BOUNDARY LAYER 521—526

12.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 521
12.2 Boundary Layer formation ............................................................................................................................. 521
12.3 Flow over flat plate ........................................................................................................................................... 522
12.4 Boundary condition ........................................................................................................................................... 522
Flow Over Flat Plate ......................................................................................................................................... 523
12.5 Boundary layer Separation .............................................................................................................................. 524
Methods to avoid Boundary layer separation ............................................................................................ 525
12.6 Factors Affecting Boundary Layer thickness .............................................................................................. 525
Blasius Equation ................................................................................................................................................. 526

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
1. GEOMETRIC DESIGN 529—539
1.1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 529
1.2 Sight Distance ..................................................................................................................................................... 529
Reaction Time ..................................................................................................................................................... 530
1.3. Overtaking sight Distance/ Passing Sight Distance ................................................................................... 530
Assumptions ....................................................................................................................................................... 530
1.4 Intermediate Sight Distance ............................................................................................................................ 531
1.5 Horizontal Element ........................................................................................................................................... 531
Centrifugal ratio /Impact Factor / Stability Factor, Effect of Centrifugal Force ................................ 532
Extra Widening of Road, Super Elevation / Banking of Road, Transition Curve ............................... 533
1.6 Vertical Element ................................................................................................................................................. 536
Gradient, Grade Compensation, Summit Curve, Valley Curve ............................................................. 537

2. TRAFFIC PARAMETERS 540—547

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 540
Breaking Characteristic Test ............................................................................................................................ 540
2.2 Traffic Parameter ............................................................................................................................................... 540
2.3 Traffic Speed ....................................................................................................................................................... 541
2.4 Traffic Density (K) ............................................................................................................................................. 542
Traffic Density According to Green - Shield Model ................................................................................... 543
2.5 Miscellaneous Topics ......................................................................................................................................... 544
Traffic Signs ......................................................................................................................................................... 545

3. PAVEMENT TESTING 548—553

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 548
1. Soil Test ........................................................................................................................................................... 548
 ( xxxi )

2. Aggregate Test .............................................................................................................................................. 549

3. Difference between Bitumen and Tar ...................................................................................................... 552

4. PAVEMENT DESIGN 554—561

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 554
Flexible Pavement, Rigid Pavements, Radius of Contact Area () ........................................................ 554
Standard Axle Load by IRC ............................................................................................................................. 555
Number of Standard Axle passing during the design life of the pavement. ........................................ 555
Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF) ........................................................................................................................ 555
4.2 Rigid Pavement Parameters ............................................................................................................................ 555
Nature of Stresses .............................................................................................................................................. 557
Critical Cases of Stress Combination ............................................................................................................ 558
4.3 Flexible pavement design methods ............................................................................................................... 558

5. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS 562—570

Friction, Terrain condition, Design speed ............................................................................................................... 562
Unevenness index, Camber, Carriageway width ................................................................................................. 563
Width of formation, General Layout diagram for road width .......................................................................... 565
Right of Way (ROW ) / Land width, Peak hour factor, Set back distance ...................................................... 565
Webster method .......................................................................................................................................................... 567
Different Department and Institution for Road development .......................................................................... 568
Various plan for highway Development in India ................................................................................................. 568
For Lucknow road plan, Length criteria, Hill roads, Resisting length in hill roads ....................................... 569
Trace cut in hill road, Bend in hill road .................................................................................................................... 570

BUILDING MATERIAL CONSTRUCTION

1. BRICK 573—578
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 573
1.2 Classification of Bricks ...................................................................................................................................... 573
1.3 Components of Bricks ...................................................................................................................................... 574
1.4 Steps of Manufacturing of Brick ..................................................................................................................... 575
Clamp and Kiln .................................................................................................................................................. 575
1.5 Testing of Brick ................................................................................................................................................... 576
1.6 Special Type of Brick ......................................................................................................................................... 577
1.7 Defect in Brick Masonry ................................................................................................................................... 578

2. BRICK MASONARY 579—584

2.1 Mortar .................................................................................................................................................................. 579
Classification of Mortar .................................................................................................................................... 579
2.2 Compressive Strength Test of Mortar .......................................................................................................... 579
2.3 Nature of Work and cement Mortar Ratio .................................................................................................. 580
2.4 Bricks on the basis of shape ............................................................................................................................. 580
2.5 Bond ...................................................................................................................................................................... 581
1. Stretcher Bond, 2. Header Bond, 3. English Bond, 4. Flemish Bond ................................................... 582
 ( xxxii )

Comparison between English and Flemish Bond ...................................................................................... 582

Types of Flemish Bond, Single Flemish Bond ............................................................................................. 583
Double Flemish Bond, Dutch Bond, Raking Bond, Garden Wall Bond ................................................. 583
2.6 Strength of Brick Masonary ............................................................................................................................ 584
Slenderness Ratio () ......................................................................................................................................... 584

3. AGGREGATE AND WATER 585—586

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 585
Classification of Aggregate ............................................................................................................................. 585
3.2 Fineness Modulus of Aggregate .................................................................................................................... 586
Water .................................................................................................................................................................... 586

4. CEMENT 587—597
4.1 Composition ....................................................................................................................................................... 587
4.2 Bouge’s compound ............................................................................................................................................ 588
4.3 Hydration Process ............................................................................................................................................. 588
4.4 Types of Cement ............................................................................................................................................... 589
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) ............................................................................................................. 589
2. Rapid Hardening Cement (IS-8041) .......................................................................................................... 589
3. Extra Rapid Hardening cement or Ultra Rapid Hardening Cement ................................................. 589
4. High Alumina Cement (IS- 6452) ............................................................................................................... 590
5. Quick setting cement .................................................................................................................................... 590
6. Color Cement or white Cement ................................................................................................................ 590
7. Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement ......................................................................................................... 591
Type of Cements along with Codes. ............................................................................................................. 591
4.5 Manufacturing of Cement ............................................................................................................................... 592
Dry Process ......................................................................................................................................................... 592
Wet Process ......................................................................................................................................................... 593
Comparison between Wet and Dry Process ............................................................................................... 594
4.6 Testing of Cement ............................................................................................................................................. 594
Permissible limits for impurities in water .................................................................................................... 594
Laboratory tests for cements .......................................................................................................................... 594
Sieve Analysis ..................................................................................................................................................... 597

5. CONCRETE 598—604
5.1 Classification of Concrete ................................................................................................................................ 598
5.2 Manufacturing step of concrete ...................................................................................................................... 599
5.3 Testing of Concrete ........................................................................................................................................... 600
Water Cement Ratio, Factors affecting the workability of concrete ..................................................... 603
5.4 Physical properties of concrete ....................................................................................................................... 603
5.5 Defect in concrete .............................................................................................................................................. 604
5.6 Aerated concrete ................................................................................................................................................ 604

6. ADMIXTURE 605
6.1 Definition ............................................................................................................................................................. 605
Types of admixture ........................................................................................................................................... 605
 ( xxxiii )

7. TIMBER 606—612
7.1 Classification of Tree ......................................................................................................................................... 606
1. Exogenous Trees 2. Endogenous Trees ............................................................................................... 606
7.2 Structure of tree ................................................................................................................................................. 607
7.3 Defect in Timber ................................................................................................................................................ 608
7.4 Seasoning of Timber (IS-1141), Method of Seasoning ............................................................................... 609
Preservation of Timber .................................................................................................................................... 609
Method of applying of preservative, Fire prevention of timber ............................................................ 611
Sir Able's Process, Fiber saturation point (F.S.P) ........................................................................................ 611
7.5 Physical properties of timber .......................................................................................................................... 611
7.6 Mechanical properties of timber .................................................................................................................... 611
7.7 Wooden product ................................................................................................................................................ 612

8. ROCK AND STONES 613—618

8.1 Classification of Rock ........................................................................................................................................ 613
1. Geological classification .............................................................................................................................. 613
2. Physical classification .................................................................................................................................. 614
3. Chemical classification ................................................................................................................................ 614
8.2 Quarrying of stone ............................................................................................................................................ 614
8.3 Dressing of stone ............................................................................................................................................... 615
8.4 Seasoning of Stone ............................................................................................................................................ 615
8.5 Testing of stone .................................................................................................................................................. 615
8.6 Classification of Rock on the Basis of Hardness ......................................................................................... 617
Requirement of Good Building Stone ........................................................................................................... 618

9. LIME 619
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 619
Type of lime ........................................................................................................................................................ 619

10. STEEL 620—621

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 620
Classification of Steel, Wrought iron, Steel .................................................................................................. 620
Cast Iron, Impurities in Steel ........................................................................................................................... 621

11. PAINTS AND GLASS 622—626

11.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 622
11.2 Manufacturing of oil paint ............................................................................................................................... 623
11.3 Water paint ......................................................................................................................................................... 623
Whitewash and Colorwash, Distemper ....................................................................................................... 623
11.4 Varnish ................................................................................................................................................................. 624
11.5 Method of applying of Paint on Surface ....................................................................................................... 624
Defects in Paint Film, Some Special Types of Paints .................................................................................. 625
11.6 Glass ...................................................................................................................................................................... 626
Formula of glass, Type of Glass, Propertise of glass, Bullet proof glass
 ( xxxiv )

12. PLASTIC 627

12.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 627
Use of Plastic in building construction, Properties of plastic

13. STAIRCASE 628

13.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 628

IRRIGATION
1. IRRIGATION AND ITS METHOD 631—634
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 631
1.2 Crop Yield and Productivity ........................................................................................................................... 631
1.3 Types of Irrigation ............................................................................................................................................. 632
1.4 Methods for Irrigation ...................................................................................................................................... 632
1. Free Flooding, 2. Check Flooding, 3. Border Flooding,
4. Basin Flooding, 5. Furrow Irrigation, 6. Sprinkler Irrigation, 7. Drip Irrigation

2. SOIL MOISTURE-PLANT RELATIONSHIP 635—638

2.1 Soil water ............................................................................................................................................................. 635
2.2 Classification of soil water ............................................................................................................................... 635
2.3 Soil moisture CONTENT .................................................................................................................................. 636
2.4 Irrigation water Quality ................................................................................................................................... 637
Permanent wilting point or Wilting coefficient

3. WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS 639—645

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 639
3.2 Crop season ........................................................................................................................................................ 639
3.3 Duty of water ..................................................................................................................................................... 640
Delta, Factors affecting duty of water ........................................................................................................... 587
3.4 Terms of irrigation ............................................................................................................................................ 642
3.5 Irrigation efficiency ........................................................................................................................................... 643
3.6 Irrigation Requirement of Crop ..................................................................................................................... 644

4. WATER – LOGGING 646—648

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 646
4.2 Soil reclaimation ................................................................................................................................................. 646
4.3 Leaching ............................................................................................................................................................... 647
4.4 Drainage system ................................................................................................................................................ 648

5. CANAL DESIGN 649—654

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 649
Classification of Canal
5.2 Sediment transport and Sediment load ........................................................................................................ 650
5.3 Mechanism of failure of bed ............................................................................................................................ 650
 ( xxxv )

5.4 Regime channel .................................................................................................................................................. 651

Kennedy's Theory, Lacey's Theory
5.5 Comparison between Kennedy’s Theory and Lacey’s Theory .............................................................. 654

6. THEORY OF SEEPAGE 655—658

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 655
Bligh’s creep theory, Lane’s weighted creep theory
6.2 Khosla’s theory .................................................................................................................................................. 656
Exit gradient
6.3 Lining of Canal ................................................................................................................................................... 657
Design of Lined irrigation canal

7. MISCELLANEOUS 659—666
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 659
Cross-section of an Irrigation canal, Berm, Freeboard, Side slope, In cutting, Dowlas
Service Road, Spoil Bank, Borrow pit, Canal Headwork, Weir, Barrage, Elements of weir
Scouring sluices, Block protection, Launching Apron, Inverted filters, Silt control devices
7.2 Dam, Gravity dam ............................................................................................................................................. 662
7.3 Forces on Gravity dam ..................................................................................................................................... 662
Stability Analysis of Dam, Canal outlet or modules, Properties of a Module
7.4 River Engineering .............................................................................................................................................. 665
Classification of Rivers, River trading work, Meandering
7.5 Cross drainage work ........................................................................................................................................ 666

RAILWAY ENGINEERING
1. COMPONENT OF TRACK 669—675
1.1 Permanent way .................................................................................................................................................. 669
1.2 Guage ................................................................................................................................................................... 669
1.3 Coning of wheels ............................................................................................................................................... 670
1.4 Rails ....................................................................................................................................................................... 670
Sleeper Density, Type of Rail joint, Defect in rail ....................................................................................... 671
1.5 Ballasts .................................................................................................................................................................. 673
Types of ballast, Depth of Ballast, Specification for Ballast ....................................................................... 674
1.6 Sub grade ............................................................................................................................................................. 674
1.7 Sleeper .................................................................................................................................................................. 674

2. ENGINEERING PARAMETER 676—682

2.1 Geometric Design .............................................................................................................................................. 676
Gradient, Gauge Distance, Grade Compensation in Indian railway ...................................................... 676
Degree of curve (Do), Versine of curve ....................................................................................................... 677
Maximum Degree and Minimum Radius of curve by Indian railway ................................................... 677
Resistance for train movement by Indian railway ..................................................................................... 677
Super Elevation (cant), Cant Deficiency and Cant excess ........................................................................ 678
 ( xxxvi )

Negative Super elevation, Transition Curve ............................................................................................... 679

Length of transition curve, Maximum permissible speed on track ........................................................ 681
Widening of guages on curve ......................................................................................................................... 682

3. POINTS AND CROSSING 683—687

3.1 Turnouts .............................................................................................................................................................. 683
3.2 Crossing ............................................................................................................................................................... 685
3.3 Diamond crossing .............................................................................................................................................. 687
2 Consolidated Concepts of Civil Engineering
 Hydrology 3

CHAPTER
Precipitation and
1 its Measurement
Hydrology is the subject that deals with occurrence, circulation, distribution of water resource i.e.
charging and discharging of water resource on surface of Earth.

1.1 WORLD’S WATER RESOURCES

 Total water available
 96.5% water on earth surface present in ocean.
 Remaining 1.7% is present in Polar ice.
 1.7% of total water present in ground water.
 0.1% present in surface and atmospheric water system.
 Total water – 1380 million km3
 Saline water – 97.2% of available water
 Fresh water – 2.8% of available water
 Glacier [Polar ice] – 2.15% of available water
 Deep ground water – 32% of available water
[Depth > 800m]

Note : 0.3% of fresh water is available for human use.

0.3
=  1380 = 4.14 million km3
100

Water resources in India are as follows:

 Annual average rainfall (Precipitation) = 119.4 cm (highly enveven)
 Annual average precipitation of world is = 75.2 cm
 Geographic Area = 3.28 × 106 km2
 Volume of water = 3.28 × 106 × 119.4 × 10 – 5
= 3916 km2
 4 Consolidated Concepts of Civil Engineering

Note : The per capita available water for Indian people:

1. is less than other countries as we have 4% of world’s average annual water supply and
16% of world’s population.
2. We (human) use 20% of available water.
3. Amazon river carries 17% of total flow of world.

1.2 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

• The circulation of water in any form (solid, liquid, gas) between earth and atmosphere is
hydrological cycle.
• Water from earth exist in space in region called hydrosphere [reach upto 15 km in atmosphere].
• Sun and coriolis forces are responsible for the occurrence of hydrological cycle.

Components of hydrological cycle

– Evaporation – Precipitation – Interception
– Infilteraton – Transpiration – Runoff
– Evapo-transpiration

Precipitation
The form in which water reaches to surface of Earth is called precipitation.
Various forms of Precipitation
1. Rain: Water droplets having size (0.5-6 mm) and intensity > 1 mm/hr.
Based on intensity of rain, it is classified as:
(a) Light rain – 0 – 2.5 mm/hr
(b) Medium rain – 2.5 – 7.5 mm/hr
(c) Heavy rain – > 7.5 mm/hr.
2. Snowfall: Precipitation in form of ice having size < 1 mm and densty of 0.1g/cm3.
3. Drizzle: Small size water droplets ( 0.5 mm) and intensity < 1 mm/hr. Generally this appear to
float in air.
4. Glaze: When water reaches the ground having temperature less than 0°C then water freezes
and forms cooling called glaze.
5. Sleet: It is frozen rain drops. Size of sleet is 1-5 mm.
6. Hail: Size of hail is >8 mm. Large size snow having size 5 to 50mm.
7. Dew:s Evaporated water on day yets precipitation in hight called dew.

Precipitation Fall speed

• Drizzle drops 1 m/s
• Rain drops 10 m/s
• Hail drop 20-50 m/s
 SOIL MECHANICS
1. Properties of soil

2. Soil hydraulics

3. Compressibility and Compaction

4. Shear strength of soil

5. Earth pressure theory

6. Bearing capacity of soil

7. Vertical stresses
 Soil Mechanics 39

(i) This term is used for cohesion less soils only

(ii) Density index of soil represent relative compactness (%compaction)
• ID = 0 emax = e soil is in loosest state
• ID = 100% emin = e Soil is in densest state
• Overall value — 0  ID  100 (Theoretical value)
• For sand particles — ID = 94% (Practical value)

1 1

 d min  d
ID =
1 1

 d min  dmax

Density Index Classification

0-15 Very loose
15-35 Loose
35-65 Medium
65-85 Dense
85-100 Very dense

Properties Relationship Governing Parameters

Plasticity
Better Foundation Material
upon remoulding
Compressibility
Rate of loss in shear strength
with increase in water content
Strength of Plastic Limit
 Plasticity index
 Consistency index
 Liquid Limit
 Flow index
 Toughness index

Toughness Index (IT)

(i) The ratio of plasticity index to flow index is known as toughness index
(ii) Toughness Index represents the gain of shear strength with decrease in water content of soil.
IP Plasticity Index
IT = =
IF Flow Index
 40 Consolidated Concepts of Civil Engineering

Shrinkage Index (IS )

Total Volume of Solid Mass

VL

VP

VS

Semi-Solid Plastic Liquid

Solid State
State State State

WS WP WL
Water content (%)

IS = WP – WS
• IS = 0 then W p = Ws  (Practically not exist)
• IS = +Ve W p > Ws Exist
• IS = (–) W p < WS Practically not exist
then IS = 0 (Shrinkage index cannot be negative : It’s minimum value is 0)
Volumetric Shrinkage (V.S.)
 V  Vf 
V.S =  i   100
 Vd 
Vi = Volume of soil at water content Wi.
Vf = Volume of soil at water content Wf.
Vd = Volume of dry mass.

Shrinkage Ratio (S.R)

V.S Wi = Initial water content
S.R. = W  W
i f Wf = final water content

Note : The shrinkage ratio of soil is numerically equal to mass specific gravity when equal to dry
condition
d
S.R. =
w

Collapsibility:
Sudden large decrease in volume due to increase in water content at same pressure is called
collapsibility.
Example: Loess soil
V e H
Collapsible Potential (C.P.) =  
Vo 1  eo H
 Soil Mechanics 41

V = change in volume
Vo = original in volume
e = change in void ratio
eo = original void ratio
C.P. Effects
0-1 No trouble
1-5 Moderate
5-10 Trouble
10-20 Severe trouble
> 20 Very severe trouble

1.9 CLAY MINEROLOGY

Clay minerals
Mineral units

Silica unit (S) Octahedral unit(G)

Tetrahedral unit Al60 –  gibbsite
(Si40– ) Fe60 –  Ferrisite
It is denoted by It is denoted by

1. Kaolinite Minerals 1:1

S G
(i) Unit Ratio S : G = 1 : 1, Where, S = silica, G = Gibsite
Kaolinite
(ii) Maximum strength and stability because hydrogen Al2Si2O5(OH)4

bond is strongest
(iii) Least plastic minerals (Ip = Min) 7°A

(iv) Minimum shrinkage and minimum swelling

(v) Least active mineral  A = 0.4 to 0.5
(vi) Particle Size = 500 to 1000 A0
e.g. China clay
2. Montmorillonite Mineral
(i) • Unit Ratio S:G=2:1
• Unit size 9.6Ao 10A0
• bonded by H2O Molecule bond
 Soil Mechanics 55

Zt
KV 
 Z1   Z 2   Zn 
    .....   
 K1   K 2   Kn  ht
qt
KH > KV
z1 k1
z2 k2
z3 k3

zn kn

qt

2.5 WELL HYDRAULICS

Aquifer
• It is a geological formation which contains some water and this water can be extracted by
pumping.
• Aquifers are of 2 types:
1. Unconfined Aquifer.
(i) The acquifers in which atmospheric pressure is exerted over water table
(ii) It is also known as free Aquifer or non-artesian aquifer
2. Confined Aquifer
(i) the aquifers in which overburden pressure of impermeable rock layer is exerted over
water table.
(ii) It is also known as artesian aquifer.
Unconfined Aquifer

dy

dx
Steady H
permeable
y
h

x
Impermeable
r
R
 56 Consolidated Concepts of Civil Engineering

Where, R = Radius of Influence

q

1.36k H2  h 2  r = Radius of well
Dupit’s Equation
log 10  R/r  k = Coefficient of Permeability

Confined Aquifer

Impermeable

H
y
B h Permeable

r
R
x
2.72 kB  H  h 
Dupit’s Equation q B = depth of permeable layer
log 10  R /r 
Transmissibility (T)
It represents the discharge of water through aquifer under 1m height of aquifer. It is calculated by
product of coefficient of permeability and thickness of aquifer.
[T = Coefficient of Permeability × Thickness of Aquifer]
For Confined, T  kB

For unconfined, Units m2/s T  kH

Coefficient of absolute permeability (K o )

This permeability is independent on fluid properties

Ko = K
w
Unit = cm2, Darcy
1 Darcy = 0.987 × 10–8 cm2
Note: It is also called intrinsic permeability or specific permeability.

2.6 SOIL WATER

Soil Water

Gravity water or Capillary water Adsorbed Water Structural

Ground water or water
Gravitation water or
Free water or
Hygroscopic Film water
water
268 Consolidated Concepts of Civil Engineering

CHAPTER

11 Plastic Analysis
11.1 PLASTIC THEORY
• Applied for Ductile structures.
• Applied to the elements of material where high plastic region exist.
• Can be applied better with indeterminate structures.
• Applied to Ductile indeterminate structures i.e. Rigid jointed structure, steel frame.
• Redistribution of stresses are actual background of plastic theory.
Elastic section modulus (Ze): Ratio of moment of inertia to ymax.
I
Ze =
ymax
Plastic section modulus (Zp): First moment of area about plastic
neutral axis (N.A.). Ac yc

Z p = Ac yc  A t yt Plastic N.A. yt
At
Shape factor (S): It is the ratio of platic section modulus to elastic
section modulus.
ZP
S =
Ze

Section Shape factor (S)

Rectangle 1.5
Solid circular 1.7

1  K3 
Hollow circular 1.7  4
 1  K 
Dimond 2
Thin hollow rhombus 1.5
T-section 1.90-1.95
 Design of Steel Structure 269

I-section
(a) about strong axis 1.12
(b) about weak axis 1.55
Triangle (vertex upward) 2.34
Inverted triangle 2
Inner Diameter
where K =
Outer Diameter

11.2 COLLAPSE LOADS (WC)

1. Simply supported beam with concentrated load at center.
4M P
Wc =
L
where MP = plastic moment
L = span length.
16M P
2. Simply supported beam with UDL. Wc =
L
3. Propped cantilever beam with concentrated load at center.
6M P
Wc =
L
4. Fixed beam with concentrated load at center.
8M P
Wc =
L
w

a b
2L
5. Wc = MP
ab
L

wkN/m

16MP
6. Wc =
L2
L

wkN/m

11.656MP
Wc =
L L L2
 DESIGN OF
STEEL STRUCTURE
1. Design of Steel Structures
2. Riveting / Bolting
3. Welded Connections
4. Design of Tension Member
5. Compression Members (Buckling is Main design issue)
6. Design of Lacings
7. Column Splices
8. Design of Flexural Members
9. Gantry Girders and Plate Girders
10. Roof Trusses
11. Plastic Analysis