Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Civil Engineering
(Crust to Core with One Liner Concepts)
Contents
HYDROLOGY
1. PRECIPITATION AND ITS MEASUREMENT 3—12
1.1 World’s Water Resources .................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Hydrological Cycle ................................................................................................................................................ 4
1.3 Types of Precipitation ........................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Measurement of Precipitation ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.5 Draught .................................................................................................................................................................. 11
4. HYDROGRAPH 20—22
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 20
4.2 Unit Hydrograph ................................................................................................................................................. 20
4.3 Infiltration Indices ................................................................................................................................................ 22
4.4 Runoff Computation .......................................................................................................................................... 22
SOIL MECHANICS
1. PROPERTIES OF SOIL 3—24
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 27
1.2 Geological Cycle .................................................................................................................................................. 27
1.3 Types of Soil .......................................................................................................................................................... 27
1.4 Properties of Soil .................................................................................................................................................. 28
1.5 Index Properties ................................................................................................................................................... 29
1.6 Laboratory Determination ................................................................................................................................ 32
1.7 Consistency of soil ............................................................................................................................................... 35
Consistency limit, Laboratory Determination .............................................................................................. 35
Casargrande’s Method ....................................................................................................................................... 36
( xii )
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
1. WATER DEMAND 97—101
1.1 Population Forecasting ....................................................................................................................................... 97
(a) Arithmetic Increase Method (AIM) ............................................................................................................ 97
(b) Geometric Increase Method (GIM) ............................................................................................................ 97
(c) Incremental Increase Method (IIM) ........................................................................................................... 98
(d) Logistic Curve Method ................................................................................................................................ 98
1.2 Per Capita Demand ............................................................................................................................................. 99
1.3 Types of Demands ............................................................................................................................................... 99
1. Domestic water demand, 2. Industrial water demand, 3. Commercial and Institutional
Water Demand, 4. Demand for Public use, 5. Theft and Losses, 6. Fire Demand
1.4 Factors Affecting Water Demand ................................................................................................................. 101
1.5 Peak Factor ......................................................................................................................................................... 101
BASIC MEASUREMENT
1. BASIC MEASUREMENT 173—176
1.1 Estimate ............................................................................................................................................................... 173
1.2 Soling, Brick size ................................................................................................................................................ 174
1.3 DPC - Damp proof course ............................................................................................................................... 175
1.4 Earth work .......................................................................................................................................................... 175
1.5 Stone and Brick Work ...................................................................................................................................... 175
1.6 Steel and Iron work ........................................................................................................................................... 175
1.7 Plastering and Pointing .................................................................................................................................... 175
Degree of accuracy in estimation ................................................................................................................... 176
2. VALUATION 177—180
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 177
2.2 Purpose of valuation ......................................................................................................................................... 177
2.3. Rent Fixation, Types of Expenditure ............................................................................................................. 177
2.4 Scrap Value ......................................................................................................................................................... 178
2.5 Salvage Value ..................................................................................................................................................... 178
2.6 Sinking Fund ....................................................................................................................................................... 178
2.7 Market Value ...................................................................................................................................................... 178
2.8 Book Value .......................................................................................................................................................... 178
2.9 Depreciation ........................................................................................................................................................ 179
1. Straight Line Method, 2. Constant Percentage Method ...................................................................... 179
2.10 Mortgage Loan ................................................................................................................................................... 179
2.11 Free hold property ............................................................................................................................................ 179
2.12 Lease hold property .......................................................................................................................................... 180
2.13 Capital Cost ........................................................................................................................................................ 180
2.14 Year purchased ................................................................................................................................................... 180
2.15 Capitalised value ................................................................................................................................................ 180
2.16 Annuity ................................................................................................................................................................ 180
2.17 Distress value ...................................................................................................................................................... 180
2.18 Sentimental value .............................................................................................................................................. 180
2.19 Rateable value .................................................................................................................................................... 180
2.20 Accommodation value ..................................................................................................................................... 180
STRENGTH OF MATERIAL
1. PROPERTIES OF METALS, STRESS AND STRAIN 273—283
1.1 Important Mechanical Properties ................................................................................................................... 273
1.2 Stress and Strain ................................................................................................................................................. 274
Stress, Strain ........................................................................................................................................................ 275
1.3 Stress-Strain curve of Mild Steel for Tension Under Static-Loading ....................................................... 275
1.4 Modulus of Elasticity ......................................................................................................................................... 276
1.5 Types of Failure in metal .................................................................................................................................. 276
Tension failure in Metal, Compression failure in Metal ............................................................................ 277
1.6 Stress-Strain diagram for various type of Steel/Material ......................................................................... 277
Ductile Material, Brittle Material, Behaviors of various materials .......................................................... 278
1.7 Deflection of various member under loading condition .......................................................................... 278
Axial Elongation (D) of Prismatic Bar due to External Load .................................................................... 278
Deflection of Bar (D) due to Self-weight ....................................................................................................... 279
Deflection (D) of Tapered Bar ......................................................................................................................... 279
1.8 Equivalent Young’s modulus of Parallel composite bar ........................................................................... 279
1.9 Elastic constants ................................................................................................................................................. 280
1.10 Poission’s Ratio 280
Value of for various materials, Relation between E, G, K, 280
1.11 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN ................................................................................................................................... 281
Under Tri-axial Loading, Under Hydrostatic Loading .............................................................................. 281
Uni-Axial Loading on Rectangular Parallel piped ...................................................................................... 281
Triaxial loading on Rectangular Parallel Piped ............................................................................................ 282
Volumetric Strain of Cylindrical Bar ............................................................................................................. 282
( xxi )
6. TORSION 305—309
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 305
Torsion Equation, Assumptions of Torsion Equation ............................................................................... 305
6.2 Polar Moment of Inertial for different sections .......................................................................................... 306
6.3 Relationship between Bending stress and shear stress ............................................................................. 306
Ratio of Bending Stress to Shear Stress ........................................................................................................ 307
Ratio of Shear Stress to Bending Stress ........................................................................................................ 307
( xxii )
7. COLUMN 310—314
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 310
7.2 Euler’s Theory .................................................................................................................................................... 310
Euler buckling load ............................................................................................................................................ 310
7.3 Effective length ................................................................................................................................................... 311
7.4 Euler’s Critical Stress/Euler buckling stress ................................................................................................ 312
Slenderness Ratio (l) .......................................................................................................................................... 312
7.5 Euler’s Critical Stress ......................................................................................................................................... 312
7.6 Rankine theory ................................................................................................................................................... 312
7.7 Rankine Merchant theory ................................................................................................................................ 313
No Tension Zone ............................................................................................................................................... 313
7.8 Strain Energy ...................................................................................................................................................... 313
Strain Energy Due to Axial loading or Direct loading ............................................................................... 313
8. SPRING 315—316
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 315
Closed coiled spring, Open coiled spring ..................................................................................................... 315
8.2 Arrangement of springs ................................................................................................................................... 316
Springs in series ................................................................................................................................................. 316
Springs in parallel .............................................................................................................................................. 316
3. DESIGN 369—381
3.1 Design of Beams ................................................................................................................................................ 369
3.2 Control of Deflection ........................................................................................................................................ 371
3.3 Permissible values of Deflection ..................................................................................................................... 371
3.4 Side face Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................... 372
3.5 Exposure Conditions ........................................................................................................................................ 372
( xxiv )
SURVEYING
1. BASIC OF SURVEYING 401—404
1.1 Well-conditioned Triangle ............................................................................................................................... 401
1.2 Types of Chain Lines ........................................................................................................................................ 401
1.3 Error and Correction ........................................................................................................................................ 402
Sources of Error, Types of Error, Errors in Chaining ................................................................................ 403
1.4 Tapes ..................................................................................................................................................................... 403
Tape correction ................................................................................................................................................... 404
( xxv )
4. TRAVERSING 414—417
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 414
Methods of Angular Measurement, Direct Angle, Deflection Angle ..................................................... 414
4.2 Latitude and Departure .................................................................................................................................... 415
Checks in closed traverse, Closing Error or Error of Closure ................................................................ 415
4.3 Relative Error of closure (Re) .......................................................................................................................... 416
4.4 Adjustment of Traverse ................................................................................................................................... 416
1. Arbitrary Rule, 2. Bowditch Rule, 3.Transit Rule
5. THEODOLITE 418—419
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 418
Types of Theodolite ........................................................................................................................................... 418
5.2 Terms in Theodolite .......................................................................................................................................... 418
5.3 Methods of Measurement of horizontal angles .......................................................................................... 419
Repetition Method, Reiteration Method ...................................................................................................... 419
5.4 Types of Vernier ................................................................................................................................................ 419
6. TACHEOMETRY 420—423
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 420
6.2 Method of tacheometry ................................................................................................................................... 420
6.3 Distance formula ................................................................................................................................................ 421
Static method, Movable Hair Method, Tangential Method: .................................................................... 423
( xxvi )
9. CURVES 430—434
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 430
Types of Curves ................................................................................................................................................. 430
9.2 Horizontal Curve .............................................................................................................................................. 430
9.3 Element of a simple circular Curve ............................................................................................................... 431
Relation between Degree (D) and Radius ® Curve ................................................................................... 431
9.4 Setting Out of a Simple Curve ........................................................................................................................ 432
Methods of Setting Out .................................................................................................................................... 432
Rankine method of Deflection Angle, Two Theodolite Method ............................................................. 434
FLUID MECHANICS
1. FLUID MECHANICS 451—462
1.1 Fluid Mechanics : Application of load and its Effects ................................................................................. 451
1.2 Properties of the fluids ..................................................................................................................................... 451
1. Density/Mass density () ............................................................................................................................. 452
2. Specific weight/ weight density (W) ......................................................................................................... 452
3. Specific Gravity (G) ....................................................................................................................................... 452
Relative Density (RD) ....................................................................................................................................... 453
1.3 Newton's Law of viscosity ............................................................................................................................... 453
1.4 Viscosity () ........................................................................................................................................................ 454
Main reason of viscosity in Liquid or Gas .................................................................................................... 454
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity ............................................................................................................... 454
Southerlan Equation ......................................................................................................................................... 455
1.5 Types of fluids .................................................................................................................................................... 455
Newtonian Fluids .............................................................................................................................................. 455
Non-Newtonian fluids ...................................................................................................................................... 455
Ideal fluids ........................................................................................................................................................... 457
1.6 Compressibility () ............................................................................................................................................ 457
1.7 Surface Tension () ............................................................................................................................................ 458
Application of surface tension ........................................................................................................................ 459
1.8 Capillarity ............................................................................................................................................................ 460
Capillary Rise / Fall ........................................................................................................................................... 460
1.9 Vapour pressure or saturated vapour pressure (Pvs) .............................................................................. 461
3. HYDROSTATIC 468—470
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 468
3.2 Hydrostatic force on Plane surface body ..................................................................................................... 468
Hydrostatic force (F) or Total pressure force(F) ......................................................................................... 468
Centre of pressure for different cases on submerged body .................................................................... 469
3.3 Hydrostatic forces on curved surface ........................................................................................................... 470
Horizontal Component of Force (FH) .......................................................................................................... 470
Vertical Component of Force (FV) ................................................................................................................ 470
9. NON–DIMENSIONALANALYSIS 510—512
9.1 Rayleigh’s – Method ......................................................................................................................................... 510
Rules for choosing repeating variables ........................................................................................................ 510
9.2 Model and Prototype ........................................................................................................................................ 511
Geometric similarity, Kinematics Similarity, Dynamic similarity ........................................................... 512
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
1. GEOMETRIC DESIGN 529—539
1.1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................... 529
1.2 Sight Distance ..................................................................................................................................................... 529
Reaction Time ..................................................................................................................................................... 530
1.3. Overtaking sight Distance/ Passing Sight Distance ................................................................................... 530
Assumptions ....................................................................................................................................................... 530
1.4 Intermediate Sight Distance ............................................................................................................................ 531
1.5 Horizontal Element ........................................................................................................................................... 531
Centrifugal ratio /Impact Factor / Stability Factor, Effect of Centrifugal Force ................................ 532
Extra Widening of Road, Super Elevation / Banking of Road, Transition Curve ............................... 533
1.6 Vertical Element ................................................................................................................................................. 536
Gradient, Grade Compensation, Summit Curve, Valley Curve ............................................................. 537
4. CEMENT 587—597
4.1 Composition ....................................................................................................................................................... 587
4.2 Bouge’s compound ............................................................................................................................................ 588
4.3 Hydration Process ............................................................................................................................................. 588
4.4 Types of Cement ............................................................................................................................................... 589
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) ............................................................................................................. 589
2. Rapid Hardening Cement (IS-8041) .......................................................................................................... 589
3. Extra Rapid Hardening cement or Ultra Rapid Hardening Cement ................................................. 589
4. High Alumina Cement (IS- 6452) ............................................................................................................... 590
5. Quick setting cement .................................................................................................................................... 590
6. Color Cement or white Cement ................................................................................................................ 590
7. Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement ......................................................................................................... 591
Type of Cements along with Codes. ............................................................................................................. 591
4.5 Manufacturing of Cement ............................................................................................................................... 592
Dry Process ......................................................................................................................................................... 592
Wet Process ......................................................................................................................................................... 593
Comparison between Wet and Dry Process ............................................................................................... 594
4.6 Testing of Cement ............................................................................................................................................. 594
Permissible limits for impurities in water .................................................................................................... 594
Laboratory tests for cements .......................................................................................................................... 594
Sieve Analysis ..................................................................................................................................................... 597
5. CONCRETE 598—604
5.1 Classification of Concrete ................................................................................................................................ 598
5.2 Manufacturing step of concrete ...................................................................................................................... 599
5.3 Testing of Concrete ........................................................................................................................................... 600
Water Cement Ratio, Factors affecting the workability of concrete ..................................................... 603
5.4 Physical properties of concrete ....................................................................................................................... 603
5.5 Defect in concrete .............................................................................................................................................. 604
5.6 Aerated concrete ................................................................................................................................................ 604
6. ADMIXTURE 605
6.1 Definition ............................................................................................................................................................. 605
Types of admixture ........................................................................................................................................... 605
( xxxiii )
7. TIMBER 606—612
7.1 Classification of Tree ......................................................................................................................................... 606
1. Exogenous Trees 2. Endogenous Trees ............................................................................................... 606
7.2 Structure of tree ................................................................................................................................................. 607
7.3 Defect in Timber ................................................................................................................................................ 608
7.4 Seasoning of Timber (IS-1141), Method of Seasoning ............................................................................... 609
Preservation of Timber .................................................................................................................................... 609
Method of applying of preservative, Fire prevention of timber ............................................................ 611
Sir Able's Process, Fiber saturation point (F.S.P) ........................................................................................ 611
7.5 Physical properties of timber .......................................................................................................................... 611
7.6 Mechanical properties of timber .................................................................................................................... 611
7.7 Wooden product ................................................................................................................................................ 612
9. LIME 619
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 619
Type of lime ........................................................................................................................................................ 619
IRRIGATION
1. IRRIGATION AND ITS METHOD 631—634
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 631
1.2 Crop Yield and Productivity ........................................................................................................................... 631
1.3 Types of Irrigation ............................................................................................................................................. 632
1.4 Methods for Irrigation ...................................................................................................................................... 632
1. Free Flooding, 2. Check Flooding, 3. Border Flooding,
4. Basin Flooding, 5. Furrow Irrigation, 6. Sprinkler Irrigation, 7. Drip Irrigation
7. MISCELLANEOUS 659—666
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 659
Cross-section of an Irrigation canal, Berm, Freeboard, Side slope, In cutting, Dowlas
Service Road, Spoil Bank, Borrow pit, Canal Headwork, Weir, Barrage, Elements of weir
Scouring sluices, Block protection, Launching Apron, Inverted filters, Silt control devices
7.2 Dam, Gravity dam ............................................................................................................................................. 662
7.3 Forces on Gravity dam ..................................................................................................................................... 662
Stability Analysis of Dam, Canal outlet or modules, Properties of a Module
7.4 River Engineering .............................................................................................................................................. 665
Classification of Rivers, River trading work, Meandering
7.5 Cross drainage work ........................................................................................................................................ 666
RAILWAY ENGINEERING
1. COMPONENT OF TRACK 669—675
1.1 Permanent way .................................................................................................................................................. 669
1.2 Guage ................................................................................................................................................................... 669
1.3 Coning of wheels ............................................................................................................................................... 670
1.4 Rails ....................................................................................................................................................................... 670
Sleeper Density, Type of Rail joint, Defect in rail ....................................................................................... 671
1.5 Ballasts .................................................................................................................................................................. 673
Types of ballast, Depth of Ballast, Specification for Ballast ....................................................................... 674
1.6 Sub grade ............................................................................................................................................................. 674
1.7 Sleeper .................................................................................................................................................................. 674
CHAPTER
Precipitation and
1 its Measurement
Hydrology is the subject that deals with occurrence, circulation, distribution of water resource i.e.
charging and discharging of water resource on surface of Earth.
Precipitation
The form in which water reaches to surface of Earth is called precipitation.
Various forms of Precipitation
1. Rain: Water droplets having size (0.5-6 mm) and intensity > 1 mm/hr.
Based on intensity of rain, it is classified as:
(a) Light rain – 0 – 2.5 mm/hr
(b) Medium rain – 2.5 – 7.5 mm/hr
(c) Heavy rain – > 7.5 mm/hr.
2. Snowfall: Precipitation in form of ice having size < 1 mm and densty of 0.1g/cm3.
3. Drizzle: Small size water droplets ( 0.5 mm) and intensity < 1 mm/hr. Generally this appear to
float in air.
4. Glaze: When water reaches the ground having temperature less than 0°C then water freezes
and forms cooling called glaze.
5. Sleet: It is frozen rain drops. Size of sleet is 1-5 mm.
6. Hail: Size of hail is >8 mm. Large size snow having size 5 to 50mm.
7. Dew:s Evaporated water on day yets precipitation in hight called dew.
2. Soil hydraulics
7. Vertical stresses
Soil Mechanics 39
1 1
d min d
ID =
1 1
d min dmax
VP
VS
WS WP WL
Water content (%)
IS = WP – WS
• IS = 0 then W p = Ws (Practically not exist)
• IS = +Ve W p > Ws Exist
• IS = (–) W p < WS Practically not exist
then IS = 0 (Shrinkage index cannot be negative : It’s minimum value is 0)
Volumetric Shrinkage (V.S.)
V Vf
V.S = i 100
Vd
Vi = Volume of soil at water content Wi.
Vf = Volume of soil at water content Wf.
Vd = Volume of dry mass.
Note : The shrinkage ratio of soil is numerically equal to mass specific gravity when equal to dry
condition
d
S.R. =
w
Collapsibility:
Sudden large decrease in volume due to increase in water content at same pressure is called
collapsibility.
Example: Loess soil
V e H
Collapsible Potential (C.P.) =
Vo 1 eo H
Soil Mechanics 41
V = change in volume
Vo = original in volume
e = change in void ratio
eo = original void ratio
C.P. Effects
0-1 No trouble
1-5 Moderate
5-10 Trouble
10-20 Severe trouble
> 20 Very severe trouble
Clay minerals
Mineral units
bond is strongest
(iii) Least plastic minerals (Ip = Min) 7°A
Zt
KV
Z1 Z 2 Zn
.....
K1 K 2 Kn ht
qt
KH > KV
z1 k1
z2 k2
z3 k3
zn kn
qt
Aquifer
• It is a geological formation which contains some water and this water can be extracted by
pumping.
• Aquifers are of 2 types:
1. Unconfined Aquifer.
(i) The acquifers in which atmospheric pressure is exerted over water table
(ii) It is also known as free Aquifer or non-artesian aquifer
2. Confined Aquifer
(i) the aquifers in which overburden pressure of impermeable rock layer is exerted over
water table.
(ii) It is also known as artesian aquifer.
Unconfined Aquifer
dy
dx
Steady H
permeable
y
h
x
Impermeable
r
R
56 Consolidated Concepts of Civil Engineering
Confined Aquifer
Impermeable
H
y
B h Permeable
r
R
x
2.72 kB H h
Dupit’s Equation q B = depth of permeable layer
log 10 R /r
Transmissibility (T)
It represents the discharge of water through aquifer under 1m height of aquifer. It is calculated by
product of coefficient of permeability and thickness of aquifer.
[T = Coefficient of Permeability × Thickness of Aquifer]
For Confined, T kB
CHAPTER
11 Plastic Analysis
11.1 PLASTIC THEORY
• Applied for Ductile structures.
• Applied to the elements of material where high plastic region exist.
• Can be applied better with indeterminate structures.
• Applied to Ductile indeterminate structures i.e. Rigid jointed structure, steel frame.
• Redistribution of stresses are actual background of plastic theory.
Elastic section modulus (Ze): Ratio of moment of inertia to ymax.
I
Ze =
ymax
Plastic section modulus (Zp): First moment of area about plastic
neutral axis (N.A.). Ac yc
Z p = Ac yc A t yt Plastic N.A. yt
At
Shape factor (S): It is the ratio of platic section modulus to elastic
section modulus.
ZP
S =
Ze
1 K3
Hollow circular 1.7 4
1 K
Dimond 2
Thin hollow rhombus 1.5
T-section 1.90-1.95
Design of Steel Structure 269
I-section
(a) about strong axis 1.12
(b) about weak axis 1.55
Triangle (vertex upward) 2.34
Inverted triangle 2
Inner Diameter
where K =
Outer Diameter
a b
2L
5. Wc = MP
ab
L
wkN/m
16MP
6. Wc =
L2
L
wkN/m
11.656MP
Wc =
L L L2
DESIGN OF
STEEL STRUCTURE
1. Design of Steel Structures
2. Riveting / Bolting
3. Welded Connections
4. Design of Tension Member
5. Compression Members (Buckling is Main design issue)
6. Design of Lacings
7. Column Splices
8. Design of Flexural Members
9. Gantry Girders and Plate Girders
10. Roof Trusses
11. Plastic Analysis