TABLE OF CONTENTS

NOMENCLATURE .............................................................................................................................. 1

DEFINITION OF TERMS.................................................................................................................... 3

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 5

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 5

1.2 Statement of the Problem ......................................................................................................... 7

1.3 Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 8

1.4 Significance of the Study.......................................................................................................... 8

1.4.1 Residents of Cebu City ..................................................................................................... 9

1.4.2 Industrial Designers .......................................................................................................... 9

1.4.3 Small- and Large-Scale Foundries .................................................................................... 9

1.4.4 Academe .......................................................................................................................... 9

1.4.5 Researchers .................................................................................................................... 10

1.5 Scope and Limitations ............................................................................................................ 10

1.5.1 Scope ............................................................................................................................. 10

1.5.2 Limitations ..................................................................................................................... 11

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND .................................................................................................... 12

2.1 Hardness ................................................................................................................................ 12

2.1.1 Rockwell Hardness Number ........................................................................................... 12

2.1.2 Brinell Hardness Number ............................................................................................... 13

2.1.3 Vickers’ Hardness Number ............................................................................................. 14

2.2 Tensile Stress and Strain ........................................................................................................ 14

2.3 Flexural Stress and Strain ....................................................................................................... 16

2.4 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity ............................................................................................... 17

2.5 Characteristics of Coconut Shells and the Composition of Coconut Shell Ash......................... 18

2.6 Effect of Coconut Shell Ash on Metal .................................................................................... 18

 2.7 Effect on Silicon on Aluminum .............................................................................................. 19

2.8 Effect of Magnesium Compounds on Aluminum .................................................................... 20

2.9 Effect of Particle Size on Mechanical Properties ..................................................................... 20

2.10 Contaminants of the Coconut Shells ....................................................................................... 21

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .......................................................................................... 22

3.1 Production of Recycled Aluminum ......................................................................................... 22

3.2 Aluminum Recycling in the Philippine Setting ....................................................................... 22

3.3 Status of Coconut Shell Wastes in the Philippines .................................................................. 23

3.4 Preparation of Aluminum Beverage Cans ............................................................................... 24

3.5 Sorting of Aluminum Beverage Cans ..................................................................................... 24

3.6 Comminution or Crushing ...................................................................................................... 24

3.7 Furnace Preparation of Aluminum Beverage Cans .................................................................. 25

3.8 Sand Casting of Aluminum .................................................................................................... 25

3.9 Melting the Aluminum Cans in the Furnace ............................................................................ 27

3.10 Stir Casting ............................................................................................................................ 28

3.11 Dross and Slag of Molten Aluminum...................................................................................... 28

3.12 Casting of Molten Metal......................................................................................................... 29

3.13 Cooling of the Casted Metal ................................................................................................... 30

3.14 Defects in the Casting Process ................................................................................................ 31

3.15 Increasing of Strength ............................................................................................................ 32

3.16 Mechanical Properties of Primary and Recycled Aluminum.................................................... 33

3.17 Tensile Strength of Recycled Aluminum ................................................................................ 34

3.18 Tensile Strength of Primary Aluminum .................................................................................. 34

3.19 Compressive Strength of Recycled Aluminum........................................................................ 35

3.20 Young’s Modulus................................................................................................................... 36

METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 37

4.1 Process Flow Chart ................................................................................................................ 37

 4.2 Design Procedures.................................................................................................................. 38

4.2.1 Design of the Casting Mold for the Tensile Test Specimen ............................................. 38

4.2.2 Design of the Tensile Test Specimen .............................................................................. 39

4.2.3 Design of the Casting Mold for the Hardness Test Specimen .......................................... 39

4.2.4 Design of the Hardness Test Specimen ........................................................................... 41

4.2.5 Design of the Casting Mold for the Flexure Test Specimen ............................................. 41

4.2.6 Design of the Flexure Test Specimen .............................................................................. 42

4.3 Materials and Equipment ........................................................................................................ 43

4.3.1 Materials ........................................................................................................................ 43

4.3.2 Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 44

4.4 Fabrication Procedure ............................................................................................................ 53

4.4.1 Wooden Frame for the Molds ......................................................................................... 53

4.4.2 Fabrication of the Casting Molds .................................................................................... 54

4.5 Preparation of the Coconut Shell Ash ..................................................................................... 55

4.6 Preparation of the Recycled Aluminum Beverage Cans .......................................................... 57

4.7 Melting the Aluminum Beverage Cans and Reinforcing with CSA ......................................... 58

4.8 Casting of the Melted Reinforced Aluminum .......................................................................... 59

4.9 Testing Procedures ................................................................................................................. 59

4.9.1 Hardness Testing ............................................................................................................ 59

4.9.2 Tensile Testing ............................................................................................................... 61

4.9.3 Flexure Testing............................................................................................................... 62

4.10 Gantt Charts ........................................................................................................................... 63

APPENDICES ..................................................................................................................................... 65

Appendix 1. Rockwell Hardness Scales ............................................................................................. 65

Appendix 2. Brinell Hardness Numbers ............................................................................................. 66

Appendix 3. Vickers’ Hardness Numbers........................................................................................... 74

Appendix 4. Tensile Test Specimen Dimensions ................................................................................ 76

 Appendix 5. Hardness Test Specimen Dimensions ............................................................................. 79

Appendix 6. Flexural Test Specimen Dimensions .............................................................................. 79

Appendix 7. Tensile Specimen Wood Mold Frame Dimensions ......................................................... 80

Appendix 8. Hardness Specimen Wood Mold Frame Dimensions ...................................................... 82

Appendix 9. Flexure Test Specimen Mold Wood Frame Dimensions ................................................. 83

Appendix 10. Tensile Test Specimen Sand Molds .............................................................................. 84

Appendix 11. Hardness Test Specimen Sand Mold ............................................................................ 85

Appendix 12. Flexure Test Specimen Sand Mold ............................................................................... 86

Appendix 13. Tensile Stress of Aluminum Beverage Cans ................................................................. 86

Appendix 14. Sample of Rockwell Hardness Number ........................................................................ 87

Appendix 15. Sample Calculation of Brinell Hardness Number .......................................................... 87

Appendix 16. Sample Calculation of Vickers’ Hardness Number ....................................................... 87

Appendix 17. Sample Calculation of Young’s Modulus ..................................................................... 88

Appendix 18. Sample Data Gathering Tables ..................................................................................... 89

Appendix 19. Sample Data Charts ..................................................................................................... 90

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................... 92
 NOMENCLATURE

𝐻𝐵 Brinell hardness number

𝐹 Force

𝐷 Outer diameter

𝐷𝑖 Indentation diameter

𝐻𝑉 Vickers’ hardness number

𝑈 Potential energy of pendulum

𝑚 Mass of object

𝑔 Gravity

𝐿 Length

𝜃1 Initial angle of the pendulum

𝜃2 Final angle of the pendulum

𝐼𝑠 Impact strength

𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 Actual volume of the specimen

𝑉𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ Volume of the notch on the specimen

𝑉𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 Volume of the specimen

𝐴𝑠 Base area of the specimen

𝐴𝑛 Base area of the notch

𝐻𝑠 Height of the specimen

1
𝐻𝑛 Height of the notch

𝐺 Shear modulus

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum torsional stress

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum torsional strain

𝑀𝑇 Torque Moment

𝜃 Angle of twist

𝜎 Stress

𝑅 Radius of the specimen

𝜀 Strain

𝐸 Elastic modulus/Young’s modulus of elasticity

𝐼 Polar moment of Inertia

d Deflection

a Long side of a rectangular cross-section

b Short side of a rectangular cross-section

w Width of the specimen

t Thickness of the specimen

2
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Alloy - a metal made by combining two or more metallic elements, especially to give

greater strength or resistance to corrosion

Aluminum - a light, silvery-gray metal that is used in most industries. It is the chemical

element of atomic number 13

Ash - the powdery residue left after burning a substance

Casting - an object made by pouring molten metal or other material into a mold

Comminution - an action of reducing a material to minute particles or fragments

Cooling - a decrease in temperature

Cope - is the top piece of a two-piece mold

Drag - is the bottom piece of a two-piece mold

Dross - foreign matter or mineral waste formed on the surface of molten metal

Hardness - is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation induced

by either mechanical indentation or abrasion

Impact Strength - is the capability of a material to withstand a suddenly applied load

Mold - a hollow container used to give shape to molten or hot liquid material (such as

wax or metal) when it cools and hardens.

Re-casting - giving a metal object a different form by melting it down and

reshaping/remolding it

Reinforce - strengthen or support (an object or substance), especially with additional material.

3
Slag - stony waste matter separated from metals during the smelting or refining of ore

Strain - is the relative change in shape or size of an object due to externally applied forces

Stress - is the internal force (per unit area, etc.) associated with strain

Stress-Strain Curve - a line diagram that displays the relationship between a material’s stress and strain

Tensile Strength - the resistance of a material to breaking under tension

Yield Strength - is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform

plastically

Yield Point - is the point on the stress-strain curve that indicates the limit of elastic behavior

and the beginning of plastic behavior

Young’s Modulus - a measure of elasticity, equal to the ratio of the stress acting on a substance to the

strain produced

4
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Aluminum is one of the most abundant and most important metals used by modern societies, used

in many items which are indispensable to modern life (Menzie, et al., 2010). Its compounds form eight

percent of the earth’s crust and are found in most rocks and minerals. Pure aluminum is never found as a

free metal in nature because of its high reactivity. It is very lightweight and soft but it has to be combined

with minute amounts of other materials like silicon, copper, iron, zinc, magnesium, lithium, and/or other

metals to produce an array of alloys of different properties for various purposes. (Luo & Soria, 2006).

Production of aluminum begins with the mining of bauxite, which is processed first into alumina

and subsequently into aluminum metal. The main wastes from bauxite mining are residue produced by

grinding and washing the bauxite. The processing of bauxite to alumina involves chemical processing of

the bauxite. The main waste from alumina refining is a sludge called “red mud,” a waste that is usually

disposed of in a landfill. Aluminum is produced via the electrolysis of alumina. This electrolysis involves

the use of carbon anodes, aluminum fluoride, and a lot of electricity. The most significant waste products

from the production of aluminum from alumina are harmful air emissions, including perfluorocarbon (PFC)

gases and carbon dioxide (CO2) from the production of anodes and electricity. (Menzie, et al., 2010).

One form of aluminum products, and one that is used worldwide, is the aluminum beverage can.

Aluminum cans usually contain beverages such as soda, beers, ales, juices, and other liquids. The life cycle

of an aluminum beverage can is just 60 days. In 60 days, a beverage can goes from the store shelf to the

consumer, and then on to a recycling facility where it can be re-melted into an aluminum sheet and re-

5
formed into another aluminum beverage can with almost exactly the same physical characteristics as the

original can. (Bungardean, Soporan, & Salanta, 2013).

Aluminum cans are one of the most recycled form of waste worldwide thanks to its unique

combination of physical properties. Almost every aluminum product that is produced commercially can be

reused or recycled after its shelf life. (Zheng, Nitta, & Yokota, 2004). This versatility also allows aluminum

to be recycled and be utilized in a lot of other sectors like electronics, packaging, transport, industrial

applications, and many more. Aluminum is used extensively in packaging for protection, storage, and

preparation of food and beverages. (Belinda, 2006). It can be rolled into thin sheets which are durable and

light and have unique qualities to preserve food and beverages against ultra-violet light and bacteria, thus

the invention of the aluminum can. (International Aluminum Institute, 2006).

Recycling aluminum has so many advantages and benefits to the economy, environment and

community. Collection of the waste materials should be done in schools, other commercial buildings,

hospital buildings, government offices and practically all establishments to properly collect and segregate

the waste and prepare it for recycling or proper disposal (Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2008).

The Japanese cooperation agency has also found that there has been heavy flow of materials from

production but only a fraction gas gone to recycling which can lead us to question “Where is all the other

excess Aluminum and other solid waste?”

Some of that excess aluminum is reused or converted into new materials, such as new alloys.

Nowadays, many combinations of materials are being formed to create new alloys. Interest in low cost

reinforced metal alloys is growing rapidly in various engineering fields (Saravanan & Kumar, 2013). Low

cost reinforcement materials are also in demand for the creation of new low-cost metal alloys since they

6
are readily available, naturally renewable, and are cost-effective. One such material is the coconut shell

(Aku, Yawas, & Apasi, 2013). Ashes have been successfully combined to aluminum alloys and other metals

to produce a new class of alloys and is proven to be cost-effective and waste reducing. Coconut shell ash

as reinforcement therefore is likely to overcome the cost barrier and waste management issue for

widespread applications in various industries and engineering fields (Rohatgi, Guo, & Keshavara, 1995).

Based on the foregoing, this research is focused on the creation of a new aluminum alloy from

recycled aluminum 3004 from beverage cans alloyed with coconut shell ash. The reason of the focus is due

to the fact that aluminum beverage cans are by far the most recycled consumer beverage packages globally,

by units, pounds and percentage recycled. It will also be beneficial to the industry to produce a new cost-

effective and easily-produced alloy for various applications. And the more we recycle, the better off we

will be economically and environmentally.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Industries nowadays are taking recycling to new heights, especially in recycling aluminum. This is

to minimize the production of greenhouse gases like perfluorocarbons (PFCs), carbon dioxide (CO2), and

hydrocarbons, and to minimize the energy consumption of producing aluminum and aluminum wastes

generated. This also applies to agricultural wastes in the form of disposed coconut shells. Low-cost

reinforced materials are also gaining in interest and popularity in various engineering fields. However, no

one has yet created and tested recycled aluminum 3004 reinforced with coconut shell ash. Once the

reinforced material is created, its mechanical properties would be determined, then it would be easier to

handpick potential applications of this new reinforced aluminum.

7
1.3 Objectives

This study aims to determine the mechanical properties and qualities of aluminum 3004 reinforced

with coconut shell ash (CSA). and coconut shell ash. Specifically, this study aims determine:

• The specimen’s hardness numbers (Rockwell, Vicker’s, and Brinell)

• The specimen’s tensile strength

• The specimen’s flexural strength

• The specimen’s Stress-Strain Curve

• The specimen’s Young’s Modulus

This study also aims to determine applications and possible uses in the future of this reinforced metal. These

applications can be determined by comparing the properties we obtain from the reinforced aluminum

specimen to the properties of other metals in the market like aluminum 6061.

1.4 Significance of the Study

Considering the high amount of primary aluminum produced (Omega Research Inc., 2011) and the

high amount of coconut shells consumed and disposed (Caparino, 2018), several approaches on responding

to the need of recycling these materials through casting new low-cost reinforced metals have been focused

on a number of researches and published literatures, most of which using aluminum from electronics and

other packaging and disposed coconut shells. This study uses a more consumer-focused product, aluminum

beverage cans, to generate recycled aluminum. This study also uses locally disposed coconut shell ash as

reinforcement for the aluminum and the reinforced aluminum’s mechanical properties will be determined.

This study would be a great aid to the following beneficiaries:

8
1.4.1 Residents of Cebu City

Residents of households can sell their aluminum wastes and excess coconut shells to small-

scale and big-scale recycling establishments and earn from it. In a similar manner, business

establishments can also sell their aluminum wastes and excess coconut shells to recycling

establishments. This way, aluminum wastes and coconut shells are not just reduced in the

household but in the business sector as well.

1.4.2 Industrial Designers

The output of this study would be beneficial for industrial designers such that they can use

the specifications of the reinforced aluminum determined in our study to supplement their design and

help them determine if the new metal is feasible for their designs. An added benefit for them is that

this reinforced aluminum metal is cost effective, thus lessening the overall cost of their designs.

1.4.3 Small- and Large-Scale Foundries

If the recycling establishments will mass produce the reinforced aluminum we create in this

study, they won’t be worried much on the mechanical properties of the output because they would

already have our study as a reference. They also benefit from an influx of aluminum beverage cans

and coconut shells from residents/households, and businesses since materials from them will most

likely be for recycling and thus cheaper for them to purchase.

1.4.4 Academe

This study would be an ideal laboratory experiment and lecture topic. This study contains

procedures and underlying theories of alloying metals, specifically aluminum, which can greatly help

expand the knowledge of the students and the knowledge database of schools and universities in

Metallurgy and Material Properties. The teachers can also use our study as a basis for similar

experiments, topics, and researches.

9
 1.4.5 Researchers

Future researchers and students may use our study as a basis for their own studies and

theses that would relate to aluminum, aluminum re-casting and reinforcement, and aluminum

recycling. Since our study already has valuable data relating to aluminum reinforced with coconut

shell ash, researchers won’t have a hard time in identifying variables for their studies.

It also provides them with underlying theories, procedures, and references that they may need

in their studies and it provides them with an opportunity to improve their study and understanding

on the application of engineering concepts and sciences.

1.5 Scope and Limitations

1.5.1 Scope

This study is focused on the determination of the mechanical properties of a recycled

aluminum 3004 specimen from recycled aluminum beverage cans reinforcement with coconut shell

ash. This provides a base for determining alternate uses for recycled aluminum. This covers the

mechanical properties of the specimen, specifically, the hardness numbers, its tensile strength and

stress-strain curve, its flexural strength, and the Young’s Modulus of the material. The published

previous related studies will also serve as a reference for the design and selection of materials. The

casting of the reinforced aluminum specimens will be done in the machine shop of the University of

San Carlos – TC, Talamban, Cebu City and the testing of the specimens will be done in the Materials

Testing Laboratory of the University of San Carlos – TC, Talamban, Cebu City. The data collected

from the experiments will serve as the values of the parameters necessary for computation and

evaluation of the mechanical properties of the reinforced aluminum.

10
 1.5.2 Limitations

This study is limited to the condition that the source of aluminum for this study will be

aluminum beverage cans and the reinforcement of the aluminum will be coconut shell ash from

coconut shells. The aluminum beverage cans will be collected from Rockets Grill and the coconut

shells will be collected from “Ampy Butongan”, M.L. Quezon Ave., Cabancalan, Cebu City,

Philippines. The aluminum beverage cans will be melted in an electric muffler furnace and the coconut

shell ash will be added into the melted aluminum via stir casting method. The melted reinforced metal

will be casted into a green sand mold and the coconut shells are to be burned in the traditional method

of creating coconut shell ash. Only the mechanical properties of these casted reinforced aluminum

specimens will be obtained, specifically those listed in the objectives. Other parameters like the

melting point and the conductivity of the specimen are not included.

11
 CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.1 Hardness

Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to various kinds of permanent surface shape change

when an external compressive force is applied such as scratching, indentation, abrasion, or cutting (Wiki-

authors, 2017). There are three main types of hardness measurements: scratch hardness, indentation

hardness, and rebound hardness. In metallurgy, indentation hardness tests are usually used to determine the

hardness of a metal in which a pointed or rounded indenter is pressed into the surface of the metal under a

substantially static load (CALCE; University of Maryland, 2001). Hardness, depending upon the context,

can also represent a qualitative measure of the strength of the material (Askeland, Pulay, & Wright, 2011).

The hardness of a material is usually indicated by a number – that is called the hardness number. The

hardness number is a number on a calibrated scale indicating the relative hardness as determined by a

particular system of testing (Farlex and Partners, 2009). There are a lot of devised systems of testing that

would determine the hardness of a material but the most known or commonly used are the Rockwell

Hardness Test, Brinell Hardness Test, and Vickers Hardness Test.

2.1.1 Rockwell Hardness Number

The Rockwell Hardness Test or Rockwell Scale is a hardness measurement based on the net

increase in depth of impression as a load is applied (CALCE; University of Maryland, 2001). This test

uses a small-diameter steel ball for soft materials and a diamond cone, or Brale, for harder materials

and the depth of penetration of the indenter used is automatically measured by the testing machine

(Rockwell hardness tester) which is then converted to a Rockwell hardness number (HR) (Askeland,

Pulay, & Wright, 2011). There are two scales in this test, scale “A” and scale “B” (Appendix 1). Scale

A has a load of 60kg and scale B has a load of 100kg max (Aurora's Technological and Research

12
Institute, 2018). This test is performed under US mandated standard ASTM E18: Standard methods

for Rockwell hardness and Rockwell superficial hardness of metallic materials.

According to the same study by Aurora’s Technological and Research Institute (2018), there

are scales of 1/16, 1/8, and ½ inch diameter steel ball indenters. In our research, the metal to be tested

is aluminum, which is softer than most metals, and will be tested with 10 to 100𝑘𝑔𝑓 load and the

indenter to be utilized will be the 1/16 inch diameter steel ball indenter and the number will be read on

the B scale.

2.1.2 Brinell Hardness Number

The Brinell Hardness Test or Brinell scale characterizes the indentation hardness of materials

through the scale of penetration of an indenter, loaded on a material test-piece (Wiki-authors, 2017).

In this test, a hard steel sphere (usually 10 mm in diameter) is forced into the surface of the material

with a force of 1 to 3000𝑘𝑔𝑓 and the diameter of impression is measured and used in an equation that

would give the Brinell hardness number. (Zwick Roell, 2007):

2𝐹
𝐻𝐵 = Eqn. 1
𝜋𝐷 [𝐷− √𝐷2 −𝐷𝑖2 ]

Where HB is the Brinell hardness number, F is the force applied, D is the diameter of the

specimen and 𝐷𝑖 is the diameter of the indenter.

The Brinell hardness number is usually given as “75 HB 10/500/30” which means that a Brinell

Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500-kilogram load applied

for a period of 30 seconds. This test is performed under US standard ASTM E10-14: Standard method

for Brinell hardness of metallic materials (Wiki-authors, 2017).

13
 2.1.3 Vickers’ Hardness Number

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond

indenter in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136° between opposite face

subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf where the full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds (Gordon

England, n.d.). The two diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material are measured

using a microscope and the average of the two values is determined using Equation 2 (CALCE;

University of Maryland, 2001) .

1.854𝐹
𝐻𝑉 = Eqn. 2
𝐷2

Where HV is the Vickers’ hardness number, F is the force applied, and D is the diameter of

the specimen.

The hardness value of this test depends heavily on the load applied and the region formed by

the indentation. This test can be used on almost any material since the indenter is made of diamond

which is known to be one of the hardest materials on the planet. The material to be tested should not

have rough surfaces, oxidation, lubricants or contaminants which can heavily affect the outcome of

the hardness test (Filho, Cavalcante, de Albuquerque, & Tavares, 2010)

This test is usually performed under US standard ASTM E384: Standard Test Method for

Knoop and Vickers Hardness of Materials.

2.2 Tensile Stress and Strain

The tensile test measures the resistance of a material to a static or slowly applied force. The

results from the test are commonly used to select a material for an application, for quality control,

and to predict how a material will react under other types of forces. It also provides information

14
on the strength and ductility of materials under uniaxial tensile stresses. This information may be

useful in comparisons of materials, alloy development, quality control, and design under certain

circumstances.

Metals, in fact, exhibit a number of interesting characteristics with regard to elasticity.

Metals tend to possess a high degree of ductility, or the ability to be deformed beyond their elastic

limit without experiencing rupture. Being knowledgeable about this, metals still need to undergo

testing in order assure that the metal is indeed capable of undergoing high amounts of stress. This

form of construction has only become more rigorously analyzed and widespread in large structures

in the latter part of the twentieth century.

When a specimen is subjected to an external tensile loading, the metal will undergo elastic

and plastic deformation. Initially, the metal will elastically deform giving a linear relationship of

load and extension (Pytel & Singer, 1987). The main product of a tensile test is a load versus

elongation curve which is then converted into a stress versus strain curve like the curve shown in

Fig.1.

Fig. 1. Stress-strain curve

Since both the engineering stress and the engineering strain are obtained by dividing the

load and elongation by constant values (specimen geometry information), the load-elongation

15
curve will have the same shape as the engineering stress-strain curve. The tensile stress

experienced by the material can be calculated using Equation 11 below.

𝐹
𝜎= Eqn. 3
𝐴

𝑁
Where 𝜎 is the tensile stress experienced by the specimen, expressed in 𝑚2 , F is the force

exerted on the specimen in Newtons, and A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen in m2 . (Pytel

& Singer, 1987). Similarly, the strain can also be calculated using Equation 12 below.

𝛿
𝜀= Eqn. 4
𝐿

Where 𝜀 is the strain or deformation of the specimen, 𝛿 is the elongation of the specimen,

and L is the original length of the specimen before testing. Stress–strain curves of various materials

vary widely, and different tensile tests conducted on the same material yield different results,

depending upon the temperature of the specimen and the speed of the loading. It is possible,

however, to distinguish some common characteristics among the stress–strain curves of various

groups of materials and, on this basis, to divide materials into two broad categories: namely, the

ductile materials and the brittle materials. (Beer, F., Johnston, R., Dewolf, J., & Mazurek, D.,

2009).

2.3 Flexural Stress and Strain

Flexural Stress, or flexural strength identifies the amount of stress and force a concrete slab, beam or

other structure can withstand such that it resists any bending failures. This is denoted by:

3𝐹𝐿
σ= Eqn. 5
2𝑤𝑡 2

16
 Where σ is the Flexural Strength measured in units Mega Pascal (MPa), F is the Force required to

bend the specimen to the base of the platform measured in Newton (N), L is the length of the specimen

measured in meters (m), and w is the width of the specimen measured in meters (m), and t is the thickness

of the material also measured in meters (m).

Flexural Strain is defined as a measure of deformation representing the displacement between

particles in the body relative to a reference length. This is denoted by:

6𝑡𝑑
ɛ= Eqn. 6
𝐿2

Where d is the deflection measured in meters (m), t is the thickness of the specimen also measured in

meters (m), and L is the length of the support span measured in meters (m). The support span is the distance

between the supports on which the specimen is loaded on.

2.4 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

Young’s modulus of elasticity of a beam, also known as Elastic Modulus, is a number that measures

an object or substance's resistance to being deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when a stress is

applied to it. A stiffer material will have a higher elastic modulus. It is denoted by:

𝜎
𝐸= Eqn. 7
𝜀

𝑁
Where E is the Young`s Modulus of elasticity measured in 𝑚2 or can be simplified as Pascal (Pa),

𝜎 is the tensile stress of the specimen, and 𝜀 is the tensile strain of the specimen. The tensile stress is denoted

in Equation 11 and the tensile strain is denoted in Equation 12.

17
2.5 Characteristics of Coconut Shells and the Composition of Coconut Shell Ash

A report by PhilMech in 2016 illustrates the technical power potential of coconut shells. Apparently,

coconut shells can generate 1.758 kWh/kg and have a power potential of 451 MWe (Megawatts electric).

This is because the coconut shell has a high calorific value of 20.8 MJ/kg. This makes it a suitable fuel for

power plants to produce power via steam, gases, bio-oil, biochar, and charcoal among others (Zafar, 2020).

But even with all the good information and uses of coconut shell wastes, poor management of agricultural

wastes can lead to problems in the economy and the society (Ganiron Jr., Ucol-Ganiron, & Ganiron III,

2017).

Ashes are the residue that is a product of combustion and they represent the incombustible component

of a fuel or substance (Saravanan & Kumar, 2013). Coconut shell ash contains a good amount of carbon

which is known to improve the strength and hardness of metals due to its effect on the lattice points. It

causes lattice distortion which prevents deformation along the microstructure of the metal (“Chapter 4:

Alloys” n.d., 2016). Aside from that, coconut shell ash is known to have a myriad of elements and

compounds in it. The major compounds found in coconut shell ash is shown in the table below, of which

Silicon Oxide is the major component (Madakson, Yawas, & Apasi, 2012).

Table 1. Composition of Coconut Shell Ash

Element SiO MgO 𝐀𝐥𝟐 𝐎 𝐅𝐞𝟐 𝐎 MnO ZnO 𝐍𝐚𝟐 𝐎 𝐊𝟐𝐎

% 46 18 16 14 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.2

2.6 Effect of Coconut Shell Ash on Metal

A study done by Himanshu Kalaa (2014) shows that the increasing weight percent (wt. %) of the

coco ash also yields a linear increase of the ultimate tensile strength and hardness of metal. There was also

increase in the other properties compared to that of pure aluminum or aluminum without any or negligible

amount of alloying element.

18
 For the production of aluminum composites, the density will be decreased with the increase of the

weight percent of the alloying element which is the ash and in turn, it will also increase the ultimate tensile

strength, hardness as well as impact strength (Poornesh M., 2017). The dispersion of the particles of the ash

will also play an important role as the metal will have to be reinforced equally all throughout. The adding

of the alloying element will have to be in controlled amounts in order for the results to be properly assessed.

The weight percentage is the unit for the amount of ash to be added (Chethan, 2018). The carbon also

influences the structure of the metal by making it more rigid and hard while decreasing its ductility which

is the nature of most metals. The desired hardness and strength can be achieved by experimenting on the

amount to be added to the mixture (Hwang, 2004). Another research article produced has proven that the

presence of the coconut particles has increased the performance or quality of the metal in controlled

amounts of weight percentage (Aku A. , 2013).

2.7 Effect on Silicon on Aluminum

Silicon has been known to increase the ultimate tensile strength, tensile capability and hardness when

added to aluminum. The silicon affects the microstructure in such a manner where it helps hold the metal

alloy tighter on a molecular scale. All previous tests with increasing amounts of weight percentage showed

an increase in the mechanical properties (Kalhapure, 2013). Silicon comprises 46% of the coco ash which

is the alloying element to be added (Poornesh M, 2017). Adding silicon and magnesium is also an affordable

method to increase some aspects of the metal to desired amounts or quantities (Davis, 2001). Silicon can

also increase the fluidity, reduce the chances of cracking and it can also improve feeding to the casting

mold to lessen the chances of defects like shrinkage or porosity. Silicon and aluminum alloys are known to

be strong enough to be aircraft – grade materials which can withstand tremendous forces and pressure at

high velocity (Su-Seong Ahn, 2018).

19
2.8 Effect of Magnesium Compounds on Aluminum

Magnesium compounds comprises around 18% of the coco ash which is to be added to the aluminum

mixture. Like the Silicon, magnesium can also increase the hardness and tensile strength but also lowers its

ductility which is also the effect of carbon on most metals. Magnesium can also be alloyed with aluminum

to produce aircraft – grade metals, construction materials due to its low weight, high strength and good

machinability (Salihu, 2012). Magnesium can also increase the machinability, morphology, strength and

grain size of the alloy if proper alloying procedure is followed. Among one of the main influence of

Magnesium is the increase in hardness or impenetrability of the material which can make it really tough in

certain conditions where the property will be heavily required. Addition of magnesium is like Silicon

wherein it is also a low cost method for metal reinforcement, but in this case the hardness (Nafsin, 2013).

2.9 Effect of Particle Size on Mechanical Properties

The particle size can play a role on the increase and decrease on the mechanical properties

of a casted metal mainly on the strength and ductility as presented on a recent study (Daniel, 2019).

The surface area of the particles and the proper dispersion can increase the material’s hardness and

lessen its ductility consequently and the parts of the metal wherein the particles are far apart, the

hardness in that small will be a little smaller compared to the areas with closer particles (Mishra,

2017). The addition of the coco ash will increase the carbon content of the metal which can also

increase the hardness and strength but also lower the ductility and make the metal more brittle

(Iloabache, Obiorah, Ezema, Henry, & Chime, 2017). As for the Young’s modulus, the value will

depend heavily on the interfacial interaction of the particles compared to the weight percentage of

the particles added to the metal (Olaitan, 2017).

20
2.10 Contaminants of the Coconut Shells

One of the common contaminants present in the coconut shell is the Bacillus bacteria which

is present when there is moisture in the fruit (Sumaryati, 2015). Although, more info on the bacillus

bacteria will be eliminated up to 134 degrees Fahrenheit and this is also the purpose for pre-heating

which eliminates most of the potential contaminants in the coconut shell ash. Another common

contaminant is the soil which can absorb water very well in order to provide nutrients to plants or

other organisms (Sao, 1996). When the soil will be carried into the molten metal mixture it can

cause violent explosions which can cause damage to the formation of the metal and cause the

reinforcement to be far apart which can in turn, lower the hardness and strength (Tabatabei, 2009).

Gas porosity is the event wherein there are bubbles that form when there are small explosions or

gasses trapped in the metal during the casting process (Hussein, 2019). Soil is also known to

contain protozoa, algae, fungi and insects which can seriously affect the metal to be casted

(Kramer, 1944).

21
 CHAPTER 3

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

3.1 Production of Recycled Aluminum

Recycled aluminum is the material or metal produced mainly from scrap. It can also come from

supply that has not been used when making a certain product (Bennett, 1964). Producing recycled

Aluminum is the process of recycling aluminum from new product scrap, dross, collected metals and others

(Wallace, 2011). In most countries, they use high capacity furnaces and mills to produce by the ton per hour

(European Dioxin Inventory, 2012) . This is done to produce good quality recycled metals to meet the

demand. From the information obtained from Global Aluminum Recycling in the years 1950 to 2010, it

was shown that the primary aluminum production was around 40 million tons per year while recycled or

recycled aluminum is only around 16 million tons per year by the year 2010. Not many companies that

desire the best of aluminum would use recycled aluminum due to the fact that sometimes it is not guaranteed

to have the qualities of primary aluminum and some recycled aluminum products are not heat treated

(Omega Research Inc., 2011) . It is a good thing that there are methods such as paint stripping and heat

treating that have been found to increase the yield strength and performance of recycled aluminum by

analyzing the output of the melting and also adjusting the salt flux amount but then again, extra attention

has to be given when producing recycled Aluminum because removal of the slag and increase of the surface

oxides add 10% of the losses. Turbulent pouring of the molten Aluminum also increases the surface oxides

which can make the end product weaker. (Dispinar, Kvithyld, & Nordmark, 2011).

3.2 Aluminum Recycling in the Philippine Setting

In the Philippine setting, there are only around seventeen to twenty recycling centers around the

entire country and most of them only recycle what has already been in the landfill (Antonio, 2010). This

should not be the case due to the fact that the metals will be rotting and they will also be developing more

surface oxides which can impair their quality. (Dispinar, Kvithyld, & Nordmark, 2011). Malls like SM and

22
Ayala have begun their program called “trash to cash” wherein they collect tons of recyclables and put them

to good use for profits and saving of more funds. SM was able to collect around 2.6 million pesos worth of

recyclables and Ayala was able to collect around half a million worth of recyclables, from 2002 to 2009

there has been a recycling job done that has only collected just a fraction over 2800 kilograms of aluminum

which can be recycled. (Antonio, 2010).

3.3 Status of Coconut Shell Wastes in the Philippines

The use and recycling of coconut by-products like coconut shells have been a source of income for

some Filipinos for a long time. This due to the coconut having so many uses for each part of the coconut

tree. Its uses in the Philippine setting range from housing materials to uses in the construction and energy

industry. The coconut shell is transformed to a charcoal form and is used for a variety of uses like glues,

briquettes for energy generation, face masks, and air conditioning systems (Esquenazi, et al., 2002). In the

construction industry, the husk fibers can are used as mats or transformed into boards for another set of

uses. Indeed, the coconut is a very unique crop (Babel & Kurniawan, 2004).

The Philippines is one of the world’s largest producers of coconuts and coconut products and

therefore, we also have a large amount of agricultural wastes from it. Even though a part of the Philippines

population relies on coconut by-products for their livelihood, a large amount of by-products still end up as

waste and simply get disposed. According to an annual report by PhilMech in 2016, the Philippines

generates 19, 779, 542 tons of coconut by-product wastes, 1, 970, 074 tons of which are coconut shells,

which is approximately 10% of the total amount of coconut by-product wastes of the Philippines. From the

1, 970, 074 tons of coconut shell wastes, only 25-30% of that is recycled. By utilizing the shells as an

alloying element to enhance the already recycled aluminum, it could help the region and our country save

billions each year on imports, electricity, production costs, and reduce our coconut shell wastes.

23
3.4 Preparation of Aluminum Beverage Cans

The process starts by gathering the scraps or cans then grouping them according to size and shape

to maintain good bulk density and result of the end product. The scraps then go through comminution,

sorting, and then the furnace (Capuzzi & Timelli, 2018). Comminution is advantageous as it removes the

unwanted impurities such as rubber, magnesium and zinc coats (The Aluminum Association, 2013). Sorting

is part of the operation because it is important to distinguish recyclable metals from metals that are already

waste and can no longer have the good qualities of Aluminum when formed again (Javaid & Essadiqi,

2003). One of the first things to consider is de - coating, which is the process of removing finishing surface

products like ink, paper or plastic. Doing this can yield very good quality Aluminum and minimal amounts

of dross or weak metals (Capuzzi & Timelli, 2018). For this, a pressure cooker, acetone, and some wipes

will be required to perform this step and it is an effective method that can be done even at home (Wikihow,

2019).

3.5 Sorting of Aluminum Beverage Cans

The cans will be sorted according to size and will be also dried and cleaned to prevent any

contamination during the melting in the furnace or in short, the method of separation is hand sorting. Hand

sorting has advantages such as being able to identify parts and materials with good distinction as to smell

and appearance to be able to perform the experiment effectively and at the cost of no money (Health and

Safety Executive, 2012) . This procedure will be performed with the application of PPE or proper protective

equipment.

3.6 Comminution or Crushing

The metal cans will be crushed to make sure that the furnace can accommodate the maximum

amount of cans since the furnace in the machine shop of the University of San Carlos can only take so much

at one time. This process can also remove any unwanted contaminants that melt at higher temperatures than

24
the aluminum according to Capuzzi and Timelli (2018). A simple wood plank or metal pipe will be used to

save funds compared to using a crushing machine with rollers. Crushing the cans can be done by using the

UTM or Universal testing machine or the crushing can be done by the use of a hammer once they have been

stripped off their paint, cleaned and dried. Crushing the cans will allow it to fully maximize the capacity of

the melting cup otherwise, only one could be melted at a time and it would put the working time to waste.

3.7 Furnace Preparation of Aluminum Beverage Cans

For ideal results and good Aluminum recovery without dross, dendrites or craters, about 5 wt.% of

salt flux and temperatures from 450 °C and 900 °C must be used to ensure good quality production of the

metal aluminum bars (Dispinar, Kvithyld, & Nordmark, 2011). When all the necessary preparations have

been done, such as sorting, crushing and de - coating, the metal cans are ready for the furnace and melting.

The furnace is the one found in the University of San Carlos - TC Machine Shop.

3.8 Sand Casting of Aluminum

Sand casting is one of the oldest casting processes, it was first performed by Vannoccio Biringuccio

in 1540. The method was described in his book Pirotechnia. Wagner ware also used this method on

aluminum as soon as it was available after iron (Weiss, 2018). In sand casting a two - piece mold will be

used. The top part is known as the cope and the lower part is known as the drag. Runners and risers have to

be placed strategically and carefully for their functions to be carried out properly. The upper and lower part

of the cast should be symmetrical when taken apart to have the best forming of metal. The sand that has

been known to be the most effective is Green Sand which is not just sand in composition but it is composed

of silica sand, bentonite, water, inert sludge, and anthracite (Bloomfield, Fishburn, & Starmer, 2013). Any

moisture present in the sand will turn to steam due to the radiant heat from the molten metal upon its entry,

the steam would be able to exit the mold due to its porous nature. The ability of the mold to allow the steam

to exit is permeability which can be measured by a certain instrument that measures the volume of air that

25
flows through an area per minute under a standard pressure or indicated pressure (Ammen, 1979). The

fineness of the sand is also a factor at play when performing sand casting. The particles have to be around

the same size to prevent irregularities in certain areas of the mold when the molten metal starts to solidify.

The sand test is done by sieves of different sizes, around ten different sizes will be obtained after the sieve

passage. Some particles might cause some areas to have irregular sizes and it will affect the performance

of the final casted product (Price & Krynitsky, 1946). The refractoriness of the sand is the measure of the

sand’s ability to withstand breaking down or fusion during exposure to high heat. The green sand has a

good resistance to breaking down and fusion as its breaking point is at 1600 °C and the melting point of

aluminum is around 600 to 800 °C. The addition of fluxing agents can lower the breaking point temperature

of the sand and can increase the risk of the sand breaking down upon contact. This is an important factor to

consider, if this is to be neglected, the sand may bond with the aluminum during the solidification process.

Again, the addition of the salt flux must be done with care and good measurement to prevent the breaking

down of the sand and the faulty melting of the aluminum in the furnace (Ammen, 1979). The strength of

the sand is a factor to be considered in the molding process due to the fact that the preparation of the sand

will include compacting or ramming to prepare for the mold. When the mold will be removed from the

sand, the sand will have to retain the shape of the mold without breaking down to ensure good result of the

casting process. Tests have proven that the addition of clay to the sand has resulted in an increase in the

sand’s compression strength which is around 20 to 80 KN / m2 with a moisture content of 3 to 4 % which

is within the ideal range (Abdullah, et al., 2012). Water and clay can also play an important role in terms

of holding the clay together. Water and clay act as good bonding agents in the moist areas of the sand which

in turn, decrease the chance of the rammed sand to break down by normal handling during the casting

operation. The resistance of the sand during its exposure to heat will also be improved as the sand will not

break down easily due to the bonding action of the sand and clay when exposed to moisture (Radhakrishna

& Gopikrishna, 2016). Tensile strength of the sand is the property of the sand that is at play upon the entry

and solidification of the molten metal. Forces such as tension and compression will influence the molding

sand and a lack of the two major properties can cause distortion to the final product of casting. The tensile

26
strength can be influenced by the amount of fluxing agent, addition of clay and water and the compressive

strength of the sand. The correct and ideal ratio of the sand components should be carefully mixed in order

to get the ideal result of the sand’s casting performance (Khanna & Swarup, 1961).

3.9 Melting the Aluminum Cans in the Furnace

Bringing a metal to its melting point increases its malleability and ductility making it easier to form

or draw into wires. When the ductility increases, the yield strength decreases which makes the material easy

to cast after it has gone through the furnace (Mahmood, 2009). The melting process starts by placing the

cans in the melting cup. The melting cup should be a material that has a higher melting point than the

specimen in order for it to perform its function well. The two materials cannot have the same melting point

otherwise, they will melt at the same time and the entire experiment will be flawed. When melting is done,

the furnace should be closed to prevent the metal surface from carbonizing and turning to dross (Yoshida

& Baba, 2010). Most of the metal will turn to waste at this rate so we incorporate the salt flux and make

sure that the furnace is closed tightly to prevent the entry of air, dust and any other possible contaminants

that can further impair the quality and performance of the final product. Another thing to pay attention to

would be the metal slag removal before the pouring process. According to Wikipedia, slag is a by - product

or leftover of a metal when it is separated from its ore. Although it is not wanted in the mold, it serves its

purpose of temperature control of the molten metal during its time in the furnace. While some individuals

would want to discard the slag right away, the dross and slag can be used to make gamma alumina which

can be useful in the production of electronic components and other electrical equipment due to its properties.

(Dash, Tripathy, Das, & Bhattachurya, 2007)

27
3.10 Stir Casting

Stir casting is a type of casting procedure wherein it uses a mechanical stirrer to create a vortex which

will help in the mixing of the melt and reinforcement material. It is commonly used because of its simplicity

and the cost is low (Sahu & Sahu, 2018). In one study, different variables or parameters such as stirring

speed, impeller blade angle, etc, are being evaluated. They concluded that the optimal stirring speed for a

multistage impeller stirrer is 1000 rpm and for single impeller stirrer is 550 rpm. They also concluded that

the optimal blade angle is 30° which will provide suitable axial mixing flow action with lower power

consumption. It was also concluded that the position of the stirrer must be 25%-30% of the height of the

liquid from the bottom of the crucible (Sahu & Sahu, 2018). In this process, the material is being kept in

the furnace to heat the material until it reaches molten temperature. Simultaneously, the reinforcement

material is preheated in order to remove moisture and other impurities. The material is then allowed to cool

to a semi solid state of temperature about 620-650 °C before adding the reinforcement material. The stirring

process will occur until the feeding is done (Kumar, Kala, & Mer, 2014).

3.11 Dross and Slag of Molten Aluminum

Aluminum dross is a by - product which is derived from the aluminum smelting process and the

dross can be mechanically separated and broken down into aluminum and aluminum oxide or alumina and

it is formed in areas with low boiling point during smelting according to Wikipedia. Since the production

of recycled aluminum only takes about 5% of the energy required to produce primary aluminum according

to Global Aluminum Recycling, it will lead to more raw material saving, less emissions in the atmosphere

to about 17%, less material in the landfill, about 5 to 9 times less solid waste and 35% less water

consumption compared to the production of primary aluminum (Osoba, Owolabi, Talabi, & Adeosum,

2018). There are two kinds of dross which are the black and white dross, the white dross is a by - product

of primary aluminum while the black dross is a by - product of recycled aluminum. The black dross is

processed in a rotary kiln to recover as much aluminum as possible while the remaining salt cakes are

28
useless and go to landfills (Dai, 2012). According to Osaba et al., (2018) About 1% of the aluminum

exposed to air is oxidized and can quickly turn into dross and if handled carelessly, to bifilms. According

to Dai, (2012) the aluminum can still be recovered from salt cakes during the salt slag treatment which

maximizes the yield of recycled aluminum even more. In our study, we will have to minimize the amount

of dross and slag since we do not have the necessary equipment to extract more aluminum from the waste

materials at the time. Although extracting all of it will be very beneficial environmentally, it would not be

that economical due to the current time constraints. Aluminum salt slag on the other hand is a by - product

that is the result of refining a metal, like the dross, it occurs when the waste product is exposed to air. It is

composed of aluminum oxide, sodium chloride and some impurities that are separated from the pure

aluminum (Tsakiridis, 2012). Dross and slag are both waste products that still contain metal that can still

be recovered for less loss. It is really inevitable for slag and dross to be present during this kind of operation

due to the fact that the oxidation rate is high (1% per second of exposure). In cases like this, a good quality

and quantity of salt flux should be used to minimize waste as much as possible (Xiao, Reuter, & Boin,

2005). As mentioned earlier, there will be extra caution in making sure that there will be minimal dross and

slag as the equipment required to extract further aluminum from it will be too costly and the time for

extraction will be too long.

3.12 Casting of Molten Metal

Casting metals has been around for thousands of years for people to be able to get the desired shape

or form of the metal that they desire since forming by hand can be known to take up large amounts of

energy and time according to Rai Technology University. The process of casting has been known to be

efficient in cases wherein the same metal is to be produced many times over (Arevalo, 2012). Metal casting

has also been proven to be efficient since the losses are very minimal if done right and the products are also

consistent in their strength, shape, appearance and performance. There are various methods of casting

depending on the material, desired output and other factors to be considered and the method has to be

carried out carefully and with high regard for safety (Sahoo & Sahu, 2014). The method of casting that has

29
been chosen is the sand casting method which is inexpensive compared to investment and precision casting

(Thomas Inc., 2017). It is also the most versatile method for casting aluminum since the critical part is to

make the pattern and separate the two parts of the cast into the cope and drag and to also add the proper

passageways of air and the molten metal according to (The Aluminum Assiciation, 2018). The first thing

to do is to prepare the component for casting which will be either wood or wax. The box of the component

will then be filled with the sand and it will be rammed to make the sand compact and more solid in

composition (Narasimhan, 2017). Next, the dimensions have to be checked and compensated for shrinkage

and other possible outcomes which occur in casting molten metal (Santhi, Sakri, Rao, & Sundarrajan, 2012).

According to Santhi et al., there are factors that can contribute to shrinkage in casting such as heat transfer,

fluid flow in liquid state due to natural convection, flow in the mushy zone and many more factors which

makes this part of the process require much attention. Cores will not be required in this experiment since

our desired output is only a flat aluminum bar to be tested for its mechanical properties. Proper gas escape

provisions have to be placed to make sure that air escapes and aluminum will cover all parts of the mold, if

this is not done, Gas porosity will occur which is an undesirable outcome that can impair the performance

of the final product (Santhi et al., 2012).

3.13 Cooling of the Casted Metal

After the metal has been poured into the mold, it will start to cool since the influence of heating

has been substantially reduced. It will take less than 10 seconds before the metal will start to solidify

(Akhyar & Farhan, 2018). The preparations have to be well in place to prevent the defects as recently stated.

Solidification occurs when there is a phase change due to the latent heat of solidification which is no change

in temperature but a change in the matter’s phase (Carlson & Beckermann, 2012). Latent heat of

solidification is the heat present during heat gain or loss when a certain matter changes its current phase to

solid and in turn, increasing its density (Kalup, et al., 2014). A study done by (El-Mahallawi, Mahmoud,

Gaafer, & Mahmoud, 2015) has shown data of molten aluminum being cooled by a cooling slope with

conduction of water to reduce the temperature of the molten metal at a higher rate. Their results have shown

30
that there is less porosity and blow holes with the running water and there are slight holes without the water

in the cooling slope. This is due to the action of the water which takes heat away at a higher rate than air,

about 4 times as much. Faster cooling is also a method to decrease the formation of dendrites and other

defects than can impair the performance of the aluminum, rapid cooling is also a way to ensure the integrity

of the final product, this also means that the surface will solidify at a higher rate and will also lessen the

chance of the molten metal oxidizing and causing more defects (Liu, Liu, Luo, Wang, & Liu, 2014).

3.14 Defects in the Casting Process

One of the most common defects in sand casting are shrinkage, gas porosity and hot tearing which

can seriously affect the strength of the material according to Narasimhan (2017). Gas porosity is the defect

where gases or air gets trapped in the molten metal area of the cast due to the lack of gas provision to allow

the gas to escape. This can cause the metal to be weaker and not be used in high strength required

applications (Nimbulkar & Dalu, 2015). Proper gating and feeding systems have to be developed as well

as good provisions to allow gases to escape and not cause any blow holes in the final product. Blow holes

and sand inclusion are also the defects to watch out for since little details such as pouring temperature,

molten metal flow rate are ignored by the operator (Monroe, 2006). The flow rate has to be right and the

pouring temperature has to be carefully monitored to get optimal casting results (Ingle & Sorte, 2017).

Another defect is shrinkage which occurs commonly when the metal is cooling down or when the

temperature lowers. This happens when the riser is not made effectively or when the excess metal from the

riser cannot travel to unoccupied areas of the mold. This is also caused by temperature imbalance in some

parts of the casting according to Santhi et al (2012). According to Ingle and Sorte, (2017), a remedy for

shrinkage is to make an effective riser and increase the dimensions of the mold to account for shrinkage to

acquire the desired results and dimensions. Hot tearing is the defect that occurs when there is not enough

fluid flow in the mold and when the molten or mushy metal solidifies with lacking amount, it creates tension

in between the forming metal and this creates a crack that can severely weaken the metal and make it useless

in high strength applications (Oliver, Yvan, & Bellet, 2008). The main cause of hot tearing is the formation

31
of bi films which are caused by the folding of oxide layers back into the melt. Another cause is poor or

unthorough melting of the chosen metal. This can be prevented by proper mold and casting system design

to get the desired result (Niroumand, Karbasi, & Bagherpour-Toghabeh, 2011). With all these possible

defects considered, it would be wise to invest a good amount of time in designing the casting mold carefully

and thoroughly to prevent shrinkage, gas porosity, hot tearing and other undesirable outcomes that can

cause the metal to have even lower yield strength and other unsatisfactory results during the mechanical

testing in the laboratory.

3.15 Increasing of Strength

There are various methods and mechanisms that can increase the strength of a material but this will

also affect the other properties that the material possesses (Academic Resource Center, 2012). Heat treating

is one of the most common methods of increasing a metal alloy’s strength by heating it up to 300 °C below

the melting point of the metal for a certain time and then apply quenching to the metal for rapid drop in

temperature then air cooling will be done (ASM International, 1991). There has to be another consideration

for this study since our output will be around 99.5 % pure aluminum since the goal is to obtain the

mechanical properties of the recycled aluminum. An alternative to heat treating for increasing the strength

of a material is by cold working. Cold working can stretch the lattice points of a metal to its limits which

can lessen its chance to be deformed by stress or strain forces acting on it. Ductility is the ability of a metal

to deform plastically before fracturing or failing. This is used to form metals into desired shapes and sizes

and this property can also help determine the strength and quality of a certain metal while malleability is

the ability of a metal to deform permanently under stress and strain applied to it (Anzalone, 2011). The

ductility of the metal will also significantly decrease and the yield strength will increase as well as the

tensile strength of the metal or material (Yaylaci, Uzun, & Ural, 2010). Cold working also gives better

dimensional control because the metal won’t be too ductile compared to heated metals and this is the ideal

method for strength increase when a metal does not respond to heat treatment (Anzalone, 2011).

32
3.16 Mechanical Properties of Primary and Recycled Aluminum

There are various mechanical properties that define the qualities of a material for certain

applications such as high ductility, good strength with alloying which also increases its versatility and wide

range of applications (Davis J. R., 2001). The material also has good linear expansion, formability,

machinability and it is also easy to join this to other metals and materials (Raj, 2013). When aluminum is

stretched and stressed repeatedly, it will fracture due to plastic deformation and surpassing of the material’s

yield strength (Zhao et al., 2019). According to AZO Materials the tensile, compressive, hardness and

Young’s modulus of aluminum is 360 MPa, 280 MPa, 1250 MPa and 88.5 GPa. Recycled aluminum. The

compressive and tensile strength of recycled and primary aluminum if not that far, both materials went

through the same testing, heat treatment and various preparations before the testing process. This can prove

that recycling cans for the aluminum bar is not a far - off experiment to perform (Aydi, et al., 2015). When

recycling aluminum to prevent waste, extra care has to be taken especially when doing the heating process

since there can be impairing factors such as impurities, faulty heat treating and cooling and also the surface

oxides of the material before it enters the furnace (H. Tan, 2013). According to Raj (2013), most of the

aluminum used in today’s world is around 97 to 99.7 percent since pure aluminum is too soft for structural

value that is why alloying elements such as Manganese, Copper, Magnesium and Titanium are often used

along with aluminum to make it better since it already light, strong and easy to form and machine. In the

structural application, aluminum is too weak due to its low strength compared to steel but when alloying

elements are added, the strength will improve significantly compared to pure aluminum (Megson, 2017).

In the case of pure aluminum, which is not applicable to heat treating, careful heating and cooling cycles

are done to improve the tensile strength and overall strength of the material (Eyres & Bruce, 2012).

33
3.17 Tensile Strength of Recycled Aluminum

Tensile strength is the strength of a material or the resistance of a material to breaking under tension

(Roylance, 2008). When the material will be ready for testing, it will be cut into strips to be tested in the

UTM or Universal Testing Machine to obtain data with multiple trials for averaging on the tensile strength

of the material, in this case, the aluminum bar. One of the importance of obtaining the value of the tensile

strength is to know the limit of which the material can withstand since forces are constantly or most of the

time being acted on the material in its actual application (O'Neill, 1994). When the material goes under

tensile stress, it will go through the phase wherein it can go through deformation and go back to original

shape but when it reaches the point of plastic deformation, it will not be able to go back to its previous

formation, this is when the material goes through strain hardening since the lattice points are stretched and

cannot accommodate any further movement. Beyond the ultimate tensile strength of the material, it will

fracture or fail. That limit will be the absolute limit that it can attain (Bhardwaj, 2012). Necking is the

deformation that occurs before failure wherein the stress and strain cause the cross - sectional area of the

material to slowly decrease before it fractures or fails (Broberg, 1999). The qualities of the recycled

aluminum are very satisfactory as the primary due to the findings of Aydi et al. (2015) the tensile strength

difference does not exceed even 10% of the two metals. The testing and dimensions will be done according

to ASTM standards in order to comply with industry standards for material testing.

3.18 Tensile Strength of Primary Aluminum

The tensile strength of aluminum was found to be around 40 to 700 MPa and this is for typical

aluminum. The wide range of its tensile strength is due to the multiple compositions and other elements

that are usually associated with primary aluminum (Anilchandra, Arnbeg, Bonollo, Fiorese, & Timelli,

2017). Analyzing the tensile properties of primary aluminum will be the basis of the results of the results

to be obtained from the mechanical testing of the recycled aluminum from the soda cans. One of the most

common applications of aluminum is in the automotive industry due to the mechanical properties that

34
aluminum possesses. Aluminum is lightweight, strong and it can be easily formed and machined to chassis

and other parts of heavy contraptions (Kucharikova, Tillova, & Bokuvka, 2016). The tensile strength of

extruded aluminum was found to be 232.3 MPa and a Young’s Modulus of 69.5 MPa (Su & Young, 2017).

This can serve as one of our benchmarks when doing our tests. Another thing to consider is that Su and

Young (2017) used an aluminum alloy which means that is was strengthened and its properties were

enhanced by another metal, which means that expectations should be set to the range of 40 to 700 MPa

which is the one for the typical aluminum. A study from Megson (2014) states that pure aluminum or

aluminum in the 1xxx series is too soft and weak compared to the alloyed aluminum that the industry is

using. The 1xxx series of aluminum means that it is not applicable to heat treating for strength increase,

only those of 2xxx series and above are applicable to heat treating which can increase its strength by more

than 20% (Davis J. R., 2001). 1xxx series or pure aluminum is a very favorable material for the production

of sheet metal or electronic components, another reason is that pure aluminum has very good corrosion

resistance compared to alloyed aluminum which is in the 2xxx series and up (Hirsch, 2011). What gives

aluminum its good formability is its cubic crystalline structure with a face center (Campbell, 2008).

3.19 Compressive Strength of Recycled Aluminum

Compressive forces acting on the material are the forces that causes the length of the metal to

decrease and consequently, reduce the size of the material. It is the opposite of tension wherein the material

also goes through strain hardening before the material’s size reduces significantly from its original size

(Levitas, Stashkevich, & Nemirovskii, 1994). The compressive strength of a material such as aluminum

can help us understand how the material behaves when compressive forces act on it. Its application can be

appreciated in cases wherein the material will be meant to withstand these forces such as reinforcement for

a car chassis (Kucharikova, Tillova, & Bokuvka, 2016). The properties of aluminum compared to steel also

has its tradeoffs. For example, Steel has a tensile strength that is more than 2 times that of aluminum (Li &

Leroux, 2014) on the other hand, aluminum also has high formability, corrosion resistance and elasticity

compared to steel according to Raj (2013). The main focus of this study is to obtain the mechanical

35
properties of aluminum which is purely recycled from soda cans and compare it to the primary aluminum

and also to reduce the amount of waste in our environment, because as mentioned earlier, the energy

required to produce aluminum from recycling will save a large amount of energy and reduce waste by a

substantial amount every year and the years to come according to Global Aluminum Recycling (2013).

3.20 Young’s Modulus

The young’s modulus is the measure of a material’s stiffness or resistance to forces applied to a

material which was discovered by Thomas Young in the 19th century. It also defines the relation of stress

and strain of a certain material as well as its limits and the bigger the Young’s modulus, the bigger the

stiffness of the material (“Young’s Modulus”, n.d.). Stiffness is also defined as a material’s resistance to

deformation when forces are applied to it regardless of the direction according to Wikipedia. The energy

applied to the material can be stored elastically or dissipated plastically and the behavior of the energy

towards the material can be defined by the stress-strain curves of the material with its certain limits

(“Modulus of Elasticity” n.d.). According to Roylance, (2008) Hooke’s law also states that the force applied

is directionally proportional to the deformation and stiffness of a material which he made from analyzing

long wires under variable loads which he discovered in 1660. Considering the definition of Young’s

modulus, other data to be obtained will be deformation and other data after testing.

36
 CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY

4.1 Process Flow Chart

Fig. 2. Process flow of the study

37
4.2 Design Procedures

4.2.1 Design of the Casting Mold for the Tensile Test Specimen

The configuration of the mold is shown in Fig. 3. The tensile specimen casting mold

will have two (2) main parts, specifically the cope and the drag, with the cope being the

upper half of the mold containing the pouring vent and riser and the drag being the lower

half of the mold and will contain the shape of the tensile specimen. The cope and drag mold

configuration will be followed by all molds. The mold itself is composed of the wooden

frames of the mold and the green sand molds. The wooden frame will consist of connections

of ¾ inch thick plywood connections of different dimensions and placements, as shown in

Appendix 7. The green sand will contain the outline and shape of the test specimens at the

drag and the riser and vent at the cope. The layout of the specimen shape, the placement and

dimensions of the sand mold are shown in Appendix 10.

Fig. 3. Components of the casting mold for the tensile test specimen

38
Table 2. Components of the casting mold for the tensile test specimen

Part Number Name Quantity

1 Cope Wooden Frame 1

2 Cope Sand Mold 1

3 Drag Sand Mold 1

4 Drag Wooden Frame 1

4.2.2 Design of the Tensile Test Specimen

The tensile test specimen will follow the specifications and dimensions mentioned in

ASTM Designation E8/E8M – 16a: Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic

Materials, Section 6.2. The dimensions of the tensile test specimen are shown in Appendix 4 and will

utilize the dimensions of a plate specimen. The theoretical value of the tensile strength of recycled

aluminum from recycled beverage cans is calculated and shown in Appendix 13.

4.2.3 Design of the Casting Mold for the Hardness Test Specimen

The configuration of the mold is shown in Fig. 4. The mold itself is composed of

the wooden frames of the mold and the green sand molds. The wooden frame will consist of

connections of ¾ inch thick plywood connections of different dimensions and placements,

as shown in Appendix 8. The green sand will contain the outline and shape of the test

specimens at the drag and the riser and vent at the cope. The layout of the specimen shape,

the placement and dimensions of the sand mold are shown in Appendix 11.

39
 Fig. 4. Components of the casting mold for the hardness test specimen

Table 3. Components of the casting mold for the hardness test specimen

Part Number Name Quantity

1 Cope Wooden Frame 1

2 Cope Sand Mold 1

3 Drag Sand Mold 1

4 Drag Wooden Frame 1

40
4.2.4 Design of the Hardness Test Specimen

The hardness test specimen for the Vickers’ hardness test, the Rockwell hardness test, and

the Brinell hardness test will have the same dimensions. The specimen will follow the specifications

mentioned in ASTM Designation E92–82, E-18–17, and E10-15 respectively. The dimensions of the

hardness test specimen are shown in Appendix 5. Sample calculations on how to calculate the value

of the Rockwell hardness, Vickers’ hardness and Brinell hardness of a material is shown in

Appendices 14, 15, and 16.

4.2.5 Design of the Casting Mold for the Flexure Test Specimen

The configuration of the mold is shown in Fig. 7. The flexure test specimen casting

mold will have two (2) main parts, specifically the cope and the drag, with the cope being

the upper half of the mold containing the pouring vent and riser and the drag being the lower

half of the mold and will contain the shape of the tensile specimen. The cope and drag mold

configuration will be followed by all molds. The mold itself is composed of the wooden

frames of the mold and the green sand molds. The wooden frame will consist of connections

of ¾ inch thick plywood connections of different dimensions and placements, as shown in

Appendix 9. The green sand will contain the outline and shape of the test specimens at the

drag and the riser and vent at the cope. The layout of the specimen shape, the placement and

dimensions of the sand mold are shown in Appendix 12.

41
 Fig. 5. Components of the casting mold for the flexure test specimen

Table 4. Components of the casting mold for the flexure test specimen

Part Number Name Quantity

1 Cope Wooden Frame 1

2 Cope Sand Mold 1

3 Drag Sand Mold 1

4 Drag Wooden Frame 1

4.2.6 Design of the Flexure Test Specimen

The tensile test specimen will follow the specifications and dimensions mentioned in

ASTM Designation E290: Standard Test Methods for Bend Testing of Materials. The dimensions

of the flexure test specimen are shown in Appendix 6.

42
4.3 Materials and Equipment

4.3.1 Materials

A. Aluminum Beverage Cans

A number of used aluminum beverage cans (Fig. 6) with a thickness of 0.10mm,

123mm height, and maximum diameter of 66mm will be used as raw aluminum material

to be converted to recycled aluminum.

B. Coconut Shells

A number of coconut shells (Fig. 7) with varying sizes and dimensions will be used

as raw material to be converted to coconut shell ash, which in turn will be used as the

reinforcing element to the aluminum 3004.

C. Polystyrene Foam

Polystyrene Foam (Fig. 8) will be used as a cavity or filler for the shape of the test

specimens in the sand molds. Polystyrene foam is lightweight and easy to shape, making it

an ideal cavity or filler for the shape of the specimen.

D. Masking Tape

Masking tape is a type of pressure-sensitive tape made of a thin and easy-to-tear

paper, and an easily released pressure-sensitive adhesive. The tape (Fig. 9) will be used to

help fix the position of a specimen during testing. Tape would be ideal for that purpose

since it binds the object just right and the binding is not permanent.

E. ¾ inch thick Plywood

A ¾ inch thick plywood board (Fig. 10) will serve as a source of wood planks for

the formation of the wooden frames for the casting molds.

F. Green Sand

Green sand (Fig. 11) primarily consists of sand, clay and water. It is called green

sand for its property of being moist even when molten metal is poured into it. For our study,

43
 green sand will be used as the primary mold that will contain the outline and shape of the

test specimens.

4.3.2 Equipment

1. Automated Universal Testing Machine

An automated universal testing machine or UTM (Fig. 12) will be used to test the

tensile strength and flexural strength of the tensile and flexural recycled aluminum test

specimens. The data retrieved by the computer of the UTM can be viewed, saved, and

evaluated after it has been recorded and will be necessary in making calculations for the

tensile strength, flexural strength, and the Young’s Modulus of the recycled aluminum.

2. Vernier Caliper

A Vernier caliper (Fig.13) is a linear measuring instrument consisting of a scaled

rule with a projecting arm at one end, to which is attached a sliding Vernier with a

projecting arm that forms a jaw with the other projecting arm. The Vernier caliper will be

used to take accurate measurements of the dimensions of the specimens before and after

testing.

3. Crucible

A crucible (Fig.14) is a container where we place the aluminum pieces for melting

inside the furnace. The crucible must be resistant to high temperature or must have a high

melting point compared to the substance that is to be melted for it to retain its figure.

4. Muffle Furnace

A muffle furnace or muffle oven (Fig. 15) is a front-loading, box-type oven or kiln

for high temperature applications such as melting metals, fusing glass, creating enamel

coatings, and soldering and brazing articles.

44
5. Metal Spacer

The metal spacer (Fig. 16) will be used to put spaces in between clamps, specimen

positions, braces, etc. to tighten a specimen’s position and to prevent clamping marks from

appearing on the specimen and affecting its performance.

6. Ruler

A ruler (Fig. 17) is a measuring tool that is used to measure length with

measurements engraved on it on either side.

7. Hardness Tester

The hardness tester (Fig. 18) is the machine used for Hardness testing. This machine

indicates the hardness of a given specimen by utilizing the depth penetrated by the indenter

under a given load. It has a placement for interchangeable hardness indenters and a variable

height plate on which the test specimen will rest.

8. Allen Wrench (Hex Key)

The Allen wrench (Fig. 19) is used to tighten or loosen female hexagonal female

key. It is used to attach and detach the pendulum hammer in the impact tester. In the UTM,

it is used to attach and detach the three-point bending testing fixtures.

9. Hacksaw

The hacksaw (Fig. 20) is a saw with a narrow fine-toothed blade set in a frame, used

especially for cutting metal. It will be used to cut or detach larger and unnecessary parts

from the finished products or specimens.

10. Angle Grinder

The angle grinder (Fig. 21) is a handheld power tool used for grinding (abrasive

cutting) and polishing materials. It will be used for removing smaller parts and smoothening

the finished products or specimens.

45
11. Bench Vise

A bench vise (Fig. 22) is used to clamp of hold in place a piece to be machined or

worked on. It will be used to clamp the finished product or specimen in place while it will

be cut or grinded.

12. Three-Point flexural Testing Fixtures

The three-point flexural testing fixtures (Fig. 23) are the materials used for the

flexural test. They are attached to the UTM; specimen is mounted on to the two braces

below while the single upper piece presses on to the specimen, between the two lower

braces, until it bends.

13. Safety Goggles

Safety goggles (Fig. 24) are precautionary apparatus used to protect the eyes from

potential harm and danger.

14. Wrench

A wrench (Fig. 25) is a tool used for gripping, turning, loosening, and tightening

pieces like nuts, bolts, pipes, etc.

15. Screwdriver

A screwdriver (Fig. 26) is a tool used to tighten screws to a piece with screw holes.

A flathead screwdriver tightens screws that only have a horizontal notch on their screw

heads.

16. Microscope

A microscope (Fig. 27) is used to view the indentation, done by the indenter, in the

specimen used for the hardness test.

17. 2.5mm Steel Ball Indenter (b1)

The ball indenters (Fig. 28) are hardened steel balls that ranges from 10mm, 5mm,

and 2.5mm (Left to right) in diameter. These indenters can be mounted into the hardness

tester and used for the Brinell hardness test.

46
18. Quadrilateral Diamond Pyramid Indenter (b2)

The diamond indenter (Fig. 29) is an indenter with its tip having a pyramid-shaped

diamond of 136o angle. This indenter is mounted into the hardness tester and used for the

Vickers hardness test.

19. 120° Cone Indenter (b3)

The 120° cone indenter or brale indenter (Fig. 30) is a spherical diamond-tipped cone

indenter forming a 120° angle. This indenter is mounted into the hardness tester and used

for the Rockwell C hardness test.

20. Sieve (BS Sieve #200)

A sieve is a utensil consisting of a wire or plastic mesh held in a frame, used for

straining solids from liquids, for separating coarser from finer particles, or for reducing soft

solids to a pulp.

21. Brush

A brush is an implement with a handle, consisting of bristles, hair, or wire set into a

block, used for cleaning or scrubbing, applying a liquid or powder to a surface, arranging

the hair, or other purposes.

22. Mortar and Pestle

The mortar is a bowl, typically made of hard wood, metal, ceramic, or hard stone,

such as granite. The pestle is a heavy and blunt club-shaped object.

23. Weighing Scale

Is a device used to measure weight or mass.

47
 24. Graduated Cylinder

A graduated cylinder is a common piece of laboratory equipment used to measure the

volume of a liquid.

Fig. 9. Masking Tape

Fig. 6. Aluminum Beverage Cans

Fig. 10. Plywood

Fig. 7. Coconut Shells

Fig. 11. Green Sand

Fig. 8. Polystyrene Foam

48
Fig. 12. Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

Fig. 15. Muffle Furnace

Fig. 13. Vernier Caliper

Fig. 16. Metal Spacer

Fig. 14. Crucible

Fig. 17. Ruler

49
 Fig. 21. Angle Grinder

Fig. 18. Hardness Tester

Fig. 22. Bench Vise

Fig. 19. Allen Wrench

Fig. 23. 3-Point Test Fixtures

Fig. 20. Hacksaw

50
Fig. 24. Safety Goggles

Fig. 25. Wrench

Fig. 26. Screwdriver Fig. 29. Quadrilateral Pyramid Cone Indenter

51
 Fig. 30. 120° Cone Indenter

Fig. 27. Microscope

Fig. 31. Sieve

Fig. 28. 2.5mm diameter cone indenter

Fig. 32. Brush

52
 Fig. 34. Weighing Scale
Fig. 33. Mortar and Pestle

Fig. 35. Graduated Cylinder

4.4 Fabrication Procedure

4.4.1 Wooden Frame for the Molds

The part needed for the wooden frames of the molds is the plank of ¾ inch plywood. The

plywood is to be cut into smaller pieces which are based on the dimensions specified in Appendices

7, 8, and 9.

When the parts are ready, the wooden frames for the molds can be assembled following the

steps below:

53
 1. For the cope mold, lay out the placement of the long and short sides of the mold and

nail them to each other at the far sides of each piece to complete the cope mold.

2. For the drag mold, lay out the placement of the long and short sides of the mold and

nail them to each other at the far sides of each piece. Once that is done, nail the

partially done frame to the wooden base to complete the drag mold.

4.4.2 Fabrication of the Casting Molds

The parts needed for this section of the fabrication procedure are the formed cope and drag

wood mold frames, green sand, and polystyrene foam patterns. The frames will have to contain the

green sand before the polystyrene form pattern will occupy the box to make sure that the impression

or shape of the pattern will be in the right place and have the right dimensions.

The impression patterns are to be cut from the polystyrene foam based on the specimen

dimensions specified in Appendices 4, 5, and 6.

1. A paper version of the specimen will first be printed and cut into shape so that the

dimensions will be as accurate as possible.

2. The paper specimen will then be laid on the polystyrene foam and the specimen’s

outline will be drawn on the foam. The polystyrene foam will then be cut around

by outline of the specimen.

When the polystyrene patterns ae complete, the sand can then be added to the wooden box.

The sand will have to be mixed with water and sodium silicate to improve the compacting

performance and it will help keep the sand structure steady. These steps are specifically enumerated

below.

1. Fill the drag mold with sand but do not compact the sand yet.

54
 2. Place the specimen in the sand based on the dimensions specified in Appendices 10,

11, and 12.

3. Compact the sand to keep the structure steady and firm during the casting process.

Add more sand over the top layer and repeat compacting it until the sand reaches the

rim of the mold. It is important to make sure that the sand is well compacted because

the quality of the casted specimens will also depend on how well the sand is

compacted.

4. Repeat the steps for the formation of the cope sand molds. The risers and vents will

be made on the sand by a cylindrical object to allow the molten metal to flow in and

out of the pattern for the optimal result when the molten metal solidifies.

5. Both the drag and cope will be joined after the construction of the vents and risers

then the mold will be tightly secured to prevent leaks. This is the final step to do

before the casting begins.

4.5 Preparation of the Coconut Shell Ash

The coconut shells need to be converted to powder ash first before the melting process starts. The

coconut shells will be prepared in the traditional method of creating coconut shell ash. The steps to do this

are enumerated below:

1. 10 kilograms of coconut shells will first be washed with water and scrubbed with a brush to

remove contaminants on the shell, specifically soil, dust particles, and husk fibers that are

stuck on the shells.

2. After washing, the coconut shells will be wiped with a cloth or tissue. The shells with then be

sun dried for 48 hours to remove moisture from the shells.

55
3. The coconut shells will then be subjected to uncontrolled open-air combustion at temperatures

between 250°C to 700°C (Cogut, 2016) for a minimum of 3 hours until coconut shell ash

(CSA) forms. The CSA will then be cooled for 12 hours at room temperature (27°C-28°C).

Fig. 36. Open air burning of coconut shells.

4. The cooled CSA will then be manually pulverized using a mortar and pestle. The pulverized

CSA will then be subjected to a sieve analysis using a size #200 (75 microns) BS sieve

(British Test Sieve Series). The resulting sieved CSA with a particle size of 75 microns will be

used. The remaining CSA that did not go through the sieve will be manually pulverized again

using a mortar and pestle and then sieved again.

Fig. 37. How sieve analysis works.

56
4.6 Preparation of the Recycled Aluminum Beverage Cans

The obtained recycled beverage cans will have to be cleaned and freed from dust and liquids before

the melting process starts.

1. The cans (10 kg) will have to be stripped off its lacquer or paint to prevent the formation of

blow holes during the pouring. To do this, the beverage cans will be placed inside the pressure

cooker with water level at 25% of the height of the cans (2 inches).

Fig. 38. Filling up the pressure cooker with 2 inches of water.

2. The cans will be subjected to water boiling temperature in the pressure cooker for 20 minutes

at a pressure of 103.421 kPa (or 15 psi) to remove the bond of the paint and the aluminum.

3. Once 20 minutes have passed, the pressure cooker will be relieved of the heat and the cans

will be removed and allowed to cool to room temperature (26°C – 28°C).

4. With a cloth or tissue, the cans will be wiped with acetone to fully remove the paint.

Fig. 39. Wiping off the paint on the cans with acetone.

57
 5. The cans will be cut into strips to maximize the amount of aluminum that can be inserted in

the crucible.

6. The strips will then be weighed, and the weight will be recorded.

7. The strips will then be inserted in the crucible for melting and then the crucible will be placed

inside the furnace and the door of the furnace will be closed tightly.

4.7 Melting the Aluminum Beverage Cans and Reinforcing with CSA

The aluminum beverage cans will be melted in the electric muffle furnace and then reinforced with

the powdered coconut shell ash. This process is listed below.

1. Once the filled crucible is in the furnace and the furnace door secured, the temperature will be set

at a range of 700°C to 720°C and the furnace will be set to run for 4 hours to obtain optimal

melting of the aluminum.

2. While the aluminum is melting, the powdered coconut shell ash will be weighed according to the

set % weight to be added (0%, 4%, 8%, and 12% weight).

3. Once the aluminum has just melted completely, the molten aluminum will be allowed to cool for

20 seconds before the powdered coconut shell ash will be added to the molten aluminum. To mix

the powder in the molten aluminum, a stirring rod with stirring blades will be attached to a hand

drill and that will be used to stir the powder in the molten metal and create the reinforced

aluminum metal. Stir for around 3-5 minutes.

Fig. 40. Stir casting of the reinforced aluminum.

58
 4. After stirring, the molten reinforced aluminum in the crucible will be returned to the furnace and

will be allowed to reheat for some time to make up for the heat lost during the mixing process.

4.8 Casting of the Melted Reinforced Aluminum

Once the reinforced aluminum has been melted and has fully reached molten form, the molten metal

in the crucible will be carefully extracted from the furnace to prevent any spillage or hazards with

the use of the large tongs available in the machine shop.

1. The molten reinforced aluminum will be poured to the vent of the mold until the molten metal

can be seen exiting from the riser.

Fig. 41. Casting molten metal in a sand mold.

2. Once the metal has cooled, the cope and drag will be opened and the sand will be broken down

for the specimen to be extracted for air cooling.

3. The specimen will be left to cool at room temperature for preparation for machine testing.

4.9 Testing Procedures

4.9.1 Hardness Testing

In hardness testing, the type of hardness number will depend on what kind of

indenter will be used. Therefore, a specific indenter will be acquired depending on the test

59
performed. Each indenter has a different kind of indentation (Fig. 42). The cover of the

cover of the penetrator will then be detached by using a flat-head screwdriver in order to

lock in place the indenter. After doing so, the cover will be reattached.

The lever at the side of the machine will be set to horizontal position before the

test will be conducted, after which the designated load for the performed hardness test will

be put on the pulling rod.

The aluminum hardness specimen will be put on the plate and the plate will be

raised according to the specified instructions of each test. Once the plate is in place, the

lever will be pushed to an upward position and the test will be conducted for a specified

duration of seconds and then the lever will be pulled down after the test.

Fig. 42. The different kinds of indentations from different indenters

The dent created will then be examined using a microscope. A single specimen

can accommodate a number of trials from an indenter, as seen in a sample specimen in Fig.

43. The hardness numbers can then be determined using the data gathered from the

experiment and through the use of Equations 1 & 2 and the tables and sample solutions in

60
Appendices 2, 14, 15, and 16. The data gathered will then be recorded in the data table

shown in Appendix 18.

Fig. 43. Multiple hardness test trials performed on one specimen

4.9.2 Tensile Testing

The dimensions of the specimens will first be taken using a Vernier caliper. The

dimensions to be measured will be based on the specimen dimensions shown in Appendix

#. For this test, a maximum load of 3000 kg will be used.

The clamps of the UTM will be released/opened. Using tongs, the first specimen

will first be inserted to the lower clamp. Once that is secured, the specimen will slowly be

secured to the second clamp by raising the level of the lower crosshead. The final position

of the specimen before testing is shown below in Fig. 44.

61
 Fig. 44. Specimen position in the UTM

The load will then gradually be applied to the specimen at a rate of 0.5mm/min until

the specimen breaks. The test stops when the specimen breaks. The tensile strength and

Young’s Modulus can then be calculated using the data gathered from the test and through

the use of Equations 3, 4, and 7. A sample calculation for the Young’s Modulus can be found

in Appendix 17. The gathered/calculated data will then be recorded in the data table shown

in Appendix 18.

4.9.3 Flexure Testing

For the determination of the flexural strength, the 3-point bending test, also known

as the flexural test, will be performed. Before testing, the length, width, and height are to be

measured using a ruler. The measurements should be taken 5 times and then averaged. The

test specimen will then be centered on the support blocks in relation to the applied force (Fig.

45). Once the specimen is positioned, the load-applying block will be brought in contact with

the surface of the specimen. The test can then commence.

62
 Fig. 45. Three-point bend test set up

The specimen will be loaded continuously without shock. The load will be applied

constantly to the breaking point of the specimen and then the data will be recorded along

with the dimensions of the material. The flexural stress and strain can then be calculated

using the data from the test and using Equations 5 and 6. The gathered/calculated data will

then be recorded in the data table shown in Appendix 18.

4.10 Gantt Charts

12/16/2019

12/26/2019

1/15/2020

1/25/2020

2/14/2020

2/24/2020
Chart 1. Gantt Chart Schedule of this study (ME Project Design 1).
1/5/2020

2/4/2020

Data Gathering

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Finishing of paper

Preparation for Thesis proposal

Thesis proposal

Revisions

63
 3/11/2020

5/20/2020
2/20/2020

3/21/2020

3/31/2020

4/10/2020

4/20/2020

4/30/2020

5/10/2020
Chart 2. Gantt Chart Schedule of this study (ME Project Design 2).

3/1/2020
Canvassing for materials

Gathering and preparation of materials

Fabrication of materials

Testing and data gathering

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Finishing of paper

Preparation for Thesis defense

Thesis defense

Revisions and book binding

64
 APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Rockwell Hardness Scales

(Courtesy of ASTM)

Total
Scale Test Dial
Indenter Typical Applications of Scales
Symbol Force, Figures
kgf
Copper alloys, soft steels,
1/16-in. (1.588=mm) ball
B 100 Red aluminum alloys, malleable iron,
diamond
etc.
Steel, hard cast irons, pearlitic
1/16-in. (1.588=mm) ball malleable iron, titanium, deep case
C 150 Black
diamond hardened steel, and other materials
harder than B100.
Cemented carbides, thin steel, and
A diamond 60 Black
shallow case-hardened steel.
Thin steel and medium case
D diamond 100 Black hardened steel, and pearlitic
malleable iron.
Annealed copper alloys, thin soft
E 1/8-in. (3.175-mm) ball 100 Red
sheet metals.
Malleable irons, copper-nickel-zinc
and cupro-nickel alloys. Upper
F 1/16-in (1.588-mm) ball 60 Red
limit G92 to avoid possible
flattening of ball.
Aluminum, zinc, lead. Bearing
metals and other very soft or thin
G 1/16-in (1.588-mm) ball 150 Red materials. Use smallest ball and
heaviest load that does not give
anvil effect.
Bearing metals and other very soft
or thin materials. Use smallest ball
H 1/8-in. (3.175-mm) ball 60 Red
and heaviest load that does not give
anvil effect.
Bearing metals and other very soft
or thin materials. Use smallest ball
K 1/8-in. (3.175-mm) ball 150 Red
and heaviest load that does not give
anvil effect.
Bearing metals and other very soft
or thin materials. Use smallest ball
L 1/4-in. (6.350-mm) ball 60 Red
and heaviest load that does not give
anvil effect.
Bearing metals and other very soft
or thin materials. Use smallest ball
M 1/4-in. (6.350-mm) ball 100 Red
and heaviest load that does not give
anvil effect.

65

P 1/4-in. (6.350-mm) ball
R 1/2-in. (12.70-mm) ball
S 1/2-in. (12.70-mm) ball
V 1/2-in. (12.70-mm) ball
Bearing metals and other very soft
or thin materials. Use smallest ball
150 Red
and heaviest load that does not give
anvil effect.
Bearing metals and other very soft
or thin materials. Use smallest ball
60 Red
and heaviest load that does not give
anvil effect.
Bearing metals and other very soft
or thin materials. Use smallest ball
100 Red
and heaviest load that does not give
anvil effect.
Bearing metals and other very soft
or thin materials. Use smallest ball
150 Red
and heaviest load that does not give
anvil effect.

Appendix 2. Brinell Hardness Numbers

(Courtesy of ASTM)

66
Appendix 2. Continued

(Courtesy of ASTM)

67
Appendix 2. Continued

(Courtesy of ASTM)

68
Appendix 2. Continuation

(Courtesy of ASTM)

69
Appendix 2. Continuation
(Courtesy of ASTM)

70
Appendix 2. Continuation

(Courtesy of ASTM)

71
Appendix 2. Continuation

(Courtesy of ASTM)

72
Appendix 2. Continuation

(Courtesy of ASTM)

73
Appendix 2. Continuation

(Courtesy of ASTM)

Appendix 3. Vickers’ Hardness Numbers

(Courtesy of ASTM)

74
Appendix 3. Continuation

(Courtesy of ASTM)

75
Appendix 4. Tensile Test Specimen Dimensions
(Courtesy of ASTM)

The tensile test specimen to be used in this study will be a Plate Type Specimen. The dimensions of the
specimen are as follows:

Dimensions
Plate Type Specimen
Notes
mm. [in.]
Gauge Length 200.0 +- 0.2 [8.00 +- 0.01] Note 1 and Note 2
40.0 +- 2.0 [1.500 +- 0.125, -
Width Note 3 and Note 4
0.250]
Thickness See Note 5 Note 5
Radius of fillet, minimum 25 [1] Note 6
Overall length, minimum 450 [18] Note 2, Note 7, and Note 8
Length of reduced parallel section,
225 [9]
minimum
Length of grip section, minimum 75 [3] Note 9
Width of grip section,
50 [2] Note 4 and Note 9
approximate

NOTE 1—For the 40 mm [1.500 in.] wide specimen, punch marks for measuring elongation after

fracture shall be made on the flat or on the edge of the specimen and within the reduced parallel section.

76
Either a set of nine or more punch marks 25 mm [1 in.] apart, or one or more pairs of punch marks 200 mm

[8 in.] apart may be used.

NOTE 2—When elongation measurements of 40 mm [1.500 in.] wide specimens are not required,

a minimum length of reduced parallel section (A) of 75 mm [2.25 in.] may be used with all other dimensions

similar to those of the plate-type specimen.

NOTE 3—For the three sizes of specimens, the ends of the reduced parallel section shall not differ

in width by more than 0.10, 0.05 or 0.02 mm [0.004, 0.002 or 0.001 in.], respectively. Also, there may be

a gradual decrease in width from the ends to the center, but the width at each end shall not be more than 1

% larger than the width at the center.

NOTE 4—For each of the three sizes of specimens, narrower widths (W and C) may be used when

necessary. In such cases the width of the reduced parallel section should be as large as the width of the

material being tested permits; however, unless stated specifically, the requirements for elongation in a

product specification shall not apply when these narrower specimens are used.

NOTE 5—The dimension T is the thickness of the test specimen as provided for in the applicable

material specifications. Minimum thickness of 40 mm [1.500 in.] wide specimens shall be 5 mm [0.188

in.]. Maximum thickness of 12.5 and 6 mm [0.500 and 0.250 in.] wide specimens shall be 19 and 6 mm

[0.750 and 0.250 in.], respectively.

NOTE 6—For the 40 mm [1.500 in.] wide specimen, a 13 mm [0.500 in.] minimum radius at the

ends of the reduced parallel section is permitted for steel specimens under 690 MPa [100 000 psi] in tensile

strength when a profile cutter is used to machine the reduced section.

77
 NOTE 7—The dimension shown is suggested as a minimum. In determining the minimum length,

the grips must not extend in to the transition section between Dimensions A and B, see Note 9.

NOTE 8—To aid in obtaining axial force application during testing of 6-mm [0.250-in.] wide

specimens, the overall length should be as large as the material will permit, up to 200 mm [8.00 in.].

NOTE 9—It is desirable, if possible, to make the length of the grip section large enough to allow

the specimen to extend into the grips a distance equal to two thirds or more of the length of the grips. If the

thickness of 12.5 mm [0.500-in.] wide specimens is over 10 mm [0.375 in.], longer grips and

correspondingly longer grip sections of the specimen may be necessary to prevent failure in the grip section.

NOTE 10—For the three sizes of specimens, the ends of the specimen shall be symmetrical in

width with the center line of the reduced parallel section within 2.5, 1.25 and 0.13 mm [0.10, 0.05 and 0.005

in.], respectively. However, for referee testing and when required by product specifications, the ends of the

12.5 mm [0.500 in.] wide specimen shall be symmetrical within 0.2 mm [0.01 in.].

NOTE 11—For each specimen type, the radii of all fillets shall be equal to each other within a

tolerance of 1.25 mm [0.05 in.], and the centers of curvature of the two fillets at a particular end shall be

located across from each other (on a line perpendicular to the centerline) within a tolerance of 2.5mm [0.10

in.].

NOTE 12—Specimens with sides parallel throughout their length are permitted, except for referee

testing, provided: (a) the above tolerances are used; (b) an adequate number of marks are provided for

determination of elongation; and (c) when yield strength is determined, a suitable extensometer is used. If

the fracture occurs at a distance of less than 2 W from the edge of the gripping device, the tensile properties

determined may not be representative of the material. In acceptance testing, if the properties meet the

78
minimum requirements specified, no further testing is required, but if they are less than the minimum

requirements, discard the test and retest.

Appendix 5. Hardness Test Specimen Dimensions

(Courtesy of ASTM)

The hardness test specimen dimensions were created based on specifications stated in ASTM

Designations E18-17, E10-15, and E92-82 that the specimen should be thick enough that the indenter can

penetrate a small layer but strong enough to not compress or crumple under pressure from the hardness

tester.

Appendix 6. Flexural Test Specimen Dimensions

(Courtesy of ASTM)

79
 The flexure test specimen dimensions were created based on specifications stated in ASTM

Designations E290 that the specimen should be less than 38mm thick and can have any length or width so

as long as that the specimen fits within the test supports.

Appendix 7. Tensile Specimen Wood Mold Frame Dimensions

Fig. 1a. Tensile specimen mold cope wood frame assembly

80
Fig. 2a. Tensile specimen mold drag wood frame assembly

Fig. 3a. Tensile specimen mold wood frame long side piece

Fig. 4a. Tensile specimen mold wood frame short side piece

Fig. 5a. Tensile specimen mold drag wood frame base

81
Appendix 8. Hardness Specimen Wood Mold Frame Dimensions

Fig. 6a. Hardness specimen cope mold wood

frame assembly
Fig. 8a. Hardness specimen mold wood frame
long side piece

Fig. 7a. Hardness specimen mold drag wood Fig. 9a. Hardness specimen mold wood frame
frame assembly short side piece

Fig. 10a. Hardness specimen mold drag wood frame base

82
Appendix 9. Flexure Test Specimen Mold Wood Frame Dimensions

Fig. 21a. Flexure specimen mold cope wood frame assembly

Fig. 22a. Flexure specimen mold drag wood frame assembly

Fig. 23a. Flexure specimen mold wood frame long side piece

83
 Fig. 24a. Flexure specimen mold wood frame short side piece

Fig. 25a. Flexure specimen mold drag wood frame base

Appendix 10. Tensile Test Specimen Sand Molds

Fig. 26a. Tensile test specimen drag sand mold

84
 Fig. 27a. Tensile test Specimen cope sand mold

Appendix 11. Hardness Test Specimen Sand Mold

Fig. 28a. Hardness Test Specimen Drag Sand Mold

Fig. 29a. Hardness Test Specimen Cope Sand Mold

85
Appendix 12. Flexure Test Specimen Sand Mold

Fig. 34a. Flexure test specimen drag sand mold

Fig. 35a. Flexure test Specimen cope sand mold

Appendix 13. Tensile Stress of Aluminum Beverage Cans

Since the tensile strength of primary aluminum which is from soda cans is 215 MPa, and

our cross – sectional area is 200 mm2 due to testing standards of ASTM B557M, our force applied

can be calculated as follows.

𝐹 = 215 𝑀𝑃𝑎 ∗ (200𝑚𝑚2 )

𝐹 = 𝟒𝟑 𝑴𝑵

86
Appendix 14. Sample of Rockwell Hardness Number

The Rockwell hardness number can be determined by getting the number on the hardness

tester then by using the scale of the Rockwell test, in our case it will be scale B since we are dealing

with aluminum. An example can be 50 HRB which means 50 is the scale reading then HRB is

Rockwell hardness on the B scale.

Appendix 15. Sample Calculation of Brinell Hardness Number

The Brinell hardness number can be obtained using a tungsten carbide ball with different

diameters with an applied load of 3000 Kgf for at least 30 seconds. Using Equation 2, the Brinell

hardness number can be calculated as observed in the sample calculation below.

190
𝐵𝐻𝑁 = 𝜋
( ) (10 − √102 − 7.52 )
2 10 ∗

190
𝐵𝐻𝑁 = 𝜋
( )
2 ∗ 10 3.385

𝑩𝑯𝑵 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟕

Hardness sample = 3.57 HBW 10/190/30

Where 3.57 is the Brinell hardness number, 10 is the diameter of the ball, 190 is the load
applied, and 30 is time in seconds.

Appendix 16. Sample Calculation of Vickers’ Hardness Number

The Vickers hardness test makes use of a diamond tip indenter with diagonals that make

an impression on the material. The number can be obtained using Equation 2. A sample calculation

is shown below.

87
 10
𝐻𝑉 = 1.854
𝐷2

(8.5 + 8.7)
𝐷2 = = 8.6
2

𝑯𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟓𝟓

The final Vickers number must be presented as 2.155 HV 10. Where 10 is the load applied

in Kgf. Note that the diameter is in mm.

Appendix 17. Sample Calculation of Young’s Modulus

The Young’s modulus is the measure of how elastic a material is. The unit for this value is

in GPa or giga pascals. It is obtained by getting the ratio of the stress and strain of the material

after fracture or failure. A sample calculation of the Young’s modulus is shown below.

Assuming stress σ = 16 GPa, Elongation of aluminium = 20%, initial length from ASTM B557M

of 225 mm

Elongation = 45 mm

45𝑚𝑚
𝜖= 225𝑚𝑚
= 0.2

Solving Young’s modulus

𝟏𝟔 𝑮𝑷𝒂
𝑬= = 80 GPa
𝟎.𝟐

88
Appendix 18. Sample Data Gathering Tables

0% weight CSA
Tensile
Trial # VHN RHN BHN
Strength
1
2
3
4
5
Average

4% weight CSA
Tensile
Trial # VHN RHN BHN
Strength
1
2
3
4
5
Average

8% weight CSA
Tensile
Trial # VHN RHN BHN
Strength
1
2
3
4
5
Average

12% weight
CSA
Tensile
Trial # VHN RHN BHN
Strength
1
2
3
4
5
Average

89
Appendix 19. Sample Data Charts

Average Vicker's Hardness Numbers

0% 3% 6% 9% 12%
Weight % Coconut Shell Ash
Average Rockwell Hardness Number

0% 3% 6% 9% 12%
Weight % Coconut Shell Ash

90
Average Brinell Hardness Number

0% 3% 6% 9% 12%
Weight % Coconut Shell Ash
Average Tensile Strength

0% 3% 6% 9% 12%
Weight % Coconut Shell Ash

91
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