Chapter one:

Introduction to Industrial Automation and Control

1-1 Industry, control and Automation

Industry: Systematic Economic Activity that could be related to man Manufacture /Service/ Trade.

Automation Systems may include Control Systems but the reverse is not true. Control Systems may
be parts of Automation Systems.

The main function of control systems is to ensure that outputs follow the set points. However,
Automation Systems may have much more functionality, such as computing set points for control
systems, monitoring system performance, plant startup or shutdown, job and equipment scheduling
etc.

1-2 Types of Automation Systems

Fixed Automation: It is used in high volume production with dedicated equipment, which has a
fixed set of operation.
Programmable Automation: It is used for a changeable sequence of operation and
configuration of the machines using electronic controls.
Flexible Automation: It is used in Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) which is invariably
computer control.
Integrated Automation: It denotes complete automation of a manufacturing plant, with all
processes functioning under computer control and under coordination through digital information
processing.

1-3 Architecture of Industrial Automation Systems

The Functional Elements of Industrial Automation

An Industrial Automation (IA) System consists of numerous elements that perform a variety of
functions related to Instrumentation, Control, Supervision and Operations Management related to the
industrial process. These elements may also communicate with one another to exchange information
necessary for overall coordination and optimized operation of the plant/factory/process. Below, we
classify the major functional elements typically found in IA systems and also describe the nature of
technologies that are employed to realize the functions.
Sensing and Actuation Elements
These elements interface directly and physically to the process equipment and machines. The sensing
elements translate the physical process signals such as temperature, pressure or displacement to
convenient electrical or pneumatic forms of information, so that these signals can be used for
analysis, decisions and finally, computation of control inputs. These computed control inputs, which
again are in convenient electrical or pneumatic forms of information, need to be converted to physical
process inputs such as, heat, force or flow-rate, before they can be applied to effect the desired
changes in the process outputs. Such physical control inputs are provided by the actuation elements.
Industrial Sensors and Instrument Systems
Scientific and engineering sensors and instrument systems of a spectacular variety of size, weight,
cost, complexity and technology are used in the modern industry. However, a close look would reveal
that all of them are composed of a set of typical functional elements connected in a specified way to
provide signal in a form necessary. The various tasks involved in the automation systems. Fig 1.1
below shows the configuration of a typical sensor system.

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 Fig. 1.1 Functional configuration of a typical sensor system

In Fig. 1.1 a sensor system is shown decomposed into three of its major functional components, along
with the medium in which the measurement takes place. These are described below.
A. The physical medium refers to the object where a physical phenomenon is taking place and we are
interested in the measurement of some physical variable associated with the phenomenon. Thus,
for example, the physical medium may stand for the hot place in a furnace in the case of
temperature measurement or the fluid in a pipe section in the case of measurement of liquid flow
rate.
B. The sensing element is affected by the phenomenon in the physical medium either through direct
or physical contact or through indirect interaction of the phenomenon in the medium with some
component of the sensing element. Again, considering the case of temperature measurement, one
may use a thermocouple probe as the sensing element that often comes in physical contact with
the hot object such as the flue gas out of a boiler-furnace or an optical pyrometer which compares
the brightness of a hot body in the furnace with that of a lamp from a distance through some
window and does not come in direct contact with the furnace. In the more common case where the
sensing element comes in contact with the medium, often some physical or chemical property of
the sensor changes in response to the measurement variable. This change then becomes a measure
of the physical variable of interest. A typical example is the change in resistivity due to heat in a
resistance thermometer wire. Alternatively, in some other sensors a signal is directly generated in
the sensing element, as is the case of a thermocouple that generates a voltage in response to a
difference in temperature between its two ends.
C. The signal-conditioning element serves the function of altering the nature of the signal generated
by the sensing element. Since the method of converting the nature of the signal generated in the
sensor to another suitable signal form (usually electrical) depends essentially on the sensor,
individual signal conditioning modules are characteristic of a group of sensing elements. As an
example consider a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) whose output response is a change in
its resistance due to change in temperature of its environment. This change in resistance can easily
be converted to a voltage signal by incorporating the RTD in one arm of a Wheatstone's bridge.
The bridge therefore serves as a signal-conditioning module. Signal conditioning modules are also
used for special purpose functions relating to specific sensors but not related to variable
conversion such as `ambient referencing' of thermocouples. These typically involve analog
electronic circuits that finally produce electrical signals in the form of voltage or current in
specific ranges.
D. The signal processing element is used to process the signal generated by the first stage for a
variety of purposes such as, filtering (to remove noise), diagnostics (to assess the health of the
sensor), and linearization (to obtain an output which is linearly related with the physical
measurand) etc. Signal processing systems are therefore usually more general purpose in nature.
E. The target signal-handling element may perform a variety of functions depending on the target
application. It may therefore contain data/signal display modules, recording or/storage modules, or
simply a feedback to a process control system. Examples include a temperature chart recorder, an
instrumentation tape recorder, a digital display or an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) followed
by an interface to a process control computer.

While the above description fits in most cases, it may be possible to discover some variations in some
cases. The above separation into subsystems is not only from a functional point of view, more often than
not, these subsystems are clearly distinguishable physically in a measurement system.
Modern sensors often have the additional capability of digital communication using serial, parallel or
network communication protocols. Such sensors are called “smart” and contain embedded digital
electronic processing systems.

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Industrial Actuator Systems
Actuation systems convert the input signals computed by the control systems into forms that can be
applied to the actual process and would produce the desired variations in the process physical variables. In
the same way as in sensors but in a reverse sense, these systems convert the controller output, which is
essentially information without the power and in the form of electrical voltages (or at times pneumatic
pressure) in two ways. Firstly it converts the form of the variable into the appropriate physical variable,
such as torque, heat or flow. Secondly it amplifies the energy level of the signal manifold to be able to
causes changes in the process variables. Thus, while both sensors and actuators cause variable
conversions, actuators are high power devices while sensors are not. It turns out that in most cases,
actuators are devices that first produce motion from electrical signal, which is then further converted to
other forms. Based on the above requirement of energy and variable conversion most actuation systems
are structured as shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2 Functional configuration of a typical actuator system

In Fig.2.2 an actuator system is shown decomposed into its major functional components, The salient
points about the structure are described below.
A. The electronic signal-processing element accepts the command from the control system in
electrical form. The command is processed in various ways. For example it may be filtered to
avoid applying input signals of certain frequencies that may cause resonance. Many actuators are
themselves closed feedback controlled units for precision of the actuation operation. Therefore the
electronic signal-processing unit often contains the control system for the actuator itself.

B. The electronic power amplification element sometimes contains linear power amplification stages
called servo-amplifiers. In other cases, it may comprise power electronic drive circuits such as for
motor driven actuators.
C. The variable conversion element serves the function of altering the nature of the signal generated
by the electronic power amplification element from electrical to non-electrical form, generally in
the form of motion. Examples include electrohydraulic servo valve, stepper/servo motors, Current
to Pneumatic Pressure converters etc.
D. The non-electrical power conversion elements are used to amplify power further, if necessary,
typically using hydraulic or pneumatic mechanisms.
E. The non-electrical variable conversion elements may be used further to transform the actuated
variable in desired forms, often in several stages. Typical examples include motion-to-flow rate
conversion in flow-valves, rotary to linear motion converters using mechanisms, flow-rate to heat
conversion using steam or other hot fluids etc.
F. Other Miscellaneous Elements such as Auxiliaries for Lubrication/Cooling/Filtering, Reservoirs,
Prime Movers etc., sensors for feedback, components for display, remote operations, as well as
safety mechanisms since the power handling level is significantly high.

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1-4 The Automation Pyramid
Industrial automation systems are very complex having large number of devices with confluence of
technologies working in synchronization. In order to know the performance of the system we need to
understand the various parts of the system. Industrial automation systems are organized hierarchially as
shown in the following figure.

Various components in an industrial automation system can be explained using the automation pyramid as
shown above. Here, various layers represent the wideness ( in the sense of no. of devices ), and fastness of
components on the time-scale.
Sensors and Actuators Layer: This layer is closest to the processes and machines, used to translate
signals so that signals can be derived from processes for analysis and decisions and hence control signals
can be applied to the processes. This forms the base layer of the pyramid also called ‘level 0’ layer.
Automatic Control Layer: This layer consists of automatic control and monitoring systems, which drive
the actuators using the process information given by sensors. This is called as ‘level 1’ layer.
Supervisory Control Layer: This layer drives the automatic control system by setting target/goal to the
controller. Supervisory Control looks after the equipment, which may consist of several control loops.
This is called as ‘level 2’ layer.
Production Control Layer: This solves the decision problems like production targets, resource allocation,
task allocation to machines, maintenance management etc. This is called ‘level 3’ layer.
Enterprise control layer: This deals less technical and more commercial activities like supply, demand,
cash flow, product marketing etc. This is called as the ‘level 4’ layer.
The spatial scale increases as the level is increased e.g. at lowest level a sensor works in a single loop, but
there exists many sensors in an automation system which will be visible as the level is increased. The
lowest level is faster in the time scale and the higher levels are slower. The aggregation of information
over some time interval is taken at higher levels.
All the above layers are connected by various types of communication systems. For example the sensors
and actuators may be connected to the automatic controllers using a point-to-point digital communication,
while the automatic controllers themselves may be connected with the supervisory and production control
systems using computer networks. Some of these networks may be proprietary. Over the last decade, with
emergence of embedded electronics and computing, standards for low level network standards (CANBus,
Fieldbus etc.) for communication with low level devices, such as sensors and actuators are also emerging.

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Chapter Two:
Industrial Automation Measurements

2-1 Measurement Systems Specifications

Measurement specifications can be classified into three categories
(i) static characteristics, (b) dynamic characteristics and (iii) random characteristics.
1. Static characteristics
Static characteristics refer to the characteristics of the system when the input is either held constant
or varying very slowly. Its items mainly are:
Range (or span)
It defines the maximum and minimum values of the inputs or the outputs for which the instrument is
recommended to use. For example, for a temperature measuring instrument the input range may be
o
100-500 C and the output range may be 4-20 mA.
Sensitivity
It can be defined as the ratio of the incremental output and the incremental input.
Linearity
Linearity is actually a measure of nonlinearity of the instrument. The linearity is defined as the
maximum deviation from the linear characteristics as a percentage of the full scale output. .
Hysteresis
Hysteresis exists not only in magnetic circuits, but in instruments also.
The hysteresis is expressed as the maximum hysteresis as a full scale reading,
Resolution
indicates the minimum change in input variable that is detectable.
Accuracy
Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measured value with the actual or true value, and is expressed
in the form of the maximum error (= measured value – true value) as a percentage of full scale
reading.
Precision
Precision indicates the repeatability or reproducibility of an instrument (but does not indicate
accuracy).

2. Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the instrument when the input variable is changing
rapidly with time.

3. Random Characteristics
If repeated readings of the same quantity of the measurand are taken by the same instrument, under same
ambient conditions, they are bound to differ from each other. This is often due to some inherent sources of
errors of the instrument that vary randomly and at any point of time it is very difficult to exactly say, what
would be its value.

2-2 Temperature Measurement

1. Resistance Thermometers (RTD)
It is well known that resistance of metallic conductors increases with temperature, while that of
semiconductors generally decreases with temperature. Resistance thermometers employing metallic
conductors for temperature measurement are called Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), and those
employing semiconductors are termed as Thermistors. RTDs are more rugged and have more or less
linear characteristics over a wide temperature range. On the other hand Thermistors have high temperature
sensitivity, but nonlinear characteristics.
For a small range of temperature, the expression can be approximated as:

Copper, Nickel and Platinum are mostly used as RTD materials.

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2. Thermistor
Thermistors are semiconductor type resistance thermometers.
Thermistors can be of two types: (a) Negative temperature co-efficient (NTC) thermistors and (b) Positive
temperature co-efficient (PTC) thermistors.
Their characteristics can be expressed as:

Where,
R is the resistance at temperature T (K)
T
R is the resistance at temperature T (K)
0 0
o
T is the reference temperature, normally 25 C
0
β is a constant, its value is decided by the characteristics of the material, the nominal value is taken as
4000.
3. Thermocouple
Thomas Johan Seeback discovered in 1821 that thermal energy can produce electric current. When two
conductors made from dissimilar metals are connected forming two common junctions and the two
junctions are exposed to two different temperatures, a net thermal emf is produced, the actual value being
dependent on the materials used and the temperature difference between hot and cold junctions.

Where T and T are hot and cold junction temperatures in K. C and C are constants depending upon the
1 2 1 2
materials. For Copper/ Constantan thermocouple, C =62.1 and C =0.045.
1 2

The thermocouple output voltage will vary if the reference junction temperature changes. So, for
measurement of temperature, it is desirable that the cold junction of the thermocouple should be
maintained at a constant temperature. Ice bath can be used for this purpose, but it is not practical solution
for industrial situation. An alternative is to use a thermostatically controlled constant temperature oven. In
this case, a fixed voltage must be added to the voltage generated by the thermocouple, to obtain the actual
temperature. But the most common case is where the reference junction is placed at ambient temperature.
For high temperature measurement, the error introduced due to variation of reference junction temperature
is not appreciable. For example, with a thermocouple measuring 1500oC, if the ambient temperature
variation is within ±15-25 oC , then the error introduced in the reading due to this variation would be
around 1%. Such a typical scheme is shown in fig.2.1. Here a constant voltage corresponding to the
ambient temperature is added through the offset of the op-amp. The thermocouple voltage is also
amplified by the same op-amp.

Fig 2.1Simple method for reference junction compensation

4-Platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs)

PRT offer excellent accuracy over a wide temperature range (from -200 to +850 °C). Standard
Sensors are available from many manufacturers with various accuracy specifications and numerous
packaging options to suit most applications. Unlike thermocouples, it is not necessary to use special
cables to connect to the sensor.

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The principle of operation is to measure the resistance of a platinum element. The most common type
(PT100) has a resistance of 100 ohms at 0 °C and 138.4 ohms at 100 °C. There are also PT1000
sensors that have a resistance of 1000 ohms at 0 °C.
The relationship between temperature and resistance is approximately linear over a small temperature
range: for example, if you assume that it is linear over the 0 to 100 °C range, the error at 50 °C is 0.4
°C. For precision measurement, it is necessary to linearize the resistance to give an accurate
temperature.

For a PT100 sensor, a 1 °C temperature change will cause a 0.384 ohm change in resistance, so even
a small error in measurement of the resistance (for example, the resistance of the wires leading to the
sensor) can cause a large error in the measurement of the temperature. For precision work, sensors
can have 3-wire or 4-wire compensation circuits.
Three Wire configuration : The three wire configuration is the most popular configuration for use in
industrial applications. When used correctly, the three wire configuration eliminates the series
resistance. This allows an accurate measurement of the sensing element. Two of the leads are
connected to one side of the sensing element and the single lead to the other side. The resistance in
the two closest wires should be matched as close as possible, this will cause the lead resistance to
cancel themselves. The color code for a three wire PRT is two red wires and one white.

Four Wire configuration : A four wire configuration is the most accurate method to measure an
RTD. It is primarily used in laboratories and is seldom seen in an industrial application. A four wire
configuration circuit removes the effect of mismatched resistances on the lead wires. A constant
current is passed through external wires while wires closest to the PRT element measure the voltage

7
drop across the PRT element. The color code for a four wire PRT is usually two red wires and two
white wires.

Comparison of Temperature Sensors

SOLID
THERMOCOUPLE PT100 THERMISTOR STATE
DEVICES
Very wide: Type T can Very narrow:
Wide: Narrow.
OPERATING go down below -200°C. Typically -
-200°C to Typically -40°C
RANGE Type W5 can approach 40°C to
+850 °C to 300°C
1800°C 125°C
Low accuracy
types very
Generally inexpensive inexpensive -
Fairly
PRICE although type R & S use high accuracy Inexpensive
inexpensive
expensive platinum wire. types more
expensive than
Pt100
Poor to
ACCURACY Moderate Excellent Moderate
excellent
LINEARITY Poor Good Terrible Very good
Poor to very Good to very
Poor to very
good - good -
PHYSICAL good - Depends
Excellent Depends on Depends on
STRENGTH on probe
probe probe
construction
construction construction
CHANGE IN
CHARACTERISTIC
Small Reasonable Very large Large
WITH
TEMPERATURE
LONG TERM Poor to
Reasonable Excellent Reasonable
STABILITY excellent

All industrial
Preset
processes Simple
temperature
Industrial processes within control
applications.
PREFERRED where temperature range operating applications
Control where
APPLICATIONS or physical requirements range where and ambient
narrow
preclude other devices. accuracy and compensating
hysteresis is
repeatability circuits.
required.
are required.

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The Pt100 is my preferred sensor for all industrial applications from -200°C to 850°C. It is accurate,
relatively inexpensive and easy to use. Its output change with temperature is relatively large
compared to thermocouples which means lower drift errors on the electronics.
Because its resistance bears an absolute relationship to temperature (unlike a thermocouple whose
output depends on the difference between the hot junction and cold junction) no special compensating
circuit needs to be provided in the electronics.

2-3 Displacement Measurement

Broadly speaking, displacement measurement can be of two types: contact and noncontact types. Besides
the measurement principles can be classified into two categories: electrical sensing and optical sensing. In
electrical sensing, passive electrical sensors are used variation of either inductance or capacitance with
displacement is measured. On the other hand the optical method mainly works on the principle of
intensity variation of light with distance. Interferometric technique is also used for measurement of very
small displacement in order of nanometers. But this technique is more suitable for laboratory purpose, not
very useful for industrial applications.

2-3-1 Potentiometer

Potentiometers are simplest type of displacement sensors. They can be used for linear as well as angular
displacement measurement, as shown in Fig.2-2. They are the resistive type of transducers and the output
voltage is proportional to the displacement and is given by:

Where x is the input displacement, x is the total displacement and E is the supply voltage.
i t
The major problem with potentiometers is the contact problem resulting out of wear and tear between the
moving and the fixed parts. As a result, though simple, application of potentiometers is limited.

Fig 2.2 Potentiometer (a) Linear (b) Rotary

2-3-2 Linear Variable Differential transformer (LVDT)

LVDT works on the principle of variation of mutual inductance. It is one of the most popular types of
displacement sensor. It has good linearity over a wide range of displacement. Moreover the mass of the
moving body is small, and the moving body does not make any contact with the static part, thus
minimizing the frictional resistance. Commercial LVDTs are available with full scale displacement range
of ±0.25mm to ±25mm. Due to the low inertia of the core, the LVDT has a good dynamic characteristics
and can be used for time varying displacement measurement range.
The construction and principle of operation of LVDT can be explained with Fig.2-3(a) and Fig. 2-3(b). It
works on the principle of variation of the mutual inductance between two coils with displacement. It
consists of a primary winding and two identical secondary windings of a transformer, wound over a
tubular former, and a ferromagnetic core of annealed nickel-iron alloy moves through the former. The two
secondary windings are connected in series opposition, so that the net output voltage is the difference
between the two. The primary winding is excited by 1-10V r.m.s. A.C. voltage source, the frequency of
excitation may be anywhere in the range of 50 Hz to 50 KHz. The output voltage is zero when the core is

9
at central position (voltage induced in both the secondary windings are same, so the difference is zero),
but increasing as the core moves away from the central position, in either direction. Thus, from the
measurement of the output voltage only, one cannot predict, the direction of the core movement. A phase
sensitive detector (PSD) is a useful circuit to make the measurement direction sensitive. It is connected at
the output of the LVDT and compares the phase of the secondary output with the primary signal to judge
the direction of movement. The output of the phase sensitive detector after low pass filtering becomes a
d.c voltage for a steady deflection. The output voltage after PSD vs. displacement characteristics is shown
in Fig. 2-3(c).

Fig. 2-3(a) Construction of LVDT.

Fig.2-3(b) Series opposition connection of secondary windings.

Fig. 2-3(c) Output voltage vs. displacement characteristics of LVDT after Phase sensitive detection.

2-3-3 Inductive type Sensors

LVDT works on the principle of variation of mutual inductance. There are inductive sensors for
measurement of displacement those are based on the principle of variation of self inductance. These
sensors can be used for proximity detection also. Such a typical scheme is shown in Fig. 2-4. In this case
the inductance of a coil changes as a ferromagnetic object moves close to the magnetic former, thus
change the reluctance of the magnetic path. The measuring circuit is usually an a.c. bridge.

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 Fig. 2-4 Schematic diagram of a self inductance type proximity sensor.

2-3-4 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)

Its construction is similar to that of LVDT, except the core is designed in such a way that when it rotates
the mutual inductance between the primary and each of the secondary coils changes linearly with the
angular displacement. Schematic diagram of a typical RVDT is shown in Fig. 2-5.

Fig. 2-5 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT).

2-3-5 Capacitance Sensors

The capacitance type sensor is a versatile one; it is available in different size and shape. It can also
measure very small displacement in micrometer range. Often the whole sensor is fabricated in a silicon
base and is integrated with the processing circuit to form a small chip. The basic principle of a capacitance
sensor is well known. But to understand the various modes of operation, consider the capacitance formed
by two parallel plates separated by a dielectric. The capacitance between the plates is given by:

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A capacitance sensor can be formed by either varying (i) the separation (d), or, (ii) the area (A), or (iii) the
permittivity (εr). A displacement type sensor is normally based on the first two (variable distance and
variable area) principles, while the variable permittivity principle is used for measurement of humidity,
level, etc. Fig.2-6 Shows the basic constructions of variable gap and variable area types of capacitance
sensors mentioned above. Fig.2- 6(a) shows a variable distance type sensor, where the gap between the
fixed and moving plates changes. On the other hand, the area of overlap between the fixed plate and
moving plate changes in Fig. 2-6(b), maintaining the gap constant. The variable area type sensor gives rise
to linear variations of capacitance with the input variable, while a variable separation type sensor follows
inverse relationship.

Fig.2-6 Capacitive type displacement Sensors: a) variable separation type, b) variable area type.

Capacitance sensors are also used for proximity detection. Such a typical scheme is shown in Fig. 4.
Capacitive proximity detectors are small in size, noncontact type and can detect presence of metallic or
insulating objects in the range of approximately 0-5cm. For detection of insulating objects, the dielectric
constant of the insulating object should be much larger than unity. Fig. 2-7 shows the construction of a
proximity detector. Its measuring head consists of two electrodes, one circular (B) and the other an
annular shaped one (A); separated by a small dielectrical spacing. When the target comes in the closed
vicinity of the sensor head, the capacitance between the plates A and B would change, which can be
measured by comparing with a fixed reference capacitor.
The measuring circuits for capacitance sensors are normally capacitive bridge type. But it should be noted
that, the variation of capacitance in a capacitance type sensor is generally very small (few pF only, it can
be even less than a pF in certain cases). These small changes in capacitor, in presence of large stray
capacitance existing in different parts of the circuit are difficult. So the output voltage would generally be
noisy, unless the sensor is designed and shielded carefully, the measuring circuit should also be capable of
reducing the effects of stray fields.

Fig. 2-7 Capacitance Proximity Detector.

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2-3-6 Optical Sensors
Optical displacement sensors work on the basic principle that the intensity of light decreases with
distance. So if the source and detector are fixed, the amount of light reflected from a moving surface will
depend on the distance of the moving surface from the fixed ones. Measurement using this principle
requires proper calibration since the amount of light received depends upon the reflectivity of the surface,
intensity of the source etc. Yet it can provide a simple method for displacement measurement. Optical
fibers are often used to transmit light to and from the measuring zone. Such a scheme with bundle fibers is
shown in Fig. 2-8. It uses two bundle fibers, one for transmitting light from the source and the other to the
detector. Light reflected on the receiving fiber bundle by the surface of the target object is carried to a
photo detector. The light source could be Laser or LED; photodiodes or phototransistors are used for
detection.

Fig. 2-8 A Fiber optic position sensor.

2-4 Speed Measurement

2-4-1-Tachogenerator speed sensing

The simplest way for speed measurement of a rotating body is to mount a tachogenerator on the shaft and
measure the voltage generated by it that is proportional to the speed. However this is a contact type
measurement.

2-4-2 optical speed sensing

The optical method is noncontact type measurements and it is shown in Fig.2-9. An opaque disc with
perforations or transparent windows at regular interval is mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be
measured. A LED source is aligned on one side of the disc in such a way that its light can pass through the
transparent windows of the disc. As the disc rotates the light will alternately passed through the
transparent windows and blocked by the opaque sections. A photo detector fixed on the other side of the
disc detects the variation of light and the output of the detector after signal conditioning would be a square
wave (as shown) whose frequency is decided by the speed and the number of holes (transparent windows)
on the disc.

Fig. 2-9 Schematic arrangement of optical speed sensing arrangement.

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14
15
2-4-3-Variable reluctance speed sensing

Fig. 2-10 shows another scheme for speed measurement. It is a variable reluctance type speed sensor. A
wheel with projected teethes made of a ferromagnetic material is mounted on the shaft whose speed is to
be measured. The static sensor consists of a permanent magnet and a search coil mounted on the same
assembly and fixed at a closed distance from the wheel. The flux through the permanent magnet
completes the path through the teeth of the wheel and cut the search coil. As the wheel rotates there would
be change in flux cut and a voltage will be induced in the search coil. The variation of the flux can be
expressed as:

where ω is the angular speed of the wheel. Then the voltage induced in the coil is:

Where N is the number of turns in the search coil. So both the amplitude and frequency of the induced
voltage is dependent on the speed of rotation. This voltage is fed to a comparator circuit that gives a
square wave type voltage whose amplitude is constant, but frequency is proportional to the speed. A
frequency counter is used to count the number of square pulses during a fixed interval and displays the
speed.

Fig. 2-10 Variable reluctance type speed sensor

This type of sensors is based on output frequency where:

- When two poles rotor ω = 2πf rad/s
- When four poles rotor ω = πf rad/s

2-5 Level Measurement

There are several instances where we need to monitor the liquid level in vessels. In some cases the
problem is simple, we need to monitor the water level of a tank; a simple float type mechanism will
suffice. But in some cases, the vessel may be sealed and the liquid a combustible one; as a result, the
monitoring process becomes more complex. Depending upon the complexity of the situation, there are
different methods for measuring the liquid level, as can be summarized as follows:
(a) Float type
(b) Hydrostatic differential pressure gage type
(c) Capacitance type
(d) Ultrasonic type
(e) Radiation technique.
Some of the techniques are elaborated in this section.

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2-5-1 Hydrostatic Differential Pressure type

The hydrostatic pressure developed at the bottom of a tank is given by:

where h is the height of the liquid level and ρ is the density of the liquid(kg/m3) and g is gravitational
acceleration (m/s2). So by putting two pressure tapings, one at the bottom and the other at the top of the
tank, we can measure the differential pressure, which can be calibrated in terms of the liquid level. Such a
schematic arrangement is shown in Fig. 11 . The drum level of a boiler is normally measured using this
basic principle. However proper care should be taken in the measurement compensate for variation of
density of water with temperature and pressure.

2-5-2 Capacitance type

This type of sensors are widely used for chemical and petrochemical industries; and can be used for a
o 2
wide range of temperature (-40 to 200 C) and pressure variation (25 to 60 kg/cm ). It uses a coaxial type
cylinder, and the capacitance is measured between the inner rod and the outer cylinder, as shown in Fig.
12. The total capacitance between the two terminals is the sum of (i) capacitance of the insulating
bushing, (ii) capacitance due to air and liquid vapor and (iii) capacitance due to the liquid. If the total
capacitance measured when the tank is empty is expressed as C , then the capacitance or the liquid level
1
of h can be expressed as:

where, ε1 is the relative permittivity of the liquid and ε2 is the relative permittivity of the air and liquid
vapor. Hence a linear relationship can be obtained with the liquid level (≈1 ).
The advantage of capacitance type sensor is that permittivity of the liquid is less sensitive to variation of
temperature and can be easily compensated.

17
2-5-3 Ultrasonic type

Ultrasonic method can be effectively used for measurement of liquid level in a sealed tank. An ultrasonic
transmitter/receiver pair is mounted at the bottom of the tank. Ultrasonic wave can pass through the
liquid, but gets reflected at the liquid-air interface, as shown in Fig.13. The time taken to receive the pulse
is measured, that can be related with the liquid level. For accurate measurement, variation of speed of
sound with the liquid density (and temperature) should be properly compensated.

2-5-4 Radiation technique

Radioactive technique also finds applications in measurement of level in sealed containers. Radioactive
ray gets attenuated as it passes through a medium. The intensity of the radiation as it passes a distance x
through a medium is given by:

where I0 is the incidental intensity and α is the absorption co-efficient of the medium. Thus if we measure
the intensity of the radiation, knowing I0, and α, x can be determined. There are several techniques which
are in use. In one method, a float with a radioactive source inside is allowed to move along a vertical path
with the liquid level. A Geiger Muller Counter is placed at the bottom of the tank along the vertical path
and the intensity is measured. The basic scheme is shown in Fig.14.
The method used in a batch filling process of bottles, uses a source-detector assembly that can slide along
the two sides of the bottle, as shown in Fig.15 . As soon as the source-detector assembly passes through
the liquid-air interface, there would be a large change in the signal received by the detector. Radioactive
methods, though simple in principle, find limited applications, because of possible radiation hazards.
However radioactive methods are routinely used for level measurement of grains and granular solids.

18
2-6 Humidity Measurement

Humidity measurement finds wide applications in different process industries. Moisture in the atmosphere
must be controlled below a certain level in many manufacturing processes, e.g., semiconductor devices,
optical fibers etc. Humidity inside an incubator must be controlled at a very precision level. Textiles,
papers and cereals must be dried to a standard storage condition in order to prevent the quality
deterioration. The humidity can be expressed in different ways: (a) absolute humidity, (b) relative
humidity and (c) dew point.
Humidity can be measured in different ways. Some of the techniques are explained below.
Hygrometer
Many hygroscopic materials, such as wood, hair, paper, etc. are sensitive to humidity. Their dimensions
change with humidity. The change in dimension can be measured and calibrated in terms of humidity.
Psychrometer
Psychrometric method for measurement of relative humidity is a popular method. Two bulbs are used- dry
bulb and wet bulb. The wet bulb is soaked in saturated water vapor and the dry bulb is kept in the ambient
condition. The temperature difference between the dry bulb and wet bulb is used to obtain the relative
humidity through a psychrometric chart. The whole process can also be automated.
Dew point measurement
If a gas is cooled at constant pressure to the dew point, condensation of vapor will start. The dew point
can be measured by placing a clean glass mirror in the atmosphere. The temperature of the mirror surface
is controlled and reduced slowly; vapor starts condensation over the mirror. Optical method is used to
detect the condensation phenomena, and the temperature of the mirror surface is measured.
Conductance/Capacitance method of measurement
Many solids absorb moisture and their values of the conductance or capacitance change with the degree of
moisture absorption. Moisture content in granules changes the capacitance between two electrodes placed
inside. By measuring the capacitance variation, the moisture content in the granules can be measured.
Similarly, moisture content in paper and textiles change their resistance. A schematic arrangement for
measurement of moisture content in paper or textiles using Resistance Bridge is shown in Fig. 16.

Infrared Technique
Water molecule present in any material absorb infrared wave at wavelengths 1.94μm, 2.95 μm and 6.2μm.
The degree of absorption of infrared light at any of these wavelengths may provide a measure of moisture
content in the material.

2-7. Measurement of pH
pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in aqueous solution. It is an important parameter to
determine the quality of water. The pH value is expressed as:

19
The advantage of using pH scale is that the activities of all strong acids and bases can be brought down to
the scale of 0-14. The pH value of acidic solutions is in the range 0-7 and alkaline solutions in the range
7-14.
The pH value of a solution is measured by using pH electrode. It essentially consists of a pair of
electrodes: measuring and reference electrode, both dipped in the solution of unknown pH. These two
electrodes essentially form two half-cells; the total potential developed is the difference between the
individual electric potential developed in each half cell. While the potential developed in the reference cell
is constant, the measuring cell potential is dependent on the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution.

2-8 Pressure Measurement

Measurement of pressure inside a pipeline or a container in an industrial environment is a challenging
task, keeping in mind that pressure may be very high, or very low (vacuum); the medium may be liquid,
or gaseous. We will not discuss the vacuum pressure measuring techniques; rather try to concentrate on
measurement techniques of pressure higher than the atmospheric. They are mainly carried out by using
elastic elements: diaphragms, bellows and Bourdon tubes. These elastic elements change their shape with
applied pressure and the change of shape can be measured using suitable deflection transducers. Their
basic constructions and principle of operation are explained below.

2-8-1 Diaphragms
Diaphragms may be of three types: Thin plate, Membrane and Corrugated diaphragm. This classification
is based on the applied pressure and the corresponding displacements. Thin plate (fig. 17(a)) is made by
machining a solid block and making a circular cross sectional area with smaller thickness in the middle. It
is used for measurement of relatively higher pressure. In a membrane the sensing section is glued in
between two solid blocks as shown in fig. 17(b). The thickness is smaller; as a result, when pressure is
applied on one side, the displacement is larger. The sensitivity can be further enhanced in a corrugated
diaphragm (fig. 17(c)), and a large deflection can be obtained for a small change in pressure; however at
the cost of linearity. The materials used are Bronze, Brass, and Stainless steel. In recent times, Silicon has
been extensively used the diaphragm material in MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) pressure
sensor.
The operating frequency of the pressure to be measured must be less than the natural frequency of the
diaphragm.

When pressure is applied to a diaphragm, it deflates and the maximum deflection at the centre (y0) can
measured using a displacement transducer. For a Thin plate, the maximum deflection y0 is small (y0<0.3t)
and referring fig. 18, a linear relationship between p and y0 exists as:

where, E= Modulus of elasticity of the diaphragm material, and

ν= Poisson’s ratio.
However, the allowable pressure should be less than:

where, σmax is the safe allowable stress of the material.

For a membrane, the deflection is larger, and the relationship between p and y0 is nonlinear and can be
expressed as (for ν= 0.3):

20
For a corrugated diaphragm, it is difficult to give any definite mathematical relationship between p and y0;
but the relationship is also highly nonlinear.
As the diaphragm deflates, strains of different magnitudes and signs are generated at different locations of
the diaphragm. These strains can also be measured by effectively placing four strain gages on the
diaphragm. The principle of strain gage will be discussed in the next section.

2-8-2 Bellows
Bellows (fig. 19) are made with a number of convolutions from a soft material and one end of it is fixed,
wherein air can go through a port. The other end of the bellows is free to move. The displacement of the
free end increases with the number of convolutions used. Number of convolutions varies between 5 to 20.
Often an external spring is used opposing the movement of the bellows; as a result a linear relationship
can be obtained from the equation:

where, A is the area of the bellows,

k is the spring constant and
x is the displacement of the bellows.
Phosphor Bronze, Brass, Beryllium Copper, Stainless Steel are normally used as the materials for bellows.

2-8-3 Bourdon Tube

Bourdon tube pressure gages are extensively used for local indication. This type of pressure gages were
first developed by E. Bourdon in 1849. Bourdon tube pressure gages can be used to measure over a wide
range of pressure: form vacuum to pressure as high as few thousand psi. It is basically consisted of a C-
shaped hollow tube, whose one end is fixed and connected to the pressure tapping, the other end free, as
shown in fig. 20. The cross section of the tube is elliptical. When pressure is applied, the elliptical tube
tries to acquire a circular cross section; as a result, stress is developed and the tube tries to straighten up.
Thus the free end of the tube moves up, depending on magnitude of pressure. A deflecting and indicating
mechanism is attached to the free end that rotates the pointer. The materials used are commonly Phosphor
Bronze, Brass and Beryllium Copper. For a 2" overall diameter of the C-tube the useful travel of the free
end is approximately 1/8". Though the C-type tubes are most common, other shapes of tubes, such as
helical, twisted or spiral tubes are also in use.

21
2-9 Measurement of Force
The most popular method for measuring force is using strain gage. We measure the strain developed due
to force using strain gages; and by multiplying the strain with the effective cross sectional area and
Young’s modulus of the material, we can obtain force. Load cells and Proving rings are two common
methods for force measurement using strain gages. We will first discuss the principle of strain gage and
then go for the force measuring techniques.

2-9-1 Strain Gage

Strain gage is one of the most popular types of transducer. It has got a wide range of applications. It can
be used for measurement of force, torque, pressure, acceleration and many other parameters. The basic
principle of operation of a strain gage is simple: when strain is applied to a thin metallic wire, its
dimension changes, thus changing the resistance of the wire. Let us first investigate what are the factors,
responsible for the change in resistance.

1- Gage Factor
Let us consider a long straight metallic wire of length l circular cross section with diameter d (fig. 21).
When this wire is subjected to a force applied at the two ends, a strain will be generated and as a result,
the dimension will change (l changing to l+Δl, d changing to d+Δd and A changing to A+ΔA). For the time
being, we are considering that all the changes are in positive direction. Now the resistance of the wire:

22
The last term in the right hand side of the above expression, represents the change in resistivity of the
material due to applied strain that occurs due to the piezo-resistance property of the material. In fact, all
the elements in the right hand side of the above equation are independent of the geometry of the wire,
subjected to strain, but rather depend on the material property of the wire. Due to this reason, a term Gage
Factor is used to characterize the performance of a strain gage. The Gage Factor is defined as:

For normal metals the Poisson’s ratio υ varies in the range:

0.3 ≤ υ ≤ 0.6,
while the piezo-resistance coefficient varies in the range:

Thus, the Gage Factor of metallic strain gages varies in the range 1.8 to 2.6. However, the semiconductor
type strain gages have a very large Gage Factor, in the range of 100-150. This is attained due to dominant
piezo-resistance property of semiconductors. The commercially available strain gages have certain fixed
resistance values, such as, 120Ω, 350 Ω, 1000 Ω, etc. The manufacturer also specifies the Gage Factor and
the maximum gage current to avoid self-heating (normally in the range 15 mA to 100 mA).
The choice of material for a metallic strain gage should depend on several factors. The material should
have low temperature coefficient of resistance. It should also have low coefficient for thermal expansion.
Judging from all these factors, only few alloys qualify for a commercial metallic strain gage. They are:
Advance (55% Cu, 45% Ni): Gage Factor between 2.0 to 2.2
Nichrome (80% Ni, 20% Co): Gage Factor between 2.2 to 2.5
Apart from these two, Isoelastic -another trademarked alloy with Gage Factor around 3.5 is also in use.
Semiconductor type strain gages, though having large Gage Factor, find limited use, because of their high
sensitivity and nonlinear characteristics.

23
 2- Metallic Strain Gage
Most of the strain gages are metallic type. They can be of two types: unbonded and bonded. The
unbonded strain gage is normally used for measuring strain (or displacement) between a fixed and a
moving structure by fixing four metallic wires in such a way, so that two are in compression and two are
in tension, as shown in fig. 22 (a). On the other hand, in the bonded strain gage, the element is fixed on a
backing material, which is permanently fixed over a structure, whose strain has to be measured, with
adhesive. Most commonly used bonded strain gages are metal foil type. The construction of such a strain
gage is shown in fig. 22(b). The strain gage in fig. 22(b) can measure strain in one direction only. But if
we want to measure the strain in two or more directions at the same point, strain gage rosette, which is
manufactured by stacking multiple strain gages in different directions, is used. Fig. 23 shows a three-
0
element strain gage rosette stacked at 45 .

3- Semiconductor type Strain Gage

Semiconductor type strain gage is made of a thin wire of silicon, typically 0.005 inch to 0.0005 inch, and
length 0.05 inch to 0.5 inch. They can be of two types: p-type and n-type. In the former the resistance
increases with positive strain, while, in the later the resistance decreases with temperature. The
construction and the typical characteristics of a semiconductor strain gage are shown in fig.24.

24
 4- Strain Gage Bridge
-6
Normal strain experienced by a strain gage is in the range of micro strain (typical value: 100 x 10 ). As a
result, the change in resistance associated with it is small (ΔR/R = Gε). So if a single strain gage is
connected to a Wheatstone bridge, with three fixed resistances, the bridge output voltage is going to be
linear (recall, that we say the bridge output voltage would be linearly varying with ΔR/R, if ΔR/R does not
exceed 0.1). But still then, a single strain gage is normally never used in a Wheatstone bridge. This is not
because of improving linearity, but for obtaining perfect temperature compensation. Suppose one strain
gage is connected to a bridge with three fixed arms. Due to temperature rise, the strain gage resistance will
change, thus making the bridge unbalance, thus giving an erroneous signal, even if no strain is applied. If
two identical strain gages are fixed to the same structure, one measuring compressional strain and the
other tensile strain, and connected in the adjacent arms of the bridge, temperature compensation can be
achieved. If the temperature increases, both the strain gage resistances will be affected in the same way,
thus maintaining the bridge balance under no strain condition. One more advantage of using the push-pull
configuration is increasing the sensitivity. In fact, all the four arms of the bridge can be formed by four
active gages; this will improve the sensitivity further, while retaining the temperature compensation
property. A typical strain gage bridge is shown in fig. 25. It can be shown that if nominal resistances of
the strain gages are same and also equal gage factor G, then the unbalanced voltage is given be:

2-9-2 Load Cell

Load cells are extensively used for measurement of force; weigh bridge is one of the most common
applications of load cell. Here two strain gages are fixed so as to measure the longitudinal strain, while
two other measuring the transverse strain, as shown in fig. 26. The strain gages, measuring the similar
strain (say, tensile) are placed in the opposite arms, while the adjacent arms in the bridge should measure
opposite strains (one tensile, the other compressional). If the strain gages are identical in characteristics,
this will provide not only the perfect temperature coefficient, but also maximum obtainable sensitivity
from the bridge.

25
2-9-3 Proving Ring
Proving Rings can be used for measurement of both compressional and tensile forces. The advantage of a
Proving Ring is that, because of its construction more strain can be developed compared to a load cell.
The typical construction of a Proving Ring is shown in fig.27. It consists of a hollow cylindrical beam of
radius R, thickness t and axial width b. The two ends of the ring are fixed with the structures between
which force is measured. Four strain gages are mounted on the walls of the proving ring, two on the inner
wall, and two on the outer wall. When force is applied as shown, gages 2 and 4 will experience strain –ε
(compression), while gages 1 and 3 will experience strain + ε (tension). The magnitude of the strain is
given by the expression:

The four strain gages are connected in a bridge and the unbalanced voltage can easily be calibrated in
terms of force to be measured.

2-9-4 Cantilever Beam

Cantilever beam can be used for measurement up to 10 kg of weight. One end of the cantilever is fixed,
while the other end is free; load is applied at this end, as shown in fig. 28. The strain developed at the
fixed end is given by the expression:

The strain developed can be measured by fixing strain gages at the fixed end: two on the top side of the
beam, measuring tensile strain +ε and two on the bottom measuring compressional strain – ε (as shown in
fig. 28) and using equ.(#).

26
2-10 Flow Measurement
Accurate measurement of flow rate of liquids and gases is an essential requirement for maintaining the
quality of industrial processes. In fact, most of the industrial control loops control the flow rates of
incoming liquids or gases in order to achieve the control objective. As a result, accurate measurement of
flow rate is very important.
There are different types of flow measuring techniques that are used in industries. The common types of
flowmeters that find industrial applications can be listed as below:
(a) Obstruction type (differential pressure or variable area) (b) Inferential (turbine type), (c)
Electromagnetic, (d) Positive displacement (integrating), (e) fluid dynamic (vortex shedding), (f)
Anemometer, (g) ultrasonic and (h) Mass flowmeter (Coriolis).
In this lesson, we would learn about the construction and principle of operation few types of flowmeters.

2-10-1 Orifice meter

Depending on the type of obstruction, we can have different types of flow meters. Most common among
them is the orifice type flowmeter, where an orifice plate is placed in the pipe line, as shown in fig.29. If
d and d are the diameters of the pipe line and the orifice opening, then the flow rate can be obtained
1 2
using the following eqn. by measuring the pressure difference (p -p ).
1 2

Where, Q is the volumetric flow rate through the channel, γ is the specific weight of the fluid,
p1 pressure, v1 velocity and A1 cross sectional area of section 1, the corresponding values for section 2
are p2, v2, A2 . β as the ratio of the two diameters, i.e.

g is gravitational acceleration

2-10-2 Electromagnetic Flowmeter

Electromagnetic flowmeter is different from all other flowmeters due to its uniqueness on several
accounts. The advantages of this type of flowmeter can be summarized as:
1. It causes no obstruction to flow path.
2. It gives complete linear output in form of voltage.
3. The output is unaffected by changes in pressure, temperature and viscosity of the fluid.
4. Reverse flow can also be measured.
-6
5. Flow velocity as low as 10 m/sec can be measured.

27
Electromagnetic flowmeters are suitable for measurement of velocity of conducting (Mercury) and weakly
conducting (water) liquid. The basic principle of operation can be understood from fig. 30. It works on the
principle of basic electromagnetic induction; i.e. when a conductor moves along a magnetic field
perpendicular to the direction of flow, a voltage would be induced perpendicular to the direction of
movement as also to the magnetic filed. The flowing liquid acts like a conductor. External magnetic field
is applied perpendicular to the direction of the flow and two electrodes are flushed on the wall of the
pipeline as shown. The expression for the voltage induced is given by:

where l is the length of the conductor (diameter d in this case) and v is the velocity of the liquid. The
above expression shows the complete relationship between the voltage induced and the velocity.
However, the magnetic field applied is not d.c. if the liquid medium is water or any other polarizable
liquid. This is because, if the magnetic field is d.d. the voltage induced will also be d.c. and a small
amount of d.c. current will flow if a measuring circuit is connected to the terminals. This small d.c.
current will cause electrolysis; oxygen and hydrogen bubbles will be formed and they will stick to the
electrodes surfaces for some time. This will provide an insulating layer on the electrodes surfaces that will
disrupt the voltage generation process. As a result, the magnetic field applied for these cases is a.c., or
pulsed d.c. excitation. The meter can only be used for liquids having moderate conductivities (more than
10/mhocmμ). As a result, it is not suitable for gases or liquid hydrocarbons. The accuracy is around1%±.

2-10-3 Turbine type Flowmeter

Turbine type flowmeter is a simple way for measuring flow velocity. A rotating shaft with turbine type
angular blades is placed inside the flow pipe. The fluid flowing through the pipeline will cause rotation of
the turbine whose speed of rotation can be a measure of the flowrate. Referring fig.31, let blades make an
angle α with the body. Then,

28
The speed of rotation of the turbine can be measured using several ways, such as, optical method,
inductive pick up etc.

2.11 Smoke and Chemical Sensors

The detection of smoke, radiation, and chemicals is of great importance in industrial processing not only
as it relates to the safety of humans and the control of environment pollution both atmospheric and
ground, but is also used in process control applications to detect the presence, absence, or levels of
impurities in processing chemicals.
Smoke detectors and heat sensors (automatic sprinklers) are now commonplace in industry for the
protection of people, equipment, and monitoring and control of chemical reactions. Low-cost smoke
detectors using infrared sensing or ionization chambers are commercially available. Many industrial
processes use a variety of gases in processing–such as inert gases (nitrogen)—to prevent contamination
from oxygen in the air, or conversely, gases or chemicals can be introduced to give a desired reaction. It is
therefore necessary to be able to monitor, measure, and control a wide variety of gases and chemicals. A
wide variety of gas and chemical sensors are available. Of these, the Taguchi-type of sensor is one of the
more common types of sensors.

Smoke and chemical measuring devices

Infrared sensors detect changes in the signal received from a light emitting diode due to the presence of
smoke in the light path or the presence of an object in the light path.
Ionization chambers are devices that detect the leakage current between two plates that have a voltage
between them. The leakage occurs when carbon particles from smoke are present and provide a
conductive path between the plates.
Taguchi-type sensors are used for the detection of hydrocarbon gases, such as carbon monoxide and
dioxide, methane, and propane. The Taguchi sensor has an element coated with an oxide of tin that
combines with hydrocarbon to give a change in electrical resistance which can be detected. Periodically
the element is heated and the chemical reaction is reversed, reducing the coating back to tin oxide.
Likewise, the sensing process can be repeated. The tin oxide can be made sensitive to different
hydrocarbons by using different oxides of tin, different deposition techniques, and so on.

29
Chapter Three:
Signal Conditioning Circuits

1. Introduction
The basic measurement system consists mainly of the three blocks: sensing element, signal conditioning
element and signal processing element, as shown in fig.1. The sensing element converts the non-electrical
signal (e.g. temperature) into electrical signals (e.g. voltage, current, resistance, capacitance etc.). The job
of the signal conditioning element is to convert the variation of electrical signal into a voltage level
suitable for further processing. The next stage is the signal processing element. It takes the output of the
signal conditioning element and converts into a form more suitable for presentation and other uses
(display, recording, feedback control etc.). Analog-to-digital converters, linearization circuits etc. fall
under the category of signal processing circuits.

The success of the design of any measurement system depends heavily on the design and performance of
the signal conditioning circuits. Even a costly and accurate transducer may fail to deliver good
performance if the signal conditioning circuit is not designed properly. The schematic arrangement and
the selection of the passive and active elements in the circuit heavily influence the overall performance of
the system. Often these are decided by the electrical output characteristics of the sensing element.
Nowadays, many commercial sensors often have in-built signal conditioning circuit. This arrangement
can overcome the problem of incompatibility between the sensing element and the signal conditioning
circuit.
If one looks at the different cross section of sensing elements and their signal conditioning circuits, it can
be observed that the majority of them use standard blocks like bridges (A.C. and D.C.), amplifiers, filters
and phase sensitive detectors for signal conditioning. In this lesson, we would concentrate mostly on
bridges and amplifiers and ponder about issues on the design issues.

2. Unbalanced D.C. Bridge

We are more familiar with balanced wheatstone bridge, compared to the unbalanced one; but the later one
finds wider applications in the area of Instrumentation. To illustrate the properties of unbalanced d.c.
bridge, let us consider the circuit shown in fig.2 .Here the variable resistance can be considered to be a
sensor, whose resistance varies with the process parameter. The output voltage is e0, which varies with
the change of the resistance (x= ΔR/R) The arm ratio of the bridge is p and E is the excitation voltage.

30
From the above expression, several conclusions can be drawn. These are:
A. e0 vs. x Characteristics is nonlinear (since x is present in the denominator as well as in the
numerator).
B. Maximum sensitivity of the bridge can be achieved for the arm ratio p=1.
The above fact can easily be verified by differentiating e0 with respect to p and equating to zero; i.e.

C. Nonlinearity of the bridge decreases with increase in the arm ratio p, but the sensitivity is also
reduced.
This fact can be verified by plotting e0/E vs. x for different p, as shown in fig. 3.
D. For unity arm ratio (p=1), and for small x, we can obtain an approximate linear relationship as,

31
 E. We have seen that the maximum sensitivity of the bridge is attained at the arm ratio p=1. Instead of
making all the values of R , R , R , R equal under balanced condition, it could also be
1 2 3 4
achieved by selecting different values with R = R , R = R for x = 0. But this is not advisable,
1 2 3 4
since the output impedance of the bridge will be higher in the later case. So, from the
requirement of low output impedance of a signal-conditioning element, it is better to construct
the basic bridge with all equal resistances.
F. It may appear from the above discussions, that, there is no restriction on selection of the bridge
excitation voltage E. Moreover, since, more the excitation voltage, more is the output voltage
sensitivity, higher excitation voltage is preferred. But the restriction comes from the allowable
power dissipation of resistors. If we increase E, there will be more power loss in a resistance
element and if it exceeds the allowable power dissipation limit, self heating will play an
important role. In this case, the temperature of the resistance element will increase, which
again will change the resistance and the power loss. Sometimes, this may lead to the
permanent damage of the sensor (as in case of a thermistor).
Push-pull Configuration
The characteristics of an unbalanced wheatstone bridge with single resistive element as one of the
arms can greatly be improved with a push-pull arrangement of the bridge, comprising of two
identical resistive elements in two adjacent arms: while the resistance of one sensor
decreasing, the resistance of the other sensor is increasing by the same amount, as shown in
fig.4. The unbalanced voltage can be obtained as:

Looking at the above expression, one can immediately appreciate the advantage of using push-pull
configuration. First of all, the nonlinearity in the bridge output can be eliminated completely. Secondly,
the sensitivity is doubled compared to a single sensor element bridge.

32
The same concept can also be applied to A.C. bridges with inductive or capacitive sensors. These
applications are elaborated below.

3. Unbalanced A.C. Bridge with Push-pull Configuration

Figures 5(a) and (b) shows the schematic arrangements of unbalanced A.C. bridge with inductive and
capacitive sensors respectively with push-pull configuration. Here, the D.C. excitation is replaced by an
A.C. source and two fixed resistances of same value are kept in the two adjacent arms and the inductive
(or the capacitive) sensors are so designed that if the inductance (capacitance) increases by a particular
amount, that of the other one would decrease by the same amount.

where w is the angular frequency of excitation, L is the nominal value of the inductance and x=ΔL/L.
Simplifying, we obtain,

which again shows the linear characteristics of the bridge.

For the capacitance sensor with the arrangement shown in fig. 5(b), we have:

Where x=ΔC/C. As expected, we would also obtain here a complete linear characteristic, irrespective of
whatever is the value of x. But here is a small difference between the performance of an inductive sensor
bridge and that of a capacitance sensor bridge (equation (5) and (6)): a negative sign. This negative sign in
0
an A.C. bridge indicates that the output voltage in fig. 4(b) will be 180 out of phase with the input voltage

33
E. But this cannot be detected, if we use a simple A.C. voltmeter to measure the output voltage. In fact, if
the value of x were negative, there would also be a phase reversal in the output voltage, which cannot be
detected, unless a special measuring device for sensing the phase is used. This type of circuit is called a
Phase Sensitive Device (PSD) and is often used in conjunction with inductive and capacitive sensors. The
circuit of a PSD rectifies the small A.C. voltage into a D.C. one; the polarity of the D.C. output voltage is
reversed, if there is a phase reversal.
Capacitance Amplifier
Here we would present another type of circuit configuration, suitable for push-pull type capacitance
sensor. The circuit can also be termed as a half bridge and a typical configuration has been shown in fig.6.
Here two identical voltage sources are connected in series, with their common point grounded. This can
be also achieved by using a center-tapped transformer. Two sensing capacitors C and C are connected as
1 2
shown in the fig. 5 and the unbalanced current flows through an amplifier circuit with a feedback
capacitor C . Now the current through the capacitors are:
f

As expected, a linear response can also be obtained by connecting a push-pull configuration of

capacitance in fig.6. The gain can be adjusted by varying C . However, this is an ideal circuit, for a
f
practical circuit, a high resistance has to be placed in parallel with C .
f

4. Amplifiers
An Amplifier is an integral part of any signal conditioning circuit. However, there are different
configurations of amplifiers, and depending of the type of the requirement, one should select the proper
configuration.

Inverting and Non-inverting Amplifiers

These two types are single ended amplifiers, with one terminal of the input is grounded. From the
schematics of these two popular amplifiers, shown in fig.7, the voltage gain for the inverting amplifier is:

34
while the voltage gain for the noninverting amplifier is:

Apparently, both the two amplifiers are capable of delivering any desired voltage gain, provided the phase
inversion in the first case is not a problem. But looking carefully into the circuits, one can easily
understand, that, the input impedance of the inverting amplifier is finite and is approximately R 1 , while a
noninverting amplifier has an infinite input impedance. Definitely, the second amplifier will perform
better, if we want that, the amplifier should not load the sensor (or a bridge circuit).

Differential Amplifier
Differential amplifiers are useful for the cases, where both the input terminals are floating. These
amplifiers find wide applications in instrumentation. A typical differential amplifier with single op.amp.
configuration is shown in fig.8. Here, by applying superposition theorem, one can easily obtain the
contribution of each input and add them algebraically to obtain the output voltage as:

However, this type of differential amplifier with single op. amp. configuration also suffers from the
limitation of finite input impedance. In fact, several criteria are used for judging the performance of an

35
amplifier. These are mainly: (i) offset and drift, (ii) input impedance, (iii) gain and bandwidth, and (iv)
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
The performance of an operational amplifier is judged by the gain- bandwidth product, which is fixed by
5
the manufacturer’s specification. In the open loop, the gain is very high (around 10 ) but the bandwidth is
very low. In the closed loop operation, the gain is low, but the achievable bandwidth is high. Normally,
the gain of a single stage operational amplifier circuit is kept limited around 10, thus large bandwidth is
achievable. For larger gains, several stages of amplifiers are connected in cascade.
CMRR is a very important parameter for instrumentation circuit applications and it is desirable to use
amplifiers of high CMRR when connected to instrumentation circuits.
The CMRR is defined as:

where, Ad is the differential mode gain and Ac is the common mode gain of the amplifier. The importance
of using a high CMRR amplifier can be explained with the following example:
Example -1
The unbalanced voltage of a resistance bridge is to be amplified 200 times using a differential amplifier.
-3
The configuration is shown in fig. 9 with R= 1000Ω and x=2 x 10 . Two amplifiers are available: one
with Ad =200 and CMRR= 80 dB and the other with Ad =200 and CMRR= 60dB. Find the values of Vo for
both the cases and compute errors.

The common mode voltage to the amplifier is vc =5V, half the supply voltage.

36
Ideally, the voltage should have been 1.0 V, 200 times the bridge unbalanced voltage, but due to the
presence of common voltage, 10% error is introduced.
In the second case, CMRR is 60 dB, all other values remaining same. For this case,

an error of magnitude 100% is introduced due to the common mode voltage!

Referring to fig. 8, if we consider, the op. amp. to be an ideal one, then by selecting the resistances, such
that,

the effect of the common mode voltage can be eliminated completely, as is evident from eqn. (10). But if
the resistance values differ, due to the tolerance of the resistors, the common mode voltage will cause
error in the output voltage. The other alternative in the above example is to apply +5 and –5V at the
bridge supply terminals, instead of +10V and 0V.
Instrumentation Amplifier
Often we need to amplify a small differential voltage few hundred times in instrumentation applications.
A single stage differential amplifier, shown in fig.8 is not capable of performing this job efficiently,
because of several reasons. First of all, the input impedance is finite; moreover, the achievable gain in this
single stage amplifier is also limited due to gain bandwidth product limitation as well as limitations due to
offset current of the op. amp. Naturally, we need to seek for an improved version of this amplifier.
A three op. amp. Instrumentation amplifier, shown in fig.10 is an ideal choice for achieving the objective.
The major properties are (i) high differential gain (adjustable up to 1000) (ii) infinite input impedance,
(iii) large CMRR (80 dB or more), and (iv) moderate bandwidth.
From fig. 10, the over all gain:

Thus by varying R2 very large gain can be achieved, but the relationship is inverse. Since three op. amps.
are responsible for achieving this gain, the bandwidth does not suffer.
There are many commercially available single chip instrumentation amplifiers in the market. Their gains
can be adjusted by connecting an external resistance, or by selecting the gains (50, 100 or 500) through
jumper connections.

37
Chapter Four:
The Actuators
Devices that drive different part of the control systems [convert an electrical signal into a physical
condition].
4.1 Major classification of actuators
1-Electromagnetic actuators
-Switches
-Relays
-solenoids
-Contactors

2-Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators

-Pumps
-Valves
-Compressors.

3-Electomechanical actuators
-DC and AC servomotors
-Stepper motors
-Linear motors

4.2 Electromagnetic actuators

1- Switches
Switch is any device used to connect and discontinue the power flow in a circuit.

Switch can operate :

1-Manually by human
2-Automatically by electromechanical device
3-Automatically by process variables such as: Pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage and force.
4-Automatically by triggering circuits such as semiconductor switches (Fast switches).

Classification of switches
Switches are classified according to
their contacts as:

38
2-Relays
Relay is an electrically operated switch, the most common and widely used types of relay is the:

1- Electromechanical Relay – for electromechanical applications

2- Solid State Relay – for electronics applications

Electromechanical Relay

Electromechanical relays are Electro-Magnetic devices that convert a magnetic flux generated by the
application of an electrical control signal [AC or DC current], into a pulling mechanical force which
operates the electrical contacts within the relay. The most common form of electromechanical relay
consist of a magnetic core and its coil, fixed and moving contacts , spring and armature . The Current
flowing through the coil of the relay produce a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the
switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions . The coil of a relay
passes a relatively large current with 12V,[ 30–200] mA for relays rated.

The Solid State Relay

There is another type of relay which is a solid state contact It has no moving parts with the contacts being
replaced by transistors or thyristors.

Relays and transistors compared

 Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
 Relays can switch higher voltages and currents than transistors.
 Relays can switch many contacts at the same time.
 Relays have mechanical moving part, over a period of time these parts will fail and contacts need
to replace.
 Relays have electrically noisy
 Transistors can switch many times per second .
 Relays use more power than transistors

3-Solenoids
Solenoid is a special type of relay that has a moving core, it mostly used as mechanical
actuator such as door closer, control valves, hydraulic valves, pneumatic valves.
Solenoids convert electrical energy into mechanical work

39
4-Contactors
Contactor is a power electrically controlled switch [power relay] used for switching power and control
circuits, contactor is controlled by a circuit which has a much lower power than the switched circuit.
Type of contactors
1- Single phase contactors
2- Three phase contactors
Contactors ranges
Each contactor has 3 or 4 main contacts (power
rating contact i.e. 110V-6.6kV) and more than
two auxiliary contacts(NO and NC control
contact with low power rating i.e. 24V-400V)

4.3 Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators

1-Pumps
A pump is a device used to move fluids [transform electrical or mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy]

Pump Functions
1-Move fluids from a low level into a higher level
2-Move fluids from one place to another
3-Fluids acceleration
4-Change the fluid pressure

The Types of Pumps:

1- Centrifugal pumps
2- Gear pumps
3- Piston pumps
4-Secrw pumps
5-Vacuum pumps

40
1-Centrifugal pumps

Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of

pump used to move fluids through a piping.

Centrifugal pump performance

- High flow rate

- Low pressure
- For water transfer

Multistage centrifugal pumps

A centrifugal pump containing two or more impellers

is called a multistage centrifugal pump. The impellers
may be mounted on the same shaft or on different
shafts.

If we need higher pressure at the outlet we can connect impellers in series.

If we need a higher flow output we can connect impellers in parallel.

All energy added to the fluid comes from the power of the electric or other motor force driving the
impeller.

2-Gear pumps

This uses two meshed gears rotating in a closely fitted

casing. Fluid is pumped by being trapped in the tooth
spaces.

Gear pump performance

- Low flow rate

- High pressure
- For fuel and oil

3-Piston pump

41
 piston pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure seal reciprocates with
the piston. Piston pumps can be used to move liquids or compress gases.

4-screw pump

A screw pump is a positive displacement pump that use one or several screws to move fluids or
solids along the screw(s) axis. In its simplest form, a single screw rotates in a cylindrical cavity,
thereby moving the material along the screw's spindle.

5-Vacuum pump

A vacuum pump is a device that removes gas molecules from a sealed volume in order to leave
behind a partial vacuum.

2- Valves
A valve is a device that regulates the flow of a fluid [oil, gas, water reticulation, and chemical
manufacturing] by opening, closing, or partially obstructing.
Valves are necessary to control the pressure, flow rate and direction of the fluid. Hydraulic valves are
made to a high standard of quality and robustness. We should remember always that hydraulic
systems are high pressure systems and pneumatic systems are low pressure systems. Hydraulic valves
are made of strong materials (e.g. steel) and are precision manufactured. Pneumatic valves are made
from cheaper materials (e.g. aluminum and polymer) and are cheaper to manufacture.

The main typical valves are:

1- On/off valves - to control flow

2- Directional valves - to control direction
3- Pressure regulator valves - to control pressure

Directional control valves

Directional control valves are one of the most fundamental parts in hydraulic machinery. They allow
fluid flow into different paths from one or more sources. They usually consist of a piston inside a
cylinder which is mechanically or electrically controlled. The movement of the cylinder restricts or
permits the flow, thus it controls the fluid flow. There are two fundamental positions of directional
control valve namely normal position (unactuated position) where valve returns on removal of
actuating force and other is working position (actuated position) which is position of a valve when
actuating force is applied.

Directional control valves can be classified according to-

42
  number of ports
 number of positions
 actuating methods
 type of spool.

number of ports

According to total number of entries or exits connected to the valve through which fluid can enter the
valve or leave the valve there are types like two way, three way, four way valves.

number of positions

Including the normal and working positions which a valve spool can take there are types like two
position, three position valves.

actuating methods
1-Manually operated

Manually operated valves work with simple levers or paddles where the operator applies force to
operate the valve. Spring force is used to recover the position of valve.

2-Mechanically operated

Mechanically operated valve apply forces by using cams, wheels, rollers etc. hence these valves are
subjected to wear.

3-Hydraulically operated

These valves operate on hydraulic pressures which causes spool to slide or rotate. these valves can
provide large operating force.

4-Solenoid operated

These valves make use of electromechanical Solenoid for sliding of the spool. electrical power is
readily available and these valves are extensively used but electrical solenoid cannot generate large
forces unless supplied with larger electrical energy which makes there use limited to low actuating
forces. heat generation poses the threat to use of these valves when held in one position longer.

In practice combination of these actuators. such as low power solenoid valve is used to operate the
other hydraulic valve. here solenoid valve starts the flow of fluid which in turn operates hydraulic
valve.

Pneumatic Directional Control Valves (Compressed Air Valves)

Directional control valves start, stop or change the direction of flow in compressed air applications.
Many manufacturing companies apply compressed air as the power to operate tools and equipment
which are used to make the products they offer.
Valve Operation

Two Way Valves

Two-way valves turn air on and off in applications such as supply
pressure to systems, and supply air to tools, motors and similar
equipment. Two-way valves can also be used as vent valves.

43
Spool Valve 2-Way, 2-Port
Normally closed 2-way valves block inlet flow when in the unactuated position. Inlet flow is passing
when actuated.

Note: Valve symbols always show the unactuated position in the lower
block.

Normally open 2-way valves pass inlet flow when unactuated and
block flow when actuated.

Spring Return
Added to valve symbol. The spring returns the valve to its normal,
unactuated position.

Air Operator
Simplified air operator added to the valve symbol. When the valve is
actuated, the flow path shown in the upper block replaces the flow
path in the lower block.

Spool Valve, 3-Way, 3-Port, Used as a N.C. 2-Way, 2-Port

To use a 3-way spool valve as a 2-way normally closed valve, plug port 3 and
connect the inlet to port 1 and the outlet to port 2

Three-way Valves
Three-way valves are the same as 2-way valves with the addition of a third port
for exhausting
downstream air. Three-way valves are available in a normally open or normally closed operating
configurations. These valves are used to control single acting or spring return cylinders and any

44
load which must be pressurized and alternately exhausted. These valves can also pilot other air
operated valves.

3-Way, 3-Port Valve

Normally Closed 3-Way Valves
When unactuated, block inlet flow and connect the outlet port to the exhaust port.
When actuated, the inlet port is connected to the outlet port and the exhaust port is
blocked.

Normally Open 3-Way Valves

When unactuated, pass inlet flow to the outlet and block the exhaust port. When
actuated, inlet flow is blocked and the outlet port is connected to the exhaust port.

Four-Way Valves
Four-way valves use two 3-way valve functions operated at the same time, one
normally closed and one normally open. These valves have two outlet ports that
alternate between being pressurized and exhausted. Four-way valves are used to

45
operate double acting air cylinders, control bi-directional air motors and in air circuitry. Also two
single acting cylinders can be operated with one 4-way valve.

4-Way, 4-Port Valves

The flow paths for an unactuated valve are inlet to cylinder 2 and cylinder 1 to exhaust. When
actuated, the inlet is connected to cylinder 1 and cylinder 2 is connected to exhaust. Four-way poppet
valves have one exhaust port which is shared by all cylinder ports.

Spool Valves, 4-Way, 5-Port

The 4-way spool valve can be controlled by using two operators, one on each
end or by a spring return and a single operator. The flow path when actuated
at the 14 end of the valve is from port 1 to port 4 and from port 2 to port 3.
Port 5 is blocked. When the valve is actuated from the 1 2 end, the flow path
is from port 1 to port 2 and from port 4 to port 5. Port 3 is blocked. Each
cylinder port has a separate exhaust port.

Example: Interlock Circuit (Spool Valves Shown)

The cylinders can be either air spring or spring return. The cylinders are interlocked with the pressure
extending one cylinder, disabling the other cylinder circuit. One cannot be extended as long as
pressure is applied to the other.

46
Example: Cylinder Extends, Retracts Automatically (Spool Valve Shown)
Operation of the manual valve causes the cylinder to extend, actuating the limit valve which
resets the manual valve retracting the cylinder.

3-Compressors

47
Gas compressor, a mechanical device that compresses a gas (e.g., air or natural gas)
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume
Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the
fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas.
Liquids are relatively incompressible, while some can be compressed, the main action of a pump is to
pressurize and transport liquids.

Compressors Types

1-Air compressors

2-Gas compressors

3-Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen compressors

Air compressors

Air compressors as a main element of pneumatic systems, it can increase the pressure of air from [one
bar. kg/cm] to [one ten. kg/cm]

Air compressors components

1- Air tank
2- Safety, income and push valves
3- Compressor piston
4- Pressure sensor and controller
5- Filters

Classification of air components

In general the air compressors can be classified in to two types:

1-Positive displacement compressors

2-Dynamic compressors

Positive displacement compressors

1-Reciprocating (piston)
compressors use pistons
driven by a crankshaft.

2- Rotary compressors

Rotary screw compressors,

Rotary vane compressors,
Scroll compressors

Dynamic compressors

Dynamic compressors is a centrifugal air compressor

4.4 Electomechanical actuators

1- Servo Motors

48
A servo motor can be either DC or AC, and is usually comprised of the drive section and the
resolver/encoder. A servo motor is much smoother in motion than a comparable stepper, and will
have a much higher resolution for position control. The servo family is further divided into AC and
DC types. An AC servo had the advantage of being able to handle much higher current surges than a
DC, as the DC has brushes, which are the limiting factor in this case. Therefore, for our practical
considerations, you can get a lot stronger AC servo motor than you could in DC or stepper
configuration. The trend for manufacturers of “serious” CNC machinery is to use AC servos. “Entry
level” machines may have DC servos, or even steppers.
A resolver/encoder is a glass disc with very fine lines on it and an optical encoder that counts those
lines as it rotates with the motor. This information is couple to the controller which tracks the counts,
the rate that they go by, and through a host of feedback loops, logic, and controlling the amplifiers,
produces the desired motion.
Dc servo motors are normally used as prime movers in computers, numerically controlled machinery,
or other applications where starts and stops are made quickly and accurately. Servo motors have
lightweight, low-inertia armatures that respond quickly to excitation-voltage changes. In addition,
very low armature inductance in these servo motors results in a low electrical time constant (typically
0.05 to 1.5 msec) that further sharpens servo motor response to command signals. Servo motors
include permanent-magnetic, printed-circuit, and moving-coil (or shell) dc servo motors. Servo
motors usually have two, four, or six poles.
The Servos are used for precision positioning. They are used in robotic arms and legs, sensor
scanners, helicopter, airplanes and cars. Dc servos motors are used for portable applications, or where
high acceleration and low speed variations are required. These electric motors offer advantages,
which include starting torque as high as ten times running torque, efficiency from 50 to 70%, and
relatively easy speed control. But some form of speed governor, either mechanical or electronic, is
required. Ac motors use readily available power, are lower in cost, However, Ac motors cannot be
readily adapted to portable applications, have relatively low starting torques, and are much less
efficient than dc motors. A servomotor is very often sold as a complete module, which is used within
a position-control or speed-control feedback control system. Servomotors are used in applications
such as machine tools, pen plotters, and other control systems.

Servo motors are available in power ratings from less than 1 to 750 W, in sizes ranging from 0.5 to 7-
in. Most servo motors are available with modular or built-in gear heads.

49
2-Stepper Motor

50
A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, electric motor that can divide a full rotation into a
large number of steps. The motor's position can be controlled precisely without any feedback
mechanism.
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device that converts a digital pulses into step/revolution
motions.

Fundamentals of operation

Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to
their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets
arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external
control circuit, such as a microcontroller. To make the motor shaft turn, first, one electromagnet is
given power, which makes the gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When
the gear's teeth are aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next
electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates
slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight
rotations is called a "step", with an integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the
motor can be turned by a precise angle.

Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor and operate on the attraction or
repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator electromagnets. Variable reluctance (VR) motors have
a plain iron rotor and operate based on the principle that minimum reluctance occurs with minimum
gap, hence the rotor points are attracted toward the stator magnet poles. Hybrid stepper motors are
named because they use a combination of PM and VR techniques to achieve maximum power in a
small package size.

Two-phase stepper motors

There are two basic winding arrangements for the electromagnetic coils in a two phase stepper motor:
bipolar and unipolar.

Unipolar motors

A unipolar stepper motor has one winding with center tap per phase. Each section of windings is
switched on for each direction of magnetic field. Since in this arrangement a magnetic pole can be
reversed without switching the direction of current, the commutation circuit can be made very simple
(e.g. a single transistor) for each winding. Typically, given a phase, the center tap of each winding is
made common: giving three leads per phase and six leads for a typical two phase motor. Often, these
two phase commons are internally joined, so the motor has only five leads.

A microcontroller or stepper motor controller can be used to activate the drive transistors in the right
order, and this ease of operation makes unipolar motors popular with hobbyists; they are probably the
cheapest way to get precise angular movements.

Unipolar stepper motor coils

51
Bipolar motor

Bipolar motors have a single winding per phase. The current in a winding needs to be reversed in
order to reverse a magnetic pole, so the driving circuit must be more complicated, typically with an
H-bridge arrangement (however there are several of the shelf driver chips available to make this a
simple affair). There are two leads per phase, none are common.

An 8-lead stepper is wound like a unipolar stepper, but the leads are not joined to common internally
to the motor. This kind of motor can be wired in several configurations:

 Unipolar.
 Bipolar with series windings. This gives higher inductance but lower current per winding.
 Bipolar with parallel windings. This requires higher current but can perform better as the
winding inductance is reduced.
 Bipolar with a single winding per phase. This method will run the motor on only half the
available windings, which will reduce the available low speed torque but require less current.

Step and Step Angle

The motor step is directly related to the input applied pulses on the stator windings and to the
sequence of these pulses, however the direction of rotation is related to the sequence of applied
pulses, the length of rotation is related to the number of applied pulses and the speed of the motor is
related to the frequency of applied pulses. Step/revolution is the number of steps in one rotor
revolution (360 degree).Step angle is [360/ (steps/revolution)].Typical step angles of stepper motors
are [2°, 2.5°, 5°, 7.5°, 15 degrees] per input electrical. step/revolution and step angle are directly
dependent on the motor design -number of stator and rotor tooth's- and the sequence of applied
pulses.

Step Modes or Sequence

The stepper motor can be operated in three different stepping modes, namely, full-step, half-step, and
micro step. Each of these step modes are dependent on the design of the driver and the sequence of
applied pulses.

Full Step Mode

1- One phase on [one phase mode] full step mode

2- Two phases on[dual phase mode] full step mode

One Phase on, full step mode

In one phase mode, one winding is supply with electrical power at any given time according to the
sequence [.X...Y...Z…W…X.] . One revolution .will be done after 4 electrical pulses consequently
the step / revolution is 4 and the step angle is (360/4= 90 degrees), revolution with clockwise.

52
4 phases 2 rotor pole

Two Phase on, full step mode

In dual phase mode two phases are energized at any given time. The stator is energized according to
the sequence [XY…YW…WZ.…ZX…XY], One revolution will be after 4 electrical (dual pulses)
consequently the step/revolution is 4 and the step angle is (360/4= 90 degrees), revolution with
clockwise, In this case we have higher torque about 30% to 40% more torque than single phase
excitation, but does require twice as much power from the driver.    X  Y
2 2

53
Half Step Mode

In half mode step mode, motor step angle reduces to half the angle in full mode, and the number of
steps gets doubled as that of full mode, in our case one revolution will be after 8 electrical pulses
consequently the step /revolution is 8 and the step angle is (360/8=45 degree). The half step drive is
combines both one phase and dual phase (1&2 phases on) and stator windings are energized
according to the following sequence [XY..Y…YZ...Z…ZW...W…WX…X…XY],. In this case

54
changing the rotor and the stator number of tooth's we will have [200-400] steps per revolution [1.8-
0.9°] step angle. This mode provides doubly the resolution and smoother operation and roughly 15%
less torque than dual phase full stepping.

Micro-Stepping Mode

The micro-stepping mode is the most complex of all the stepping modes. He is combines both the full
and half step modes. Micro-stepping is when the current applied to each winding is proportional to a
special mathematical function, providing a fraction of a full step. The most common divisions are
1/4th, 1/8th, 1/10th, etc. However, there are some drivers that provide up to 1/256th of a full
step[0.0035O, 50,000 step/revolution when full step angle is 0.9O]. Micro-stepping provides greater
resolution and smoother motor operation. This is very advantageous as it reduces the need for

55
mechanical gearing when trying to achieve high resolution. However, can affect the repeatability of
the motor. Microstepping produces roughly 30% less torque than dual phase full stepping

As already mentioned, the resolution (number of steps) and step angle of a stepping motor is
dependent on:

1-the number of rotor pole pairs

2-the number of motor phases

3-the drive mode (full or half step)

Stepper Motors Applications

1-Printers
2-Disk and Tape Drives
3-Machine Tools
4-Robotic applications

3-Linear motor

A linear motor is essentially any electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that, instead of producing
a torque (rotation), it produces a straight-line force along its length.

Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. Linear motors are commonly
found in many roller-coasters where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is controlled by the rail.
They are also used in maglev trains, where the train "flies" over the ground.

Linear motors application

1- Paper, plastic, packaging, glass and wood machining.

2- Printing technology
3- High speed machines

56
Chapter Five:
P-I-D Control and Controller Tuning

5.1 Introduction
The basic control loop can be simplified for a single-input-single-output (SISO) system as in the
following figure. Here we are neglecting any disturbance present in the system.

The controller may have different structures. Different design methodologies are there for designing
the controller in order to achieve desired performance level. But the most popular among them is
Proportional-Integral-derivative (PID) type controller. In fact more than 95% of the industrial
controllers are of PID type. As is evident from its name, the output of the PID controller u(t) can be
expressed in terms of the input e(t), as:

5.2 Guideline for selection of controller mode

1. Proportional Controller: It is simple regulating type; tuning is easy. But it normally introduces
steady state error. It is recommended for process transfer functions having a pole at origin, or for
transfer functions having a single dominating pole.

2. Integral Control: It does not exhibit steady state error, but is relatively slow responding. It is
particularly effective for:
(i) very fast process, with high noise level
(ii) process dominated by dead time
(iii) high order system with all time constants of the same magnitude.

3. Proportional plus Integral (P-I) Control: It does not cause offset associated with proportional
control. It also yields much faster response than integral action alone. It is widely used for process
industries for controlling variables like level, flow, pressure, etc., those do not have large time
constants.

57
4. Proportional plus Derivative (P-D) Control: It is effective for systems having large number of
time constants. It results in a more rapid response and less offset than is possible by pure proportional
control. But one must be careful while using derivative action in control of very fast processes, or if
the measurement is noisy (e.g. flow measurement).

5. Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (P-I-D) Control: It finds universal application. But
proper tuning of the controller is difficult. It is particularly useful for controlling slow variables, like
pH, temperature, etc. in process industries.

5.3 Controller Tuning

The choice of the value of the P, I and D parameters is very much process dependent. As a result,
thorough knowledge about the plant dynamics is important for selection of these parameters. In most
of the cases, it is difficult to obtain the exact mathematical model of the plant. So, we have to rely on
the experimentation for finding out the optimum settings of the controller for a particular process.
The process of experimentation for obtaining the optimum values of the controller parameters with
respect to a particular process is known as controller tuning.

It is needless to say, that controller tuning is very much process dependent and any improper selection
of the controller settings may lead to instability, or deterioration of the performance of the closed loop
system. In 1942 two practicing engineers, J.G. Ziegler and N.B. Nichols, after carrying out extensive
experiments with different types of processes proposed certain tuning rules, there were readily
accepted and till now are used as basic guidelines for tuning of PID controllers. Subsequently, G.H.
Cohen and G.A. Coon in 1953 proposed further modifications of the above techniques. Still then, the
methods are commonly known as Ziegler-Nichols method.
Substantial amount of research has been carried out on tuning of P-I-D controllers since last six
decades. Several other methods have also been proposed. Most of them are model based, i.e. they
assume that the mathematical model of the system is available to the designer. In fact, if the
mathematical model of the system is available, many of them perform better than conventional
Ziegler-Nichols method. But the strength of the ZN method is that it does not require a mathematical
model, but controller parameters can simply be chosen by experimentation. We would be discussing
the three experimental techniques those come under the commonly known Ziegler-Nichols
method.

Now let us look back to the closed loop system which can be described as shown in Fig. 1.

The error signal is fed to the controller and the controller provides output u(t). Since the capacity of
the controller to deliver output power is limited, an actuator is needed in between the controller and
the process, which will actuate the control signal. It may be a valve positioner to open or close a
valve; or a damper positioner to control the airflow through a damper. The controller considered here
is a P-I-D controller whose input and output relationship is given by the equation:

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Our objective is to find out the optimum settings of the P,I,D parameters, namely Kp, τd and τi
through experimentation, which will provide satisfactory closed loop performance, of the particular
process in terms of, say, stability, overshoot, settling time etc. Three methods of tuning are
elaborated in the following sections.

1- Reaction Curve Technique

This is basically an open loop technique of tuning. Here the process is assumed to be a stable first
order system with time delay. The closed loop system is broken as shown in Fig.2; a step input is
applies at m', output is measured at b. In fact, a bias input may be necessary so that the plant output
initially becomes close to the nominal value. The step input is superimposed on this bias value. The
input and the output response are plotted by suitable means as shown in Fig. 3.

M,L and K are measured. Let us define the following terms corresponding to Fig. 2:
Slope = N,
Time Constant T=K/N
Lag Ratio R=L/T

Then, the recommended optimum settings, for P, P-I and P-I-D controller are as follows.

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Optimum settings

2- Closed Loop Technique (Continuous Cycling method)

The major objection to the tuning methodology using reaction curve technique is that process has to
be run in open loop that may not always be permissible. For tuning the controller when the process is
in under closed loop operation, there are two methodologies. The first one, continuous cycling
method is explained below.

Referring Fig.1, the loop is closed with the controller output connected to the actuator input. Here, the
controller is first set to P-mode, making τd = 0 and τi = ∞. The proportional gain KP is increased
gradually to till the system just starts oscillating with constant amplitude
continuously. The output waveform is plotted as shown in Fig.4. The time period of continuous
oscillation Tu is noted. The recommended optimum settings are:

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3- Closed Loop Technique (Damped oscillation method)
In many cases, plants are not allowed to undergo through sustained oscillations, as is the case for
tuning using continuous cycling method. Damped oscillation method is preferred for these cases.
Here, initially the closed loop system is operated initially with low gain proportional control mode
th
with τd = 0 and τi = ∞ . The gain is increased slowly till a decay ratio (p2/p1) of 1/4 is obtained
in the step response in the output, as shown in Fig. 5. Under this condition, the period of damped
th
oscillation, Td is also noted. Let Kd be the proportional gain setting for obtaining 1/4 decay ratio.

The optimum settings for a P-I-D controller are:

5.4 General comments about controller tuning

The different methodologies of controller tuning, known as Ziegler-Nichols method have been
illustrated in the earlier sections. It is to be remembered that the recommended settings are empirical
in nature, and obtained from extensive experimentation with number of different processes; there is
no theoretical basis behind these selections. As a result, a better combination of the P, I, D values
may always be found, that will give less oscillation and better settling time. But with no a priori
knowledge of the system, it is always advisable to perform the experimentation and select the
controller settings, obtained from Ziegler-Nichols method. But there is always scope for improving
the performance of the controller by fine-tuning. So, Ziegler-Nichols method provides initial settings
that will give satisfactory, result, but it is always advisable to fine-tune the controller further for the
particular process and better performance is expected to be achieved.
Nowadays digital computers are replacing the conventional analog controllers. P-I-D control actions
are generated through digital computations. Digital outputs of the controllers are converted to analog
signals before they are fed to the actuators. In many cases, commercial software are available for Auto
tuning the process. Here the controller generates several commands those are fed to the plant. After
observing the output responses, the controller parameters are selected, similar to the cases discussed
above.

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5.5 Programming the PID Algorithm
The PID algorithm is used to control an analog process having a single control point and a single
feedback signal. The PID algorithm controls the output to the control point so that a setpoint is
achieved. The setpoint may be entered as a static variable or as a dynamic variable that is calculated
from a mathematical operation.
For many years, the PID algorithm was not accepted as a function suitable for a PLC. It was included
in a DCS (Distributed Control System) or configured from a number of stand-alone PID controllers.
However, as PLC prices continued to fall during the 1980’s and later and more economical HMI
systems were developed for the PLC, PLCs became more accepted as PID controllers. In fact,
because PLCs have undercut the cost of competing systems, DCSs and other PID controllers have
been forced to drop prices dramatically or no longer remain competitive. An early hybrid design was
introduced into the Allen-Bradley 1771 I/O family including 2 PID stand-alone controllers attached to
a single I/O slot and executing the PID algorithm from the controller in the I/O slot. Newer control
schemes have the PID algorithm executing in the PLC with other programs and controlling
complicated processes with good success.

An Example PID Function

In its simplest form, the SLC PID block is used as a single block with no input contacts and
surrounded by only two SCP blocks. This PID instruction is located in Ladder 2. The SCP block is
configured to retrieve a numerical value from the analog input channel, linearly scale the input and
move the resultant value to the PID block. The input is a 4-20 mA signal from a flow transmitter. The
output is a 4-20 mA signal to a variable flow valve.

In the first SCP instruction, values found in the Input Min and Input Max of the SCP instruction are from
the I/O card. The engineer must first decide which I/O card to use and then find the proper lower and
upper limits from the literature on the card to enter values in the SCP instruction.

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Using the value 4 to 20 mA from the Input of analog module, the value in Engineering Units is 3277
min to 16384 max (from Data sheet). These values are entered in the SCP instruction to scale the
variables correctly.

The scaled min and max values that are sent to the PID’s process variable are found in the setup
documentation of the PID block. The min value is 0 and the max value is 16383. A location must be
selected. In this case, the process variable or PV is selected to be N10:28. It is advisable to keep the
PID block data separated from other integer data. In order to do keep the data for the PID separated,
the data file N10 was created to handle the PID data.
The input address may also be selected. Remember the value is I:s.w where s is the slot number and
w is the relative word address down the card. In this case, the slot address chosen is 1 and the w or
word address is 0, the first analog input point on the card. The other option for the input in slot 1 is
I:1.1.

The control block address or data file number is chosen. The control variable or output is then sent to
the analog output card. Scaling again must be chosen. The min for the PID output is 0 and the max is
16383. These are the same values as are used for the PID input. To use the entire range of values for a
PID input or output, choose the range 0 to 16383.
The scaled output must be ranged to fit a 4 to 20 mA analog output card. Use the values as were
found in the reference manual, 6,242 min and 31,208 max. Use the first output point on the same card
as the input. Its slot number is O:1.0. Now, the PID and two SCP blocks can be finished.

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Solving the PID Block

Once the analog value of the process variable is mapped from the SCP instruction to the PID block,
the PID block solves the equation for the Control Variable (CV) or Output.
The PID block has two analog inputs. One is the PV or process variable and the other is the SP or
setpoint. The setpoint is manually entered into the PID block. This may be done through the PID
Setup screen, through an HMI such as PanelView, or through a program statement (a MOV). If the
SP is entered manually through the program, the SP is considered static and should never be changed
by operator control since an operator is not generally considered reliable enough to enter variables
through the Setup Screen.
The PID Setup screen is pictured below. The setup screen allows the engineer or technician full
capability of modifying the PID block.

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The SP may be entered through the PID Setup screen. The PV is entered using the SCP instruction.
“Process Variable PV is an element address that stores the process input value. This address can be
the location of the analog input word where the value of the input A/D is stored. This value could also
be an integer if you choose to pre-scale your input value to the range 0 to 16383.”
The output is referred to as the CV or Control Variable. It is described as:
“Control Variable CV is an element address that stores the output of the PID instruction. The output
value ranges from 0 to 16383, with 16383 being the 100% ‘on’ value. This is normally an integer
value, so that you can scale the PID output range to the particular analog range your application
requires.”
The PID algorithm is solved while the block is in auto. Auto is determined by the status of the AM
bit. When AM = 0 the operation is automatic. When AM = 1, the operation is manual.
The PID algorithm does not output a value for the PID block if the block is in manual. It is as if the
block has been manually disengaged. The PV or SP may change and the output stays at its last value
unless a new value is written into the CV location. The CV location may be over-written in manual.
In auto, the PID block constantly writes the value to the CV. The range of the CV is from 0 to 16383.
Writing to the CV allows the user to manipulate the valve in the manual mode.
Another bit that must be set correctly for the PID block to work is the Control (CM) bit. It determines
whether the error term E = SP – PV or E = PV – SP. If the CM bit is set incorrectly, the valve will
quickly go to full on (100%) or full off (0%). This bit is never to be set by an operator. Use the PID
Setup screen to set it. The bit is not to be changed after it is set in the initial configuration of the auto
mode.

5.6 Integration windup and Bumpless transfer

Two major issues of concern with the close loop operation with P-I-D controllers are the Integration
Windup and the requirement of providing Bumpless Transfer. These two issues are briefly elaborated
below.

Integration Windup
A significant problem with integral action is that when the error signal is large for a significant period
of time. This can occur every time when there is large change in set point. If there is a sudden large
change in set point, the error will be large and the integrator output in a P-I-D control will build up
with time. As a result, the controller output may exceed the saturation limit of the actuator. This
windup, unless prevented may cause continuous oscillation of the process that is not desirable.

Bumpless Transfer
When a controller is switched from manual mode to auto-mode, it is desired that the input of the
process should not change suddenly. But since there is always a possibility that the decision of the
manual mode of control and the auto mode of control be different, there may be a sudden change in
the output of the controller, giving rise to a sudden jerk in the process operation. Special precautions
are taken for bumpless transfer from manual to auto-mode.
When the PID block is switched from manual to auto, the function responds to the SP presently
available to the block. If the process is sensitive to sudden changes in PID output, then the program
should include logic to give the output a signal matching the present flow when the block was in
manual. This is referred to as bumpless transfer.
With the more advanced PID blocks of the PLC/5 and Control Logix platform, the output value that
is described as the value to write to so that the output will be bumpless is the .SO value. The .SO
value of the PID block should be given the value that the operation would like the output to have
when the PID block is first put in Auto. This value is usually the value of the output when the PID
block is in Manual. The MOV operation should guarantee bumpless transfer when the block moves
from Manual to Auto.
For example, if the block was in manual and flow was 25.5 gallons per minute, when the PID block is
transferred to auto, flow should continue to maintain 25.5 gallons per minute. With PID blocks, the
addition of logic requires writing the present flow rate to the setpoint when the block transfers from
manual to auto.

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Chapter Six:
Industrial Control Networks

6.1 Introduction
A control network is a network of nodes that collectively monitor, sense, and control or enable
control of an environment for a particular purpose. A home appliance network is a good example of a
control network. In fact, thousands of control networks already exist in everyday life in automobiles,
refrigerators, traffic light controls, city lighting systems, and on factory floors. Control networks vary
enormously in the number of nodes (from three to thousands) in the network and in their complexity.
Unlike networks that people use to communicate with each other, control networks tend to be
invisible. In the future, control networks are expected to become an important aspect of what is
sometimes called ubiquitous computing.

Communication between nodes in a control network may be peer-to-peer or master-slave. The nodes
in some control networks contain three processors in one: two dedicated to moving data within the
network and one for the specialized program associated with that node. This modularity makes it
cheaper and faster to build new processors for control networks. Increasingly, control networks are
being made from off-the-shelf hardware and software components.

One future role for control networks will be as the controllers of microelectromechanical sytems
(MEMS), sometimes referred to as smart matter. Because it greatly expands the number of items in
the world that can be uniquely addressed in a network,

Industrial control system (ICS) is a general term that encompasses several types of control systems,
including supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems, distributed control systems
(DCS), and other smaller control system configurations such as Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLC) often found in the industrial sectors and critical infrastructures. ICSs are typically used in
industries such as electrical, water, oil and gas, chemical, transportation, pharmaceutical, pulp and
paper, food and beverage, and discrete manufacturing (e.g., automotive, aerospace, and durable
goods.).

6.2 Overview of SCADA, DCS, and PLCs

SCADA systems are highly distributed systems used to control geographically dispersed assets, often
scattered over thousands of square kilometers, where centralized data acquisition and control are
critical to system operation. They are used in distribution systems such as water distribution and
wastewater collection systems, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power grids, and railway
transportation systems. A SCADA control center performs centralized monitoring and control for
field sites over long-distance communications networks, including monitoring alarms and processing
status data. Based on information received from remote stations, automated or operator-driven
supervisory commands can be pushed to remote station control devices, which are often referred to as
field devices. Field devices control local operations such as opening and closing valves and breakers,
collecting data from sensor systems, and monitoring the local environment for alarm conditions.

DCSs are used to control industrial processes such as electric power generation, oil and gas refineries,
water and wastewater treatment, and chemical, food, and automotive production. DCSs are integrated
as a control architecture containing a supervisory level of control overseeing multiple, integrated sub-
systems that are responsible for controlling the details of a localized process. Product and process
control are usually achieved by deploying feed back or feed forward control loops whereby key
product and/or process conditions are automatically maintained around a desired set point. To
accomplish the desired product and/or process tolerance around a specified set point, specific
programmable controllers (PLC) are employed in the field and proportional, integral, and/or

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differential settings on the PLC are tuned to provide the desired tolerance as well as the rate of self-
correction during process upsets. DCSs are used extensively in process-based industries.

PLCs are computer-based solid-state devices that control industrial equipment and processes. While
PLCs are control system components used throughout SCADA and DCS systems, they are often the
primary components in smaller control system configurations used to provide regulatory control of
discrete processes such as automobile assembly lines and power plant soot blower controls. PLCs are
used extensively in almost all industrial processes.
While control systems used in distribution and manufacturing industries are very similar in operation,
they are different in some aspects. One of the primary differences is that DCS or PLC-controlled sub-
systems are usually located within a more confined factory or plant-centric area, when compared to
geographically dispersed SCADA field sites. DCS and PLC communications are usually performed
using local area network (LAN) technologies that are typically more reliable and high speed
compared to the long-distance communication systems used by SCADA systems. In fact, SCADA
systems are specifically designed to handle long-distance communication challenges such as delays
and data loss posed by the various communication media used. DCS and PLC systems usually
employ greater degrees of closed loop control than SCADA systems because the control of industrial
processes is typically more complicated than the supervisory control of distribution processes.

6.3 ICS Operation

The basic operation of an ICS is shown in Figure 6-1.Key components include the following:

􀀟 Control Loop. A control loop consists of sensors for measurement, controller hardware such
as PLCs, actuators such as control valves, breakers, switches and motors, and the
communication of variables. Controlled variables are transmitted to the controller from the
sensors. The controller interprets the signals and generates corresponding manipulated
variables, based on set points, which it transmits to the actuators. Process changes from
disturbances result in new sensor signals, identifying the state of the process, to again be
transmitted to the controller.
􀀟 Human-Machine Interface (HMI). Operators and engineers use HMIs to configure set points,
control algorithms, and adjust and establish parameters in the controller. The HMI also
displays process status information and historical information.
􀀟 Remote Diagnostics and Maintenance Utilities. Diagnostics and maintenance utilities are
used to prevent, identify and recover from failures.
A typical ICS contains a proliferation of control loops, HMIs, and remote diagnostics and
maintenance tools built using an array of network protocols on layered network architectures.
Sometimes these control loops are nested and/or cascading –whereby the set point for one loop is
based on the process variable determined by another loop. Supervisory-level loops and lower-level
loops operate continuously over the duration of a process with cycle times ranging on the order of
milliseconds to minutes.

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 Figure 6-1. ICS Operation

6.4 Key ICS Components

To support subsequent discussions, this section defines key ICS components that are used in control
and networking. Some of these components can be described generically for use in both SCADA
systems, DCSs and PLCs, while others are unique to one.

6.4.1 Control Components

The following is a list of the major control components of an ICS:

􀀟 Control Server. The control server hosts the DCS or PLC supervisory control software that is
designed to communicate with lower-level control devices. The control server accesses
subordinate control modules over an ICS network.
􀀟 SCADA Server or Master Terminal Unit (MTU). The SCADA Server is the device that acts
as the master in a SCADA system. Remote terminal units and PLC devices (as described
below) located at remote field sites usually act as slaves.
􀀟 Remote Terminal Unit (RTU). The RTU, also called a remote telemetry unit, is special
purpose data acquisition and control unit designed to support SCADA remote stations. RTUs
are field devices often equipped with wireless radio interfaces to support remote situations
where wire-based communications are unavailable. Sometimes PLCs are implemented as field
devices to serve as RTUs; in this case, the PLC is often referred to as an RTU.
􀀟 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). The PLC is a small industrial computer originally
designed to perform the logic functions executed by electrical hardware (relays, drum
switches, and mechanical timer/counters). PLCs have evolved into controllers with the
capability of controlling complex processes, and they are used substantially in SCADA
systems and DCSs. Other controllers used at the field level are process controllers and RTUs;
they provide the same control as PLCs but are designed for specific control applications. In
SCADA environments, PLCs are often used as field devices because they are more
economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUs

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 􀀟 Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED). An IED is a “smart” sensor/actuator containing the
intelligence required to acquire data, communicate to other devices, and perform local
processing and control. An IED could combine an analog input sensor, analog output, low-
level control capabilities, a communication system, and program memory in one device. The
use of IEDs in SCADA and DCS systems allows for automatic control at the local level.
􀀟 Human-Machine Interface (HMI). The HMI is software and hardware that allows human
operators to monitor the state of a process under control, modify control settings to change the
control objective, and manually override automatic control operations in the event of an
emergency. The HMI also allows a control engineer or operator to configure set points or
control algorithms and parameters in the controller. The HMI also displays process status
information, historical information, reports, and other information to operators,
administrators, managers, business partners, and other authorized users. The location,
platform, and interface may vary a great deal. For example, an HMI could be a dedicated
platform in the control center, a laptop on a wireless LAN, or a browser on any system
connected to the Internet.
􀀟 Data Historian. The data historian is a centralized database for logging all process information
within an ICS. Information stored in this database can be accessed to support various
analyses, from statistical process control to enterprise level planning.
􀀟 Input/Output (IO) Server. The IO server is a control component responsible for collecting,
buffering and providing access to process information from control sub-components such as
PLCs, RTUs and IEDs. An IO server can reside on the control server or on a separate
computer platform. IO servers are also used for interfacing third-party control components,
such as an HMI and a control server.

6.4.2 Network Components

There are different network characteristics for each layer within a control system hierarchy. Network
topologies across different ICS implementations vary with modern systems using Internet-based IT
and enterprise integration strategies. Control networks have merged with corporate networks to allow
engineers to monitor and control systems from outside of the control system network. The connection
may also allow enterprise-level decision-makers to obtain access to process data. The following is a
list of the major components of an ICS network, regardless of the network topologies in use:

􀀟 Fieldbus Network. The fieldbus network links sensors and other devices to a PLC or other
controller. Use of fieldbus technologies eliminates the need for point-to-point wiring between
the controller and each device. The sensors communicate with the fieldbus controller using a
specific protocol. The messages sent between the sensors and the controller uniquely identify
each of the sensors.
􀀟 Control Network. The control network connects the supervisory control level to lower-level
control modules.
􀀟 Communications Routers. A router is a communications device that transfers messages
between two networks. Common uses for routers include connecting a LAN to a WAN, and
connecting MTUs and RTUs to a long-distance network medium for SCADA communication.
􀀟 Firewall. A firewall protects devices on a network by monitoring and controlling
communication packets using predefined filtering policies. Firewalls are also useful in
managing ICS network segregation strategies.
􀀟 Modems. A modem is a device used to convert between serial digital data and a signal suitable
for transmission over a telephone line to allow devices to communicate. Modems are often
used in SCADA systems to enable long-distance serial communications between MTUs and

69
 remote field devices. They are also used in both SCADA systems, DCSs and PLCs for gaining
remote access for operational functions such as entering command or modifying parameters,
and diagnostic purposes.
􀀟 Remote Access Points. Remote access points are distinct devices, areas and locations of a
control network for remotely configuring control systems and accessing process data.
Examples include using a personal digital assistant (PDA) to access data over a LAN through
a wireless access point, and using a laptop and modem connection to remotely access an ICS
system.

6.5 SCADA Systems

SCADA systems are used to control dispersed assets where centralized data acquisition is as
important as control. SCADA systems integrate data acquisition systems with data transmission
systems and HMI software to provide a centralized monitoring and control system for numerous
process inputs and outputs. SCADA systems are designed to collect field information, transfer it to a
central computer facility, and display the information to the operator graphically or textually, thereby
allowing the operator to monitor or control an entire system from a central location in real time.
Based on the sophistication and setup of the individual system, control of any individual system,
operation, or task can be automatic, or it can be performed by operator commands.

SCADA systems consist of both hardware and software. Typical hardware includes an MTU placed
at a control center, communications equipment (e.g., radio, telephone line, cable, or satellite), and one
or more geographically distributed field sites consisting of either an RTU or a PLC, which controls
actuators and/or monitors sensors. The MTU stores and processes the information from RTU inputs
and outputs, while the RTU or PLC controls the local process. The communications hardware allows
the transfer of information and data back and forth between the MTU and the RTUs or PLCs. The
software is programmed to tell the system what and when to monitor, what parameter ranges are
acceptable, and what response to initiate when parameters go outside acceptable values. An IED, such
as a protective relay, may communicate directly to the SCADA master station, or a local RTU may
poll the IEDs to collect the data and pass it to the SCADA master station. IEDs provide a direct
interface to control and monitor equipment and sensors. IEDs may be directly polled and controlled
by the SCADA master station and in most cases have local programming that allows for the IED to
act without direct instructions from the SCADA control center. SCADA systems are usually designed
to be fault-tolerant systems with significant redundancy built into the system architecture.

Figure 6-2 shows the components and general configuration of a SCADA system. The control center
houses a control server (MTU) and the communications routers. Other control center components
include the HMI, engineering workstations, and the data historian, which are all connected by a LAN.
The control center collects and logs information gathered by the field sites, displays information to
the HMI, and may generate actions based upon detected events. The control center is also responsible
for centralized alarming, trend analyses, and reporting. The field site performs local control of
actuators and monitors sensors. Field sites are often equipped with a remote access capability to allow
field operators to perform remote diagnostics and repairs usually over a separate dial up or WAN
connection. Standard and proprietary communication protocols running over serial communications
are used to transport information between the control center and field sites using telemetry techniques
such as telephone line, cable, fiber, and radio frequency such as broadcast, microwave and satellite.

MTU-RTU communication architectures vary among implementations. The various architectures

used, including point-to-point, series, series-star, and multi-drop, are shown in Figure 2-3. Point-to-
point is functionally the simplest type; however, it is expensive because of the individual channels
needed for each connection. In a series configuration, the number of channels used is reduced;
however, channel sharing has an impact on the efficiency and complexity of SCADA operations.
Similarly, the series-star and multi-drop configurations’ use of one channel per device results in
decreased efficiency and increased system complexity.

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 Figure 6-2. SCADA System General Layout

The four basic architectures shown in Figure 6-3 can be further augmented using dedicated
communication devices to manage communication exchange as well as message switching and
buffering. Large SCADA systems, containing hundreds of RTUs, often employ sub-MTUs to
alleviate the burden on the primary MTU. This type of topology is shown in Figure 6-4.
Figure 6-5 shows an example of a SCADA system implementation. This particular SCADA system
consists of a primary control center and three field sites. A second backup control center provides
redundancy in the event of a primary control center malfunction. Point-to-point connections are used
for all control center to field site communications, with two connections using radio telemetry. The
third field site is local to the control center and uses the wide area network (WAN) for
communications. A regional control center sits above the primary control center for a higher level of
supervisory control. The corporate network has access to all control centers through the WAN, and
field sites can be accessed remotely for troubleshooting and maintenance operations. The primary
control center polls field devices for data at defined intervals (e.g., 5 seconds, 60 seconds, etc.) and
can send new set points to a field device as required. In addition to polling and issuing high-level
commands, the SCADA server also watches for priority interrupts coming from field site alarm
systems.

Figure 6-3. Basic SCADA Communication Topologies

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 Figure 6-4. Large SCADA Communication Topology

Figure6-5. SCADA System Implementation Example (Distribution Monitoring and Control)

72
Figure 6-6 shows an example implementation for rail monitoring and control. This example includes
a rail control center that houses the SCADA system and three sections of a rail system. The SCADA
system polls the rail sections for information such as the status of the trains, signal systems, traction
electrification systems, and ticket vending machines. This information is also fed to operator consoles
within the rail control center. The SCADA system also monitors operator inputs at the rail control
center and disperses high-level operator commands to the rail section components. In addition, the
SCADA system monitors conditions at the individual rail sections and issues commands based on
these conditions (e.g., shut down a train to prevent it from entering an area that has been determined
to be flooded based on condition monitoring).

Figure6-6. SCADA System Implementation Example (Rail Monitoring and Control)

2.6 Distributed Control Systems

DCSs are used to control production systems within the same geographic location for industries such
as oil and gas refineries, water and wastewater treatment, electric power generation plants, chemical
manufacturing plants, and pharmaceutical processing facilities. These systems are usually process
control or discrete part control systems. A DCS uses a centralized supervisory control loop to mediate
a group of localized controllers that share the overall tasks of carrying out an entire production
process. By modularizing the production system, a DCS reduces the impact of a single fault on the
overall system. In most systems, the DCS is interfaced with the corporate network to give business
operations a view of production.

An example implementation showing the components and general configuration of a DCS is depicted
in Figure 6-7. This DCS encompasses an entire facility from the bottom-level production processes

73
up to the corporate or enterprise layer. In this example, a supervisory controller (control server)
communicates to its subordinates via a control network. The supervisor sends set points to and
requests data from the distributed field controllers. The distributed controllers control their process
actuators based on control server commands and sensor feedback from process sensors.

Figure 6-7 gives examples of low-level controllers found on a DCS system. The field control devices
shown include a PLC, a process controller, a single loop controller, and a machine controller. The
single loop controller interfaces sensors and actuators using point-to-point wiring, while the other
three field devices incorporate fieldbus networks to interface with process sensors and actuators.
Fieldbus networks eliminate the need for point-to-point wiring between a controller and individual
field sensors and actuators. Additionally, a fieldbus allows greater functionality beyond control,
including field device diagnostics, and can accomplish control algorithms within the fieldbus, thereby
avoiding signal routing back to the PLC for every control operation. Standard industrial
communication protocols designed by industry groups such as Modbus and Fieldbus are often used
on control networks and fieldbus networks.

In addition to the supervisory-level and field-level control loops, intermediate levels of control may
also exist. For example, in the case of a DCS controlling a discrete part manufacturing facility, there
could be an intermediate level supervisor for each cell within the plant. This supervisor would
encompass a manufacturing cell containing a machine controller that processes a part and a robot
controller that handles raw stock and final products. There could be several of these cells that manage
field-level controllers under the main DCS supervisory control loop.

Figure 6-7. DCS Implementation Example

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6.7 Programmable Logic Controllers
PLCs are used in both SCADA and DCS systems as the control components of an overall hierarchical
system to provide local management of processes through feedback control as described in the
sections above. In the case of SCADA systems, they provide the same functionality of RTUs. When
used in DCSs, PLCs are implemented as local controllers within a supervisory control scheme. PLCs
are also implemented as the primary components in smaller control system configurations. PLCs have
a user-programmable memory for storing instructions for the purpose of implementing specific
functions such as I/O control, logic, timing, counting, three mode proportional-integral-derivative
(PID) control, communication, arithmetic, and data and file processing. Figure 6-8 shows control of a
manufacturing process being performed by a PLC over a fieldbus network. The PLC is accessible via
a programming interface located on an engineering workstation, and data is stored in a data historian,
all connected on a LAN.

Figure 6-8. PLC Control System Implementation Example

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