C1-Basics of Intrumentation & Control Eng

Chapter I
 Basics of Instrumentation
Engineering and Control
Systems
Objectives:
 Identify requisite instrumentation and differentiate their role
in control systems.
 Differentiate a plant, a system, a process in relation to
design and implementation of control systems.
 Identify essential components of a control system and
define the role of each.
 Differentiate classes/types of control system on the basis of
their:
• Nature,
• Configuration
• Behavior
• Parameters – change and distribution
• Signal and signal processing
1.1 What is Instrumentation engineering?
 The engineering specialization focused on
the principle and operation of measuring
instruments which are used in the design
and configuration of automated systems in
electrical, pneumatic domains etc.
 Typically work for industries with automated
processes, such as chemical or
manufacturing plants, with the goal of
improving system productivity, reliability,
safety, optimization, and stability.
1.1 What is Instrumentation engineering?
 Deals with the design of devices to measure
physical quantities such as pressure, flow
and temperature; the design of such
instrumentation requires a good
understanding of physics that often extends
beyond electromagnetic theory. For
example, thermocouples use the Peltier-
Seebeck effect to measure the temperature
difference between two points.
1.1 What is Instrumentation Engineering?
 Often instrumentation is not used by itself,

but instead as the sensors of larger
electrical systems. For example, a
thermocouple might be used to help ensure
a furnace's temperature remains constant.
 Instrumentation engineering is often viewed
as the counterpart of control engineering
1.1 WHAT is Instrumentation Engineering?
 The control of processes is one of the main

branches of applied instrumentation.
 The control of the parameters in a process
or in a particular system, are made possible
by using devices such as microprocessors,
microcontrollers or PLCs, the ultimate aim of
which is to control the parameters of a
system.
1.1 What is Instrumentation Engineering?
 Output instrumentation includes devices such as
solenoids, valves, regulators, circuit breakers, and
relays. These devices control a desired output
variable, and provide either remote or automated
control capabilities. These are often referred to as
final control elements when controlled remotely or
by a control system.
 Control Instrumentation plays a significant role in
both gathering information from the field and
changing the field parameters, and as such are a
key part of control loops.
1.1.1 What are Instruments?
 An instrument is a device that measures

and/or regulates process variables such as
flow, temperature, level, or pressure.
Instruments include many varied
contrivances which can be as simple as
valves and transmitters, and as complex as
analyzers. Instruments often comprise
control systems of varied processes such as
refineries, factories, and vehicles.
 Instruments referred to as transmitters in

process control engineering are those
incorporated in an automatic control system.
They are needed to provide (transmit)
information about the plant status to the
controller, and hence their output must be in
a suitable form (electrical, hydraulic,
pneumatic) to be accepted by the controller.
 The primary component of both types of measurement

instrument is a transducer, or a sensor that converts the
measured physical quantity from one form to another.
 Another classification is between active and passive
instruments. If the instrument output is entirely produced by
the quantity being measured, the instrument is termed
passive. A pressure gauge is a passive instrument since
the pressure of the fluid is translated into movement of a
pointer against a scale without any external power source.
 An analogue instrument gives an output signal that is a continuous
function of the input signal being measured. An example of an
analogue instrument is the deflection type pressure gauge.
 However, a digital instrument gives an output that varies in discrete
steps. The advantage of using a digital instrument is that it can be
directly connected to a computer so that digital control of the process
can be carried out. The increasing application of digital instruments in
automatic process control greatly increases the ease of computer
connection.
 On the other hand, if an analogue instrument is used in a digital control
system, an analogue-to-digital converter is needed to convert the
analogue output signal from the instrument to a digital form, for
processing by the computer.
1.1.2 Applications of Instrumentation to
Measurement
 Instrumentation is used to measure many
parameters (physical values). These parameters
include:
 Pressure, either differential or static
 Flow
 Temperature
 Levels of liquids etc.
 Density
 Viscosity
 Other mechanical properties of materials
 Frequency
 Current
1.1.2 Applications of Instrumentation in
Measurement
 Voltage
 Inductance
 Capacitance
 Resistivity
 Chemical composition
 Chemical properties
 Properties of light
 Vibration
 Weight
1.2 What is a System, Process, Plant?
 A plant is an aggregation of various small

units (subunits) that interact with each other
in a logical manner so as to operate as an
entire system. Depending upon the size and
complexity and analyses to be carried out,
these subsystems maybe treated as a
system which then can be logically
decomposed further into subunits.
A control engineer needs to have perfect

knowledge of subsystems, which together
make a system. It helps not only in smoother
system operation but also in removing any
bug/failure quickly so as to minimize the plant
shutdown time. When a system malfunctions,
a particular subsystem or a group of
subsystems maybe involved, which needs to
be diagnosed and corrected.
 Systems are taken to be the same as the

process or plant in the context of their
operations involving control, for example, a
power plant and a chemical plant.
 The plant itself can involve some kind of
process, for example, a chemical plant
involves heating, cooling, filtering,
precipitation processes, etc.
 Plant: a set of various machine component

or parts functioning together to perform a
particular operation.
 Process: a logical series/continuing
operation, thus giving a total plant operation.
Some of the operations maybe happening
simultaneously, i.e., in parallel mode.
A control engineer needs to control the plant

operations so as to get the desired response
from the plant. A system, or process or plant
may have single or multiple inputs, also called
“cause.”
Similarly, a plant may have a single or multiple
outputs, also called “effect.” (SISO, MISO,
SIMO, MIMO)
1.3 Control and Controller
 Control Engineering - discipline that focuses
on the mathematical modeling of systems of
a diverse nature, analyzing their dynamic
behavior, and using control theory to make a
controller that will cause the systems to
behave in a desired manner.
 Control engineering is closely related to
electrical engineering, as electronic circuits
can often be easily described using control
theory techniques.
 What is meant by Control?
 Control is the corrective action taken on the
plant by external means so as to get the
desired output from it. Control refers to
regulation, directing, or governing. If the
control action is by a human being, then the
control is called manual control. On the
other hand, when the control is taken by a
gadget or device, it is called an automatic
control.
 What is meant by Control?
 Control – the process in a system in which
one or several input variables influence
other output variables as a result of the laws
pertaining to the system. Controlling is
characterized by the open-loop sequence of
actions via the single transfer element or the
control chain. (according to DIN 19226)
As shown in the Fig.1.3, the input variables xe …..acting on
this system are linked in a self- contained box and issued
as output variables xa….. and these variables now act on
the energy flow or mass flow to be controlled.
Fig 1.3
xe1
xe2 xa1
xe3 xa2
In general:xa = f ( xe )
The term “control” is often applied to the complete system in
which controlling takes place, not only to the control
operation itself.
 What is a Controller
 Controller is an agent (device or human)
that offers control action to the plant.
Sometimes, in a small control application,
such a device may also be called a
regulator. Control action may be either
corrective or compensatory in nature.
 Fig. 1.3.1 A controller in action

Modifying
Input/signal
Reference Output Variable
or Input Controller or System Or
Variable Controlled Signal
Actuating Signal
or Control Signal
1.4 Control System
 What is a Control System
 a device or set of devices that manage the
behavior of other devices.
 an interconnection of components
(mechanical, electrical, optical, thermal or
hydraulic) connected or related in such a
manner as to command, direct, or regulate
itself or another system to maintain a
desired output.
1.4 Control Systems
 What is a Control System?
 An aggregation of a controller and the
plant/system needing it.
Fig 1,4.2 Control System illustrated
Control system
or Input Controller System Or
1.4 Control Systems
 Nowadays, engineers prefer embedded control systems. In
these control systems, the controller circuit and system circuit
are integrated on a single chip using VLSI technology.
Presently, embedded controllers are popular in biomedical
applications such as cardiac control devices/gadgets.
 In PC-based control and instrumentation, controllers execute
their control actions via their control algorithms. These control
algorithms maybe the conventional PID algorithms or the latest
fuzzy, artificial neural network, or genetic algorithms. The
spurious signal to the controller may consist of some
noise/disturbance along with the intended signal. These
disturbances may enter a plant instrumentation from any node,
which may intercept/ interfere with the signal communication
channels between instrumentation blocks/modules.
1.4 Control Systems
 What are control system’s disturbances?
 Disturbances – are input variables that affect the plant
outputs but cannot be adjusted by the control system.
Disturbances maybe probabilistic, stochastic or
deterministic in nature.
Internal disturbances are intrinsic to the plant and arise within
the plant, say, the variations of plant parameters that occur due
ambient conditions or some other factors. Internal disturbances
may also be capacitance or resistance variations of some
electrical circuit fitted in an electrical application. In an industrial
chemical process, the internal disturbance maybe, say,
increased scaling/precipitation within the pipelines, or hole
puncture in the pipeline.
1.4 Control Systems
External disturbances arise outside the plant, say, in the
inputs going into the plant; are mostly probabilistic but they
can also be stochastic and deterministic in a few cases.
External disturbances can only be controlled by feeddback
controllers.
• The notion of control system is used, by and at large, for
offering corrective action to probabilistic disturbances,
whether external or arising internally within the system.
• The stochastic disturbances to some extent and the
deterministic disturbances to their full extent can be
compensated or corrected during design of the control
system itself.
1.4 Control Systems
• In order to develop a control system for offering
control/corrective action to such disturbances occurring within
the system, the process, during its operation, must be treated
as inputs only. Inputs are classified as either manipulated or
disturbance variables and the outputs are classified as
measured or unmeasured variables.
• To control the operation of this plant system, measurements of
process outputs or disturbance inputs have to be done for
determining corrective action (compensation) to be taken on
the inputs going into the plant system. As the inputs are to be
changed for applying the needed control action to the plant
system, the inputs are termed as manipulated inputs .
1.4 Control Systems
 Fig 1.4.3- A typical industrial system requiring control
Manipulated
Input
Plant/ Measured
Output
Total Non- Total
Input manipulated Unmeasured output
Input
Disturbance
System Outputs
Inputs
1.4 Control Systems
 The interface between the plant and the controller
requires actuators (control elements) to provide the
control action. Actuators are commonly electric,
pneumatic or hydraulic, depending on the
application and power level required.
 In addition, detectors, sensors (measurement
elements) and instrumentation are needed to
provide information about the plant status to the
controller.
 The information passed between the controller and
the plant is in the form of signals which can be very
diverse, e.g., electrical, pneumatic, mechanical, etc.
1.4 Control Systems
 What are transmitters in relation to control systems?
 Transmitters are devices which produce an output
signal, often in the form of a 4–20 mA electrical current
signal, although many other options using voltage,
frequency, pressure are possible. This signal can be
used for informational purposes, or it can be sent to a
PLC, DCS, SCADA system, or other type of
computerized controller, where it can be interpreted
into readable values and used to control other devices
and processes in the system.
1.4 Control Systems
 What are transmitters in relation to control
systems?
 Transmitters are used to describe the action of

the measurement when it sends signals to the
controller, which represent the measured
values of the system.
Fig.1.4.4 A typical industrial systems basic schematics
Controller
Manipulated
Plant/
Input Measured
Total Non-manipulated Output Total
System
Input Inputs Unmeasured outputs
Disturbance Outputs
Input
1.4 Control Systems
Basic elements of a Control System and Flow of Information
Control
Elements
Controller Plant
Measurement
Elements
1.5 Nature of Control Systems
 1.5.1 Manual – needs human operator as the
controller; control system is regulated through
human intervention.
 1.5.2 Semi-automatic – involve both human being
and a device or gadget as a part of the controller,
i.e., present-days cars, where the driver controls
steering and the temperature control is separately
performed by thermostatic devices.
 1.5.3 Automatic – does not require HI for their
operation and control purposes in normal use. The
controller is a device, usually implemented
electronically, either using analogue circuits or
digital computers.
1.5.3 Automatic Control Systems
 Applied processes in which the controlled variable is
continuously measured and compared with another variable,
the command variable, the process being influenced
according to the result of this comparison by modifying to
match the command variable.
 The sequence of actions resulting from this takes place in a
closed loop, the control loop. The purpose of the closed loop
control is to match the value of the controlled variable to the
value specified by the command variable even if perfect
equalization is not attained under the prevailing
circumstances. (according to DIN 19226)
 Uses programmed commands to operate and control a
process, combined with feedback of information to determine
that the commands have been properly executed, often
employ PID process controllers.
 1.5.4 Classes of Automatic Control Systems
1.5.4.1 Servo Control Systems
 A feedback control system for controlling the
mechanical signals from a process such as:
position, velocity, or acceleration;
 Control system where the reference or input varies
continuously and operates such that the output
follows the reference;
 Also called a follower system or servo mechanism.
 1.5.4 Classes of Automatic Control Systems
1.5.4.1 Servo Control Systems
 Most of the mechanical actuators in mechanical
processes requiring control or automation use servo
systems, such as the desired value of the controlled
variable (output of the process) or set point is not
fixed but constantly changing.
 Examples are:
I. CNC Machines Tools, where tools are operated as per
programmed instructions;
II. Robotic hand control;
III. Aircraft automatic landing system.
 1.5.4 Classes Automatic Control

Systems
1.6.4.2 Regulator
 The object of the control system is to maintain the
physical variable/s (input or set point) at some
constant value;
 A feedback control system in which the set point is
either constant or varies slowly with respect to time
and in which the primary task is to maintain the
actual output at the desired value in the presence of
disturbances.
 1.6.4 Classes Automatic Control Systems
1.6.4.2 Regulator
 Examples :
1) Speed-control system of AC generators;
 The purpose of this control system is to maintain the speed
of the generator at constant value so that results in the
generated voltage having a frequency of 60Hz, even with
the presence of varying load can be maintained.
2) Human biological system that maintains the temperature of
the human body at approximately 36-deg C in an
environment that usually has a different (and varying)
temperature
1.6 Classification of Control Systems
 1.6.1 – Based on Configuration:
1.6.1.1 Open-loop Control system (OLCS)
• no feedback path, the controller has no information of the
output variable;
• the controlling or regulating action is independent of the
output;
• the output has no effect on the controller action.
• Performance depends on the accuracy of the input
calibration and any deviation in this input affects the output
variable;
• The parametric disturbances/non-linearities of the plant will
not be compensated by the controller.
1.6.1.1 Open Loop Control System
• Utilizes a controller or control actuator in order to
obtain the desired response, without incorporating
feedback. The input-output relationship of the
system is only the cause and effect relationship of
the output from the controller and the plant.
• Open-loop control is used for systems that are
sufficiently well characterized to predict what inputs
are necessary to achieve the desired states or
outputs. E.g. the velocity of a motor may be well
characterized for the voltage fed into it, in which
case feedback may not be necessary.
Fig. 1.6.1.1 Open-loop Control system (OLCS)
Automating
signal
or Input Controller System Or
or
Modified Input
Variable
Example 1: Open-loop Operation
Consider a tank holding liquid to feed the process. The process
being supplied requires a constant head of liquid and so a
control system is required to keep the tank level constant. A
valve is located in the tank inlet to vary the flow rate.
 The simplest strategy is to calibrate the inlet valve. By
experimentation, a relationship between tank level and the
position of the hand-wheel can be obtained; such that if the
outflow is constant, a position of the hand-wheel can be found
that keeps the level constant.
 If a different level is required, the hand-wheel can be changed
to increase or decrease the flow until the new level is reached.
 There is no electrical or mechanical feedback path, so the
system is open loop, but feedback is being provided through
the user, who actually decides if the actual level is above or
below the desired level, and adjust the actuator accordingly.
1.6.1.1 Open-loop Control Systems
 Feedforward Control
Considering the previous example:
The major disturbances affecting the tank level is most likely to
be the changes in the outflow, such that when increased, will
cause the level to drop. Therefore a more reasonable approach
is to produce calibration curves for a number of outflow rates.
By monitoring the outflow rate, the correct position of the hand-
wheel can be determined by examining the calibration curve for
the new flow. The hand-wheel is then adjusted to keep the
(fluid) tank at the required level. This technique is Feedforward
control, which requires a measurement of the outflow rate in
order to calculate the change in the position of the inlet valve.
Although an improvement over the open-loop operation, it does
have disadvantages that restrict its usefulness.
1.6.1.1 Open-loop Control Systems
 Feedforward Control
Limitations/Disadvantages:
 The calibration curves between the actuator behaviour
and the manipulated variable/s must be made
accurate for the process to function correctly.
 The process may vary with time, or disturbances that
occur may not be included in the calibration curve or
may not be monitored.
1.6.1.2 Closed-loop Control system (CLCS)
• Controlling or regulating action is dictated by the
output;
• Contains two additional instrument blocks/modules:
signal comparator and feedback devices, consisting of
sensors, transducers and transmitters which measure
the output signal of the plant and then feed it back to
the controller for necessary action;
• Posses self-diagnosis, predictive and capabilities.
1.6.1.2 Closed-loop Control System

• Uses an additional measure of the actual output, the
feedback, which is then compared to the desired
output response or reference input signal.
• Uses a prescribe function between the output and
reference input to control the states or outputs of a
dynamic system.
• The difference between the output of the process
under control and the reference input is amplified and
used to control the process, so that the difference is
continually reduced.
 What is feedback?
 In cybernetics and control theory, feedback is a
process whereby some proportion or in general,
function, of the output signal of a system is passed
(fed back) to the input. Often this is done
intentionally, in order to control the dynamic
behavior of the system.
 Feedback may be:

• negative, which tends to reduce output, or
• positive, which tends to increase output.
 What is feedback?
 The notion of feedback exists in our everyday life.
For instance, we use visual feedback to walk.
Feedback not only gives verification of our actions, it
allows us to cope with a changing environment by
adjusting our actions in the presence of unforeseen
events and changing conditions.
 Feedback has similar advantages when applied to
automatic control; it gives the system the ability to
deal with unexpected disturbances and changes in
the plant behaviour.
1.6.1.2 Closed-loop Control Systems
 What is Feedback Control
 An error-driven control in that the control effort is a
function of the difference between the desired and
the actual levels. The relationship between the
error and the control effort is known as the control
law.
 The important characteristic of feedback control is
that it is capable of providing a range of control
effort, i.e., it can produce small as well as large
corrections. An appropriate control law must be
designed or selected to produce a satisfactory
performance.
Fig. 1.6.1.2 Closed-Loop Controller
Disturbance z1 Controlled
Variable x
Controlled System
Energy/
Mass Flow
Sequence
of Actions
Controller Output
(Error) y
Controller
Controller Command Variable w
Disturbance z2
Feedback Control: Illustrative example 1
 Consider a manually controlled closed-loop
system for regulating the level of fluid in a tank.
 The input is a reference level of fluid that the
operator is instructed to maintain. This reference is
memorized by the operator. The operator views
the level of the fluid through a port on the side of
the tank.
 By way of analogy, the power amplifier is the
operator and the sensor is the visual. The operator
compares the actual level with the desired level
and opens or closes the valve (actuator) to adjust
the flow, hence maintain the desired level.
Illustrative Example 2: Feedback Control
As in the previous example, the obvious solution
to keep the level in the tank constant is to monitor
the level itself. If the level deviates from the
desired value, the inlet valve is adjusted by an
amount dependent on the difference between the
actual level and the desired level.
Feedback control in this case require a more
elaborate level measurement technique, and an
accurate valve actuator. It also requires a signal
related to the actual level (i.e a level transmitter).
In addition, the valve actuator must be able to hold
the valve in any position, and also to change its
position gradually and smoothly.
Illustrative Example 3: On/Off Feedback Control
 A simplification of the general feedback control type
that incorporate a switch that produces a binary
(on/off) signal that indicates whether the output is
above or below the desired value.
 As in the previous example, the level would now only
have two states; either above the desired level or
below it. Monitoring can now be carried out by a float
switch mounted at the desired level. When the level is
above the reference value, the inlet valve is closed,
and when below it is opened. The control law in on/off
control is kept simple, it merely switches the control
effort between two extremes, depending on the sign
of the error.
Fig. 1.6.1.3 A Liquid-Level Control System (CLCS)
Liquid
ON/OFF Electrical mains Supply
Controller And TANK
Motor/pump unit
Electrical Liquid
Signal Level
Level Measurement
Sensor/Transmitter
Fig. 1.7.1.3 B Closed-Loop Control System Basic Configuration
Actuating
Signal
Input Signal Signal Comparator
And PLANT
Reference or Controller
Standard Output
signal or Set Feedback Signal
point Signal
Measuring Element/
Feedback Device
1.6.2 – Based on Change of Plant Parameters:
 1.6.2.1 Time-varying Control Systems
• Control systems wherein plant parameters vary with
time; the output signal or response depends upon the
time of application of the input. For example, in an
automobile control system, where the mass of the
automobile decreases with time as the fuel is
consumed during its movement.
 1.6.2.2 Time-invariant Control Systems
• also called constant-coefficient, do not have
parametric variations with respect to time and are
normally described by differential equations with
constant coefficients.
1.6.3 – Based on Behavior:
 1.6.3.1 Linear Control Systems
• Control systems where input/output relationship
maybe mathematically represented by simple linear
differential equations.
• Follow the principles of superposition and
homogeneity;
• Output signals vary linearly with respect to the
input(s), where the response to several simultaneous
inputs can be calculated by treating one input at a time
and then adding their independent responses;
• Maybe time variant or time-invariant as per their
intrinsic nature
• Linear controls use negative feedback to keep
some desired process within an acceptable range.
For example, a thermostat is a simple negative
feedback control; when the temperature goes
below a threshold, control starts. Systems that
include feedback are prone to hunting, which is
oscillation of output resulting from improperly
tuned inputs of first positive then negative
feedback.
• Often, if the response of the system is slowed
down enough to prevent oscillation, the system
doesn't respond fast enough to work in normal
situations. To resolve the problems, the most
common feedback loop scheme has mathematical
extensions to cope with the future and the past.
This type of loop is called a Proportional-Integral-
Derivative Loop, or PID loop.
• Another common method is to filter the feedback
loop. A filter eliminates undesirable frequencies
(cycles) from the system under control, which
perfectly eliminates oscillations. Many systems
oscillate at just one frequency. By filtering out that
frequency, one can use very "stiff" feedback and
the system can be very responsive without
shaking itself apart.
• The most complex linear control systems developed to
date are in oil refineries (Model Predictive Control).
The chemical reaction paths and control systems are
normally designed together using specialized
computer-aided-design software. When the automated
control-system design techniques pioneered by oil
refinery controls were applied to aircraft control
systems, they caused a revolution, speeding design
times by a hundred-fold or more. Now, the core codes
of many modern aircraft autopilots are actually
themselves coded by computer programs.
• Some feedback controls operate through complex
indirect effects. For example, in an airplane's autopilot,
the flight plan determines the desired numbers (where
to move) that drives everything. Each mechanical
control has a differential equation that takes the
desired movement in six different axes (roll, pitch,
yaw, forward, back and up), and calculates the
control's position. Usually each input and output
number is filtered for particular oscillations of the
aircraft or the control part.
• Most real feedback loops are concerned about
wearing out control machinery like valves, by
adjusting them many times per second. Therefore,
they often have a deadband, a region around the
current value in which no control action occurs. In
commercial controls, the deadband is
programmable.
• Feedback loops can be combined and modified in
many ways. Usually if a system has several
measurements to be controlled, a feedback loop
will be present for each of them.
 In the furnace example, the valve may open and
shut indefinitely in a cycle as the furnace heats, and
then overruns the target temperature. This is bad
because it stresses the system. In a furnace, the
constantly turning valve will quickly wear out. More
expensively, the fluctuating temperature causes
expansion and contraction all through the furnace,
causing unnecessary, very expensive mechanical
wear. Most systems have similar problems.
1.6.3 – Based on Behavior:
 1.6.3.2 Non-Linear Control Systems
• Do not obey the principles of superposition and
homogeneity;
• Response to several simultaneous inputs can not be
calculated by treating one input at a time and adding
the responses/results;
• Are mathematically represented by non-linear
differential equations;
• Are controlled linearly in piecewise manner according
to the concept of piecewise linear approximation of
non-linear functions.
1.6.4 – Based on Distribution of Parameters Over the
Structure of the Control System:
 1.6.4.1 Lumped Parameter Control Systems
• Are described by ordinary differential equation
(ODEs) often based on perfect mixing assumption
like x’ = fn(x, u), where x maybe a variable and u
another variable, say, input.
 1.6.4.2 Distributed Parameter Control Systems

• Are represented only using partial differential
equations (PDEs).
1.6.5 – Based on the Type of Signal and Signal
Conditioning Requirements:
 1.6.5.1 Analog Control Systems (ACS)
• All instrumentation involved in the forward and
feedback paths of control configuration are analog;
• Largely use electromechanical components;
• Analog controller generates a continuous control on
the basis of analog error;
• Continuous control applications involve the process
variables that can change at any instant, i.e., flow,
temperature and pressure;
• Involves instrumentation devices, viz., sensors and
transmitters.
 1.6.5.2 Digital Control Systems (DCS)
• Use digital controllers which takes digital inputs and
produces a digital controlling signal or output;
• Processes are best discussed as continuous systems with
differential equations with inputs that are applied
continuously and outputs that are available continuously;
• Measurements and the control moves/actions are made at
discrete intervals of time;
• Involve digital processors (say, microprocessors or
microcontrollers) or computers.
 1.6.5.2 Digital Control Systems
Digital Control Systems comprise:
• 1.6.5.2a Direct Digital Control (DDCs)
 – employ a computer as controller where the control panel is very
simple : consisting of a digital display and a few buttons;
 DDCs offer real-time control through virtual instrumentation, built
on a controlling computer with relevant hardware and driver
software;
 Virtual instrumentation can be built using commercially available
software packages, say, DASYLab and LabVIEW;
 Use sensors, multiplexers, A/D converters, microprocessors,
serial input/output ports, memory, D/A controllers, timer/clock
 1.6.5.2 Digital Control Systems (DCS)
• 1.6.5.2b Discrete Digital Control (DDCs)
 Are opposite of continuous control systems;
 Can manipulate discrete variable only, say, when a
schedule calls for the next operation. For example,
an assembly line is a classic example of a discrete
control system. The count-of-completed assemblies
is a discrete variable that changes only at the
instance, when the line moves forward and a finished
product rolls off the line.
 1.6.5.2 Digital Control Systems
• 1.6.5.2c Sampled Data Control Systems
(SDCS)
 In this configuration, continuous and discrete
control systems come together, say, the
process variables change continuously but can
only be measured at discrete intervals.
 1.6.5.3 Distributed Control System (DCS)
 Involves several microcomputers geographically distributed
over a large area, each assigned with a specific task and all
are mutually linked through a data link, which can be coaxial
or fiber optic;
 Each microcomputer performs its own task concurrently and
independently of the other microcomputers in the control
system;
 Is parallel processing, which provides excellent control system
response time and eliminates the possibility of any single-point
failure, that could crash the whole control system set-up.
 It is contrary to centralized computer control topology.
 Usually of a manufacturing system, process or any kind of
dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not
central in location (like the brain) but are distributed throughout
the system with each component sub-system controlled by one
or more controllers. The entire system of controllers is
connected by networks for communication and monitoring.
 A very broad term used in a variety of industries, to monitor and
control distributed equipment, say, electrical power grids and
electrical generation plants, environmental control systems, t
raffic signals, radio signals, water management systems, oil
refining plants, chemical plants, pharmaceutical manufacturing,
sensor networks, dry cargo and bulk oil carrier ships
Example: DCS applied to Building Automation
Since modern automation problems in most industries require
control from monitoring, supervision and control of a small part of
the production plant to the integral control and management of a
large plant, a DCS can divide the overall system control needs in
the following hierarchical levels:
o Level 1 – Process level
o Level 2 – Unit Control Level
o Level 3 – Group Control Level
o Level 4 – Process Control Level
o Level 5 – Operation Control Level
A DCS provides intended control needed at each level and yet is

well-coordinated to give a smooth flow across the various levels.
 1.6.5.4 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
 is a digital electronic apparatus with a programmable memory
for storing instructions to implement specific functions such as
logic sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic to control
machines and processes.
 In PLCs, the CPU receives instructions from a memory and
obtains status information from input devices. A command
(output) is generated so as to control a load through motor
starters, relays, solenoid, valves, lamps, etc.
 Microprocessors used in PLCs are 8-bit, 16-bit, or more
advanced, depending upon the size and speed requirements of
the PLC.
Fig. 1.6.5.4 PLC general architecture
Programming
Devices
Control
Input Module/ Processing Output
Power Supply Unit Module
Memory
1.6.5 – Based on the Type of Signal and Signal Conditioning
Requirements:
 1.6.5.4 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
 Even much faster instruction execution can now be achieved by using
bit-slice microprocessors within PLCs. Whenever a program is
executed for new inputs, the PLC updates all the outputs, a sequence
known as PLC program scan - the process that involves input reading,
control application program execution, and output updating.
 PLCs today have grown into intelligent decision-making machines with
a scope of applications ranging from variable control functions, data
acquisition to report generations and supervisory control. PLCs are
used in numerous industrial control operations for tire manufacturing,
tool changing, materials handling, chemical batching, plastic injection
molding, and machine faults monitoring and diagnostics, transformer
units, robot controls, flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) and special
purpose machines.
PLC Programming
 PLC programs are typically written in a
special application on a personal computer,
then downloaded by a direct-connection
cable or over a network to the PLC. The
program is stored in the PLC either in
battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-
volatile flash memory. Often, a single PLC
can be programmed to replace thousands of
relays.
PLC Programming
 IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming languages
for programmable control systems: FBD (
Function block diagram), LD (Ladder diagram), ST (
Structured text, similar to the
Pascal programming language), IL (Instruction list, similar
to assembly language) and SFC (Sequential function chart
). These techniques emphasize logical organization of
operations.
 While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are
common to all manufacturers, differences in I/O
addressing, memory organization and instruction sets
mean that PLC programs are never perfectly
interchangeable between different makers. Even within the
same product line of a single manufacturer, different
models may not be directly compatible.
Example: PLC Application
As an example, say a facility needs to store water in a tank. The
water is drawn from the tank by another system, as needed, and
our example system must manage the water level in the tank.
Using only digital signals, the PLC has two digital inputs from a
floatswitch (Low Level and High Level). When the water level is
above the switch it closes a contact and passes a signal to an
input. The PLC uses a digital output to open and close the inlet
valve into the tank.
When the water level drops enough so that the Low Level float
switch is off (down), the PLC will open the valve to let more
water in. Once the water level rises enough so that the High
Level switch is on (up), the PLC will shut the inlet to stop the
water from overflowing. This rung is an example of seal-in
(latching) logic. The output is sealed in until some condition
breaks the circuit.
Example: PLC Application
 Ladder Diagram
Low Level High Level Fill Valve

----------------------[/]------------------------[/]--------------------(OUT)--------
Fill Valve
-----------------------[ ]-----------
 1.6.5.5 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

 Is basically a computer-based control for complete process
automation. In a network of computers offering plant
operation control, say DCS, the central computer maybe
made to work as a SCADA module. Its basic work then is
to acquire data from remote locations, remote control of
plant, and diagnostics to maintain the complete system and
keep it in working condition.
 1.6.5.5 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA)
 .The Basic functions of a SCADA are as follows:
i. Addresses the channels and reads the data (called polling or
channel scanning).
ii. Converts the read data (output of ADC) into equivalent
engineering units for analysis and data display/recording.
iii. The read data is processed by a microprocessor for
generation of alarms if data item crosses the limit, generation
of printout, limit checking and performance analysis
(SCADA)
 Nowadays, distributed SCADA systems are very much
in use because of extremely large number of data
channels and their interfacing requirements, which
involves the use of multiplexers at different levels.
The distributed SCADAs have to be interfaced with a
central computer in star configuration. In industries,
the distributed SCADA systems are called Remote
Terminal Units (RTUs) which are widely used in oil
drilling and irrigation canals.
(SCADA)
 Other applications are as follows:
• Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and
include water treatment and distribution, wastewater
collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical
power transmission and distribution, Wind farms,
civil defense siren systems, and large communication
systems.
• Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private
ones, including buildings, airports, ships, and space
stations. They monitor and control HVAC, access, and
energy consumption.
Fig. 1.6.5.5 SCADA system general architecture
MEMORY
Analog Input
Devices Micro- Alarms/Displays
Processor Serial
Digital Input Unit Interface with
Devices Control computer
Counter/
Timer
Clock
Example: SCADA schematic overview
1.8 Process Control Systems:
Process Control Engineering
 an engineering discipline that deals with
architecture, mechanisms, and algorithms
for controlling the output of a specific
process.
 uses analog sensors to monitor real-world
signals and digital computers to do the
analysis and controlling; makes extensive
use of analog/digital and digital/analog
conversion.
1.7 Process Control Systems:
 Process control systems are feedback

control systems, which regulates process
outputs or variables such as pH levels,
temperature, pressure flow, humidity,
distribution, and batch reaction. Obtaining a
process model and then studying its
dynamic behavior must be done before
designing such control mechanisms.
1.7 Process Control Systems
In practice, process control systems can be
characterized as one or more of the following
forms:
 Discrete – Found in many manufacturing, motion
and packaging applications, discrete process
control systems use a device called a
programmable logic controller (PLC) to read a
set of digital and analog inputs, apply a set of logic
statements, and generate a set of outputs. Robotic
assembly, such as that found in automotive
production, can also be characterized as discrete
process control.
characterized as one or more of the following forms:
 Batch - Some applications require that
specific quantities of raw materials be
combined in specific ways for particular
duration to produce an intermediate or end
result. One example is the production of
adhesives and glues, which normally require
the mixing of raw materials in a heated
vessel for a period of time to form a quantity
of end product.
characterized as one or more of the following forms:
 Continuous – Often, a physical system is
represented though variables that are smooth and
uninterrupted in time. The control of the water
temperature in a heating jacket, for example, is an
example of continuous process control.
 Hybrid - applications having elements of discrete,

batch and continuous process control
1.8 Examples Control Systems
Fig.1.8.1 Closed Loop Speed Control of a steam Turbine
Error in the seed Speed

+ Turbine (Output)
Governor Amplifier Valve And
- Load
Reference
Speed
As shown in the figure, the governor acts as the controller and the valve as the
final control element. The centrifugal governor operates an amplifier, which
regulates the opening and closing of the valve, thus, steam flow passes from
the boiler on to the blades of the turbo-generator. As the generator load
increases, the turbine speed reduces. To keep the turbine rotational speed at a
reference level, the valve is opened more so that more steam flow takes place
from the boiler to the turbine and to cope with difference in speeds from the
current level to the reference level and vice versa in case of off-loading, thus
bringing the turbine to the reference speed.
Fig.1.8.2 Feedback Speed Control of an Induction Motor
Reference Firing Angle,α Modified Stator
Current Angular
Voltage
Speed
+ Converter Induction (Output)
Controller and Motor and
-
Inverter Load
Tachogenerator
A pre-calibrated voltage Vᶱ corresponding to the reference speed is applied to

the comparator as a set point. The feedback signal is transduced to the
voltage signal generated by the tachogenerator corresponding to the
instantaneous level of the motor speed. The controller takes in the error signal
and generates a firing angle α for the conduction of SCRs in the converter,
thus giving different duty cycles. Using PWM technique, a desired current
pulse is generated. This current signal of the stator current increases or
decreases the induction motor speed accordingly and is kept at the reference
level.
Fig.1.8.3 Computer-based Servo Motor
Analog Voltage Angular
Digital Signal
signal Rotation
Output
rotation
D/A Servo
Computer Load
Converter Motor
Reference
Voltage
Input
Optical
Transducer Analog speed
Digital Voltage
signal signal
A calibrated voltage corresponding to the desired speed is applied as an input

to the computer. The computer acts as a comparator as well as a controller.
The digital signal is then converted into an analog signal via a signal
conditioning device (DAC). A controlling voltage is applied to the servo so as
to get a controlled angular rotation from it. Since it is a closed-loop
configuration, the angular speed of the servo motor will be changed according
to the magnitude of the load.
Fig.1.8.4 Open-loop traffic light system
Red Signal
Green Signal
Bulbs Sequential
Traffic ON/OFF
TIMER Light
Input
Supply
Amber Signal
Here, the time is pre-programmed for fixed durations and the light turns green,
amber, and red sequentially.
Fig.1.8.5 Closed-loop traffic light system
Optical sensors/ Red Signal
Cameras on each lane Green Signal
Amber Signal
+
Traffic
-
Controller Light
Bulbs Sequential
ON/OFF
Maximum
allowable time
for any light to
Remain ON TIMER
Here, a maximum allowable time time is kept as reference for a particular light
to remain ON, to prevent a traffic jam or disorderly traffic. The optical sensors
or cameras have to supply the vehicles’ number count in each lane to the
controller. Although the lights will be sequentially controlled as in the case of
an open loop control, their ON and OFF timings will be regulated by the
controller. It is no longer the preset value, rather, it will acquire varying ON and
OFF timings, which are optimal in nature and guided by the counts supplied
by individual camera/optical sensor to the controller.
Fig.1.8.5 Closed-loop water heating system
Steam in Water in
Comparator
+ Deviation Pressure Water out
Controller On valve Valve Heater
(Error)
Desired -
Temperature Steam out
(set point)
Temperature Sensor
In this feedback control configuration system, the outlet water temperature is

measured (via temp. sensor) and compares it (via the comparator) with the
set point to determine the error. The error value is then used to control the
opening and closing of the valve at the steam inlet to obtain the desired
temperature.
Fig.1.8.6 Closed-loop feedforward tank height/level control
system
Flow Measurement Liquid in
(disturbance)
Liquid “in”
Height (h)
Controller Valve Surge Tank
Pressure Outlet
On valve Process
As shown above, in feedforward control, a disturbance variable is measured

and the manipulated variable is changed before the output is affected. In this
case, the inlet flowrate is changed by an upstream process unit and is,
therefore considered a disturbance variable. To maintain the constant water
height in the tank, the inlet flowrate is measured and the output flow rate is
adjusted. The disadvantage of this control technology is its insensitivity to
uncertainty; that is, if the inlet flow rate is not accurately measured or the
output flow rate cannot be accurately adjusted, the water height in the will not
be accurately controlled.
Fig.1.8.7 Closed-loop feedforward/ feedback tank height/level
control system
Flow Measurement Liquid in
(disturbance)
Liquid “in”
Height (h)
Controller Valve Surge Tank
Height Pressure Outlet
On valve Flow rate Process
Reference
(set point)
Level Transmitter
Shown above, is a composite feedforward/feedback strategy. It is quite robust

and compensates for a larger range of uncertainties arising during the control
system operation. The feedforward allows immediate controlling action to be
taken before the inlet flow rate affects the tank liquid level. The feedback
controller compensates for the outflow rate needed to maintain the desired
level, in spite of the errors in the inlet flow measurement
Fig.1.8.9 Closed-loop Quality Control System
Produced goods
Samples of
Final goods Production Sales
unit Unit Sales of
goods
Product
Components Instructions
Data from the market

Errors Quality Quality (market survey reports)
Control unit Reports
Quality
Standards Controller
(ISO, etc.)
Customer Satisfaction
Feedback (based on complaints)
Closed-loop Production Control System
In the production control system shown in Fig.1.9.8, the

production rate will be regulated as per the floating demand in
the sales territories/clientele regions.
A projected demand level is always kept as reference
over a specific period. The difference in the projected demand
and the current demand level is given to the controller. The
Controller maybe the Managing Director or CEO of the
Corporation.
The controller issues further directions or instructions
(actuating signals) to the various units so that the production rate
maybe regulated and closely coordinated with these various
functional units, departments of the organization.
Fig.1.8.10 Robot-arm Control System
Command signal Desired signal

Actuating signal level
Microprocessor Power Mechanical

Arm unit Source Actuator
Trajectory
Robotic arm
Television
Feedback signal Camera
Fig.1.8.11 Closed-loop Electric Drive Position Control System
If
(Constant field
Current)
VE Amplifier Ia
Gear train
DC Generator DC
Motor
Load
ᶿref
Potentiometric ᶿo
Error detector
1.9 Control hardware terms
 Actuating mechanism – element that has direct effect on a
controlled system, moves the final control element when
mechanically actuated.
 Actuating device – consists of actuating mechanism and final
control element.
 Signal transducer – device that transforms an input signal as
clearly as possible into an associated output signal, where
necessary using auxiliary energy. Among others, this group of
devices includes amplifiers and signal converters.
 Signal amplifier – device using auxiliary energy for power
amplification.
 Signal Converter – devices in which input and output signals
have different structure
Example 1.9.1
Process: cooling a room
Desired outcome: reach/ maintain a defined
temperature constant over
time, say 20 o C
Controlled variable: temperature
Input variable: temperature, since it is measured
by a thermometer and is used to
decide whether to cool or not
Setpoint: 20 o C
Manipulated variable: state of the cooler (the setting
of the valve allowing chilled water to flow through
it)
Example 1.9.2
If the output of an air compressor is controlled by the quantity
drawn in, then:
 The opening and closing of the valve is the control operation
 The valve, whose setting affects the quantity drawn in, is the
control element
 The opening provided by the valve is the controlled variable
 The handwheel with which the valve is actuated is the
control device.
 The varying load on the compressed air system caused by
the users that affects the control system is the disturbance
This also applies to speed fluctuations or variations in the
degree of efficiency caused by the compressor. On the
account of the open action loop of the control system, it is
not possible to compensate for such disturbance variables.
Example 1.9.3. House heating/ Air-conditioning
system
In this example,
 The thermostat acts as the controller which directs the
activities of the heater.
 heater or the air-conditioner is the processor that warms or
cools the air inside the house.
 the air coming into the heater or air-conditioner is the input.
 the air going out of the heater or air conditioner is its output.
 the air temperature readings inside the house are the
feedbacks.
 and finally, the house is the environment in which the
heating/air-conditioning system operates
1.10 Signals
 Signals represent information, the
representation may refer to the value or the
change in values of a physical dimension
and may refer to transmission, processing
or storage of information.
 In abstract considerations, signal refers to
values or change in value of mathematical
quantities.
1.10.1Types of Signals
 Analog – information is assigned continuously
point by point to a range of values.
 Digital – the range to be considered is divided
into a finite number of separate value ranges,
and one specific item of information is assigned
to each range of values.
 The digital group includes the binary signal,
also known as an on-off signal, representing
two items of information.
1.10.1Types of Signals
 Digital signals are used more frequently in
control engineering and the digital signals are
mainly in the form of binary signals.
 These binary signals are of considerable
significance for information processing because
they can easily be produced by equipment (e.g.
switches) and can also be processed simply.
 In practice, it is essential to clearly define the
relationship between range of values and signal
in the case of binary signals
Digital and analog signals
 Digital or discrete signals behave as binary

switches, yielding simply an On or Off signal (1 or
0, True or False, respectively). Push buttons, limit
switches, and photoelectric sensors are examples
of devices providing a discrete signal. Discrete
signals are sent using either voltage or current,
where a specific range is designated as On and
another as Off. For example, a PLC might use 24
V DC I/O, with values above 22 V DC representing
On, values below 2VDC representing Off, and
intermediate values undefined. Initially, PLCs had
only discrete I/O.
Digital and analog signals
 Analog signals are like volume controls, with a range of
values between zero and full-scale. These are typically
interpreted as integer values (counts) by the PLC, with
various ranges of accuracy depending on the device and
the number of bits available to store the data. As PLCs
typically use 16-bit signed binary processors, the integer
values are limited between -32,768 and +32,767. Pressure,
temperature, flow, and weight are often represented by
analog signals. Analog signals can use voltage or current
with a magnitude proportional to the value of the process
signal. For example, an analog 0 - 10 V input or 4-20 mA
would be converted into an integer value of 0 - 32767.
Analog/Digital Signals illustrated
 If a continuously changeable pressure from 0
to 600kPa is considered, each intermediate
value of the range maybe assigned a specific
signal.
 If the pressure is indicated on a Bourdon
pressure gauge, each intermediate value
corresponds to a specific position of the
pointer. The position of the pointer represents
an analog signal.
Analog/Digital Signals illustrated
 If the dial is now divided into separate value
ranges, say in pressure steps of 50 kPa and
if each range is assigned a specific item of
information:
50 . . . 100 kPa, value =1
100 . . . 150 kPa, value = 1.5
150 . . . 200kPa, value =2,
Then, we are dealing with digital

signals!
1.11.2 Signal Flow Diagram
 The Symbolic representation of the
effective relationships between the signals
in a system.
 Block and line of action
Xe1
 Linkage points xa1
Xe2
 Branch points
X
X X
X
Representation of a closed loop in the signal flow diagram
Xe1 X
Xe2 = y
y Xd = W - X +
W
1.11.3 Breakdown of the Control Chain
 In the preceding sections, the controller has
been represented as a self-contained block
which can be broken down even further. A
control can always be broken down by the
same method to show the arrangement of the
individual components; at the same time
showing the signal flow.
 The control chain is thus characterized by a
signal flow from signal input via signal
processing to signal output/execution of
instruction.
Breakdown of the control chain:
Actuating Device Signal output/ execution

of instruction
Processing Element Signal Processing
Input Element Signal input
Hardware breakdown Signal Flow

Examples of Hardware Elements
 Signal elements: limit switch with cam and roller
operation, proximity switches, light
barriers, reflex sensors, push buttons,
manual switches, etc.
 Processing elements: Electronic logic elements,
contactors, relays, valves
released by pneumatic logic, etc.
 Final control elements: Power contactors, pneumatic
and hydraulic (directional control)
valves, etc.
 Drive elements: Electric motors, pneumatic/
hydraulic motors, cylinders, etc.
Based on these considerations, an extended control
chain can be drawn up as follows:
Controlled System
Execution of
Actuating Instruction
Device
Operative part
Signal Output
Transducer
Processing element Controller Processing element
Input Element Signal element

Examples of hardware used for Electrical and Pneumatic Systems
Electrical Systems Pneumatic Systems

Actuating Mechanism Electric Motor Pneumatic cylinder
Solenoid Air motor
Linear motor
Final Control Elements Power contactors Directional control valves
Directional control valves

Processing Elements Auxiliary Contactors Non-return valves
Relays Pressure control valves
Flow Control valves
Input Elements Switches Switches

Push buttons Push buttons
Limit switches Limit switches
Program generators Program generators
Proximity signallers Proximity signallers
1.11 Designing a Control System
Designing and development of a control system requires
the following issues to be addressed in a sequence. It
needs a methodical approach as follows:
Step 1: Define the control objective
Step 2: Select input variables of the system plant
that need a control action and classify input
variables as:
a) Manipulated variable(s)
b) Disturbance variable(s)
These inputs may change continuously or at discrete
time intervals.
Step 3: Finalize output variables of the system plant and
classify output variables as:
a) Measured output variable(s)
b) Unmeasured output variable(s)
The measurement of output variables maybe carried
out continuously or at discrete time intervals.
Step 4: Find the operating constraints and classify them
as:
a) Hard constraint
b) Soft constraints
For example, the full height of water in a tank level
control system is a hard constraint so as to avoid any
wastage of water due to overflow. Any intermediate
height or level, at which the water may be desired to fill
can be considered a soft constraint. The soft constraint
maybe compromised but the hard constraint should
never be.
Step 5: Find the operating characteristics of the system
plant and classify them as either:
a) Continuous
b) Batch
c) Semi-continuous or hybrid
Continuous process operates for a very long period
before shutdown and the operating conditions remain
relatively constant, for example, in oil refineries. Batch
processes have varying operating conditions and their
operational time is short or limited, for example a batch
reactor.
Step 5: Considerations for safety, environment and

economy are to be ascertained. The instrumentation
involved in the control system should be fail-safe (fail-
proof).
Step 7: Control structure depending upon the
nature of the system plant has to be chosen out
of the two categories:
a) Feedback
b) Feedforward
Note: A combination of feedback and
feedforward and be used for faster and safer
control.
Also, a control system has the following three main
instrumentation blocks:
a) Measurement devices or sensors, which convert
the measured value into a current or voltage signal;
b) Manipulated input device or actuator;
c) Controller.
On the basis of measurements, the controller
manipulates the input device for the control of the
system output.
In a controller,
 The current-to-pressure conversion takes place in I/P
(current-to-pneumatic) converters;
 In digital control, a digital signal supplied by a digital
sensor to a controller is converted into an analog
signal via a D/A converter or D/I (digital-to-electronic
current). Then, an I/P converter is employed. Before
implementing the controller, the various
instrumentation and control blocks involved in the
control loop must be simulated and analyzed.
Nowadays, the plant or system models are often
“embedded” in the controller itself on a single chip.
The advantage of this is that the controller can use
a process model to anticipate the effect of control
actions. These are typically called embedded
controllers.
Also note that the control system is an
interdisciplinary subject as the control of any given
system maybe desired.
Problem Sets 1A
1. Why is control necessary? Why is there a need to build
control systems?
2. What devices consist of electrical drive control systems.
Explain the role/function of each.
3. Differentiate between a system, a process, and a plant,
giving few examples for each category.
4. List five examples of each of manual, semi-automatic and
automatic control systems
5. Differentiate between control and regulation by citing
examples.
6. What are the requirements of a controller in an application
for its design and development?
Problem Sets 1B
1. Write a technical note on the qualitative and quantitative
aspects of control.
2. List five examples of process control systems
3. Consider a SISO linear control system block which
receives an input signal and delivers a signal output . The
output is related to the input as the convolution of input with
the impulse response function , the output when input is a
unit impulse at time will be .
What is the operational significance of this SISO linear
control system? Explain.

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C1-Basics of Intrumentation &amp; Control Eng

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Chapter I

 Often instrumentation is not used by itself,

 The control of processes is one of the main

 An instrument is a device that measures

 Instruments referred to as transmitters in

 The primary component of both types of measurement

 A plant is an aggregation of various small

A control engineer needs to have perfect

 Systems are taken to be the same as the

 Plant: a set of various machine component

A control engineer needs to control the plant

 Fig. 1.3.1 A controller in action

Fig 1,4.2 Control System illustrated

 Transmitters are used to describe the action of

 1.5.4 Classes Automatic Control

Fig. 1.6.1.1 Open-loop Control system (OLCS)

1.6.1.2 Closed-loop Control System

 Feedback may be:

 1.6.4.2 Distributed Parameter Control Systems

A DCS provides intended control needed at each level and yet is

Low Level High Level Fill Valve

 1.6.5.5 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

 Process control systems are feedback

 Hybrid - applications having elements of discrete,

Error in the seed Speed

A pre-calibrated voltage Vᶱ corresponding to the reference speed is applied to

A calibrated voltage corresponding to the desired speed is applied as an input

In this feedback control configuration system, the outlet water temperature is

As shown above, in feedforward control, a disturbance variable is measured

Shown above, is a composite feedforward/feedback strategy. It is quite robust

Data from the market

In the production control system shown in Fig.1.9.8, the

Command signal Desired signal

Microprocessor Power Mechanical

 Digital or discrete signals behave as binary

Then, we are dealing with digital

 Linkage points xa1

Actuating Device Signal output/ execution

Processing Element Signal Processing

Input Element Signal input

Hardware breakdown Signal Flow

Processing element Controller Processing element

Input Element Signal element

Electrical Systems Pneumatic Systems

Final Control Elements Power contactors Directional control valves

Directional control valves

Input Elements Switches Switches

Step 5: Considerations for safety, environment and

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