INTRODUCTION TO

CONVECTION
ME 423 – HEAT TRANSFER
OUTLINE
Physical Mechanism of Convection
Classification of Fluid Flows
Velocity Boundary Layer
Thermal Boundary Layer
Laminar and Turbulent Flows

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PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION
It can be recalled that convection is comprised
of two mechanisms:
▪ Energy transfer due to random molecular
motion (diffusion)
▪ Energy transfer due to the bulk, or
macroscopic, motion of the fluid

The first mechanism (diffusion) is made possible due

to the no-slip condition in which the region of fluid
particles directly in contact with the solid surface
come to a halt due to the shearing force offered by
the stationary surface. Since the fluid particles are
already motionless, heat can only be transferred Fig. 1. The development of a velocity profile due to the no-slip condition
into or from this region via conduction. as a fluid flows over a blunt nose. Adapted from Heat and Mass Transfer
Fundamentals & Applications by Y.A. Cengel & A.J. Ghajar, p. 381,
Copyright 2015

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PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION
The second mechanism (advection) due to mass and momentum transfer in which higher
energy particles mixes with lower energy particles. The interplay between mass and
momentum transfer is largely affected by the flow regime (laminar or turbulent).

Fig. 2. A fluid flowing over a stationary surface comes to a complete stop at the
surface because of the no-slip condition. Adapted from Heat and Mass Transfer
Fundamentals & Applications by Y.A. Cengel & A.J. Ghajar, p. 381, Copyright 2015

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PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION
Since convection is comprised of two
completely different heat transfer mechanisms,
it is considered the most complex mode of heat Flow Free stream 𝑇∞
transfer. This is compounded by the fact that 𝑢∞ 𝑇∞
convection is influenced by a myriad of factors: 𝑇𝑠 𝑢 𝑇𝑓
Surface y
Fluid Properties Solid Surface Properties 𝑇𝑠
Dynamic viscosity (μ) Geometry y
𝑢=0
Thermal conductivity (k) Roughness
x
Density () Type of Fluid Flow
Specific heat (cp) Laminar
𝑸ሶ
Fluid velocity (V) Turbulent

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PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION
From Newton’s Law of Cooling, convective
heat flux 𝑞ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 is directly proportional to the
difference between the surface temperature Flow Free stream 𝑇∞
𝑇𝑠 and the free-stream temperature 𝑇∞ . 𝑢∞ 𝑇∞
𝑞ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 𝑇𝑠 𝑢 𝑇𝑓
Surface y
Since convection is influenced by the surface 𝑇𝑠
geometry, the convection heat transfer
coefficient varies along the flow (or x- y
𝑢=0
direction). Therefore, the average or mean
convection heat transfer coefficient (h) is x
determined by averaging the local convection
heat transfer coefficients over the entire
surface. 𝑸ሶ

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PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION
NUSSELT NUMBER (Nu)
▪ It is considered as the dimensionless convection heat transfer coefficient.
ℎ𝐿𝑐
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
Where:
h = convection heat transfer coefficient
Lc = characteristic length
k = fluid thermal conductivity

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PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION
NUSSELT NUMBER (Nu)
▪ This represents the enhancement of heat transfer
through a fluid layer as a result of convection relative
to conduction across the same fluid layer.
▪ The larger the Nusselt number, the more effective
the convection.
▪ A Nu = 1 for a fluid layer represents heat transfer
across the layer by pure conduction.
▪ For a fluid layer with a thickness of L and ,
ℎ𝐿 ℎ ∆𝑇 𝑞ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 Fig. x. Heat transfer through a fluid layer of thickness L and
𝑁𝑢 = = ∙ = temperature difference ∆𝑇. Adapted from Heat and Mass
𝑘 𝑘ൗ ∆𝑇 𝑞ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 Transfer Fundamentals & Applications by Y.A. Cengel & A.J.
𝐿 Ghajar, p. 383, Copyright 2015

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CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
VISCOUS VERSUS INVISCID FLOW REGIONS

Inviscid Flow Region

Viscous Flow Region
Region of flow
Region of flow near a unaffected by the no-
surface in which the slip condition and in
viscous effects are which viscous forces
significant are negligibly small
compared to inertial or
pressure forces

Fig. 3. The flow of an originally uniform fluid stream over a flat

plate, and the regions of viscous flow (next to the plate on both
sides) and inviscid flow (away from the plate). Adapted from Heat
and Mass Transfer Fundamentals & Applications by Y.A. Cengel &
A.J. Ghajar, p. 383, Copyright 2015

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 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
INTERNAL VERSUS EXTERNAL FLOWS
Internal Flow
External Flow
Flow in a pipe or a duct in which
Flow of an unbounded fluid over a
the fluid is completely bound by
surface, such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe
solid surfaces
Viscous effects are
Dominated by limited to
the influence of boundary layers
viscosity near solid surfaces
throughout the and to wake
flow field regions
downstream of
Fig. 5. External flow over a tennis ball, and the
Fig. 4. Flow through a pipe elbow.
turbulent wake region behind. Adapted from Heat bodies
Retrieved from
and Mass Transfer Fundamentals & Applications by
https://www.comsol.com/model/flow-
Y.A. Cengel & A.J. Ghajar, p. 384, Copyright 2015
through-a-pipe-elbow-12221

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CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
LAMINAR VERSUS TURBULENT FLOW
LAMINAR
Highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of
fluid moving together in “laminates”

TRANSITIONAL
A flow that alternates between being laminar and turbulent

TURBULENT
Highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high
velocities and is characterized by velocity fluctuations
Fig. 6. External flow over a tennis ball, and the
turbulent wake region behind. Adapted from Heat
and Mass Transfer Fundamentals & Applications by
Y.A. Cengel & A.J. Ghajar, p. 384, Copyright 2015

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CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
ONE-, TWO-, AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS
Flow velocity can vary in one, two, or three primary dimensions, respectively. However, the
variation of velocity in certain directions can be small relative to the variation in other directions
can be ignored with negligible error.

Fig. 7. The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑟, 𝑧) and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and
becomes one-dimensional downstream when the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in the flow direction, 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑟). Adapted
from Heat and Mass Transfer Fundamentals & Applications by Y.A. Cengel & A.J. Ghajar, p. 387, Copyright 2015

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VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER
The velocity boundary layer corresponds to region of the flow above the plate bounded by 𝛿 in
which the effects of the viscous shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt. The boundary
layer thickness, 𝜹, is defined as the distance y from the surface at which 𝑢 = 0.99𝑉.

Fig. 8. The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑟, 𝑧) and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional downstream when
the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in the flow direction, 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑟). Adapted from Heat and Mass Transfer Fundamentals & Applications by Y.A. Cengel & A.J. Ghajar,
p. 387, Copyright 2015

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VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER
The hypothetical line of 𝑢 = 0.99𝑉 divides the flow over a plate into two regions: the boundary
layer region and the irrotational flow region, in which the frictional effects are negligible and
velocity remains essentially constant.

Fig. x. The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑟, 𝑧) and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional downstream when
the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in the flow direction, 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑟). Adapted from Heat and Mass Transfer Fundamentals & Applications by Y.A. Cengel & A.J. Ghajar,
p. 387, Copyright 2015

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VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER
The variation in fluid velocities in the boundary layer is
primarily due to the frictional force present between
the adjacent fluid layers. This causes the fluid particles
to experience shear stress, denoted by w. For
Newtonian fluids, shear stress at the wall surface is
proportional to the velocity gradient and is expressed
as
𝜕𝑢
𝜏𝑤 = 𝜇 ቚ
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

Where 𝜇 is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (in

𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚 ∙ 𝑠 or 𝑁 ∙ 𝑠Τ𝑚2 or 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠, or 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.1 𝑃𝑎 ∙
𝑠). Dynamic viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s
resistance to deformation and is a strong function of
temperature.
Fig. 9. The viscosity of liquids decreases and the
viscosity of gases increases with temperature. Adapted
from Heat and Mass Transfer Fundamentals &
Applications by Y.A. Cengel & A.J. Ghajar, p. 388,
Copyright 2015

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VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER
In heat transfer studies, kinematic viscosity () is more often used instead of dynamic viscosity.
𝜇
=
𝜌

Where  is in 𝑚2 Τ𝑠 or stoke (1 stoke = 1 𝑐𝑚2 Τ𝑠). Since the unit of kinematic viscosity is similar
to the unit of thermal diffusivity, , kinematic viscosity is sometimes referred to as momentum
diffusivity.
𝜕𝑢
In addition, due to the difficulty of determining the velocity gradient at the wall surface, ቚ ,
𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0
the wall shear stress is alternatively computed as a function of the upstream velocity, V.
𝜌𝑉 2
𝜏𝑤 = 𝐶𝑓
2
Where 𝐶𝑓 is the skin friction coefficient, and 𝜌 is the density of the fluid. Note that the friction
coefficient, in general, varies with location along the surface.

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THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
When a fluid at a uniform temperature of 𝑇∞
flows over a solid surface with a uniform
temperature of 𝑇𝑠 , the fluid particles directly in
contact with the surface reach thermal
equilibrium with the surface due to the
exchange of thermal energy. This exchange of
thermal energy happens also between two
adjacent fluid particle layers.
The thermal boundary layer corresponds to
the region of fluid flow in which there is a
variation in the temperature of the fluid
brought about by the thermal energy exchange Fig. 10. Thermal boundary layer on a flat plate (the fluid is hotter
than the plate surface). Adapted from Heat and Mass Transfer
between the fluid and the surface. Fundamentals & Applications by Y.A. Cengel & A.J. Ghajar, p. 389,
Copyright 2015

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THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
The thermal boundary layer increases in
thickness in the direction of the fluid flow. The
thickness of the thermal boundary layer 𝛿𝑡 at
any location along the surface is defined as the
distance from the surface at which the
temperature difference T-Ts equals 0.99(T-Ts)

Fig. 10. Thermal boundary layer on a flat plate (the fluid is hotter than
the plate surface). Adapted from Heat and Mass Transfer
Fundamentals & Applications by Y.A. Cengel & A.J. Ghajar, p. 389,
Copyright 2015

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THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
PRANDTL NUMBER (Pr)
▪ Describes the relative thickness of the
velocity and the thermal boundary layers

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚

𝑃𝑟 =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

 𝜇𝑐𝑝
𝑃𝑟 = =
𝛼 𝑘
Fig. 11. The relation of two boundary layers at different Pr numbers. Retrieved from
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/103103032/module4/lec15/3.html

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THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
PRANDTL NUMBER (Pr)
▪ It describes how fast heat diffuses through
a fluid relative to how fast momentum
diffuses.
▪ A fluid that flows faster (i.e. oil) than
another fluid (i.e. mercury) has higher
momentum diffusivity compared to heat
diffusivity. Therefore, heat diffuses more
slowly in oil than in mercury.

Fig. 11. The relation of two boundary layers at different Pr numbers. Retrieved from
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/103103032/module4/lec15/3.html

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THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
PRANDTL NUMBER (Pr)
▪ It describes how fast heat diffuses through
a fluid relative to how fast momentum
diffuses.
▪ A fluid that flows faster (i.e. oil) than
another fluid (i.e. mercury) has higher
momentum diffusivity compared to heat
diffusivity. Therefore, heat diffuses more
slowly in oil than in mercury.

Fig. 11. The relation of two boundary layers at different Pr numbers. Retrieved from
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/103103032/module4/lec15/3.html

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THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
PRANDTL NUMBER (Pr)
▪ 𝑃𝑟 = 1
➢ The rates of heat diffusion and momentum diffusion are equal.
➢ The thicknesses of thermal boundary layer and velocity boundary layer are equal.
➢ i.e. gases
▪ 𝑃𝑟 ≪ 1
➢ Rate of heat diffusion > Rate of momentum diffusion
➢ Thermal boundary layer is much thicker than velocity boundary layer
➢ i.e. liquid metals
▪ 𝑃𝑟 ≫ 1
➢ Rate of heat diffusion < Rate of momentum diffusion
➢ Therma boundary layer is much thinner than the velocity boundary layer
➢ i.e. oils

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LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
REYNOLDS NUMBER (Re)
▪ The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the following:
➢ Surface geometry
➢ Surface roughness
➢ Flow velocity
➢ Surface temperature
➢ Type of fluid

▪ The flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of the inertia forces to viscous forces in the
fluid.

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LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
REYNOLDS NUMBER (Re)
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑉𝐿𝑐 𝜌𝑉𝐿𝑐
𝑅𝑒 = = =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠  𝜇

Where:
V = upstream velocity (or the free-stream velocity for a flat plate)
𝐿𝑐 = characteristic length of the geometry
◦ For a flat plate, 𝐿𝑐 is the distance x from the leading edge
◦ For internal flows, 𝐿𝑐 is the hydraulic diameter
𝜇
 = = kinematic viscosity
𝜌

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REFERENCES
(1) Incropera, F.P., Dewitt, D.P., Bergman, T.L., & Lavine, A.S. (2007). Fundamentals of heat and
mass transfer 6th edition. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
(2) Cengel, Y.A. & Ghajar, A.J. (2015). Heat and mass transfer fundamentals & applications. USA:
McGraw-Hill Education Inc.

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