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Approach – Answer: Geography Mains Mock Test 1 – 669 (2015)

The format of this test series is deliberately kept as a 5 Questions all questions compulsory format.

Illustrate your answers with suitable sketches, diagrams and maps wherever considered necessary within the
given answer space.

1. (a) Explain the role and process of denudation. 10

Content support:

Exogenetic forces (solar energy driven) acting from above earth’s surface such as Aeolian (wind), fluvial,
glacial and thermal all lead the agents of denudation towards gradation i.e., the process by which
original irregularities of the earth’s surface lead to the formation of levelled surface.

 Denudation is the combined action of various processes that cause the wearing away and
rearranging of land by weathering, mass wasting, erosion, transportation and deposition.

Gradation is driven by gravity and divided into:

 Aggradation Where building by deposition of material by transportation agents like wind, river,
glacier etc. is done.
 Degradation where material from high relief feature are removed by exogenous processes.

Weathering is the decay and disintegration of rocks, in situ, given no large scale transportation of
loosened material is involved. It helps erosional process and differential weathering helps in evolution of
different types of landforms. The process goes hand in hand with erosion and hence almost inseparable.
It plays important role in dev. Of stone lattice (in hot deserts), tors, talus cones etc.

 Mechanical or physical weathering due to changes in temperature leading to expansion and

contraction. It also occurs due to frost action.
 Chemical weathering (decomposition of rocks) due to high temperature and humidity causing
hydration, oxidation, carbonation and solution.
 Biological weathering refers to decomposition and disintegration of rocks due to organic materials of
both flora and fauna.
 Mass wasting is spontaneous down slope movement of earth materials under the force of gravity,
upto a few 10s of KM.
 Transportation is movement of material load by natural agents from site of weathering to site of
deposition.
 Erosion is a process with wears away the land surface by mechanical action of broken fragments
which are being transported by the various agents of erosion.
 Deposition: is the process of deposition of material brought down by transportation.
 Various agents of erosion and transportation are i. wind, ii. river water, iii. rain water, iv. glaciers
and v. marine (ocean waves, tides, currents).

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1. (b) Discuss the location of different mineral resources in the oceans surface. 10

Content support:

Here discuss the energy mineral resources and other resources as given below.

Polymetallic Nodules: Polymetallic or manganese nodules which contain manganese, copper, cobalt and
nickel are potato-shaped and are generally found on the surface partially buried in the sediments and
cover vast plains in areas of the deep seabed at depths of 3,000-6,000 metres.

Polymetallic Sulphides : Sulphide deposits are found at water depths up to 3,700 m. in mid ocean ridges,
back-arc rifts, and seamounts and often carry high concentrations of copper (chalcopyrite), zinc
(sphalerite), and lead (galena) in addition to gold and silver.

Ferromanganese Crusts : Cobalt-rich iron-manganese (ferromanganese) form at the seafloor on the

flanks and summits of seamounts, ridges, plateaux, and abyssal hills and contain sub-equal amounts of
iron and manganese and are specially enriched in cobalt, manganese, lead, tellurium, bismuth, and
platinum relative to their lithospheric and seawater concentrations.

The estimated global reserves of deep-sea manganese nodules are in the order of 10 billion tonnes.
Those of greatest economic interest contain on average about 30 per cent manganese, about 1.5 per
cent nickel, 1.5 per cent copper and about 0.3 per cent cobalt. The presence of other metals including
trace metals such as rare earth elements may attract additional interest in these resources, especially in
the light of the tightening supply of these metals from land-based sources.

The world’s demand for minerals continues to increase and the terrestrial resources are becoming
stretched. In addition, deep seabed resources often contain a higher concentration of valuable minerals
than their terrestrial alternatives.

Many of the metals contained in seabed deposits are considered ‘technology metals’ and are
increasingly required by high technology industries including electronics and clean technologies, such as
hybrid cars and wind turbines. As opposed to the generally well-studied deposits on the land, many of
the resources at the bottom of the sea are yet to be discovered.

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 Figure . Distribution of Deep Sea Minerals

1. (c) Conditional and absolute atmospheric instability. 10

Content support:

A. background support:

Atmospheric stability and instability is the direct consequence of or we can even say, same as stability
and instability of air mass. Before understanding it, let’s first understand the geographical meaning of a
few relevant terms.

Air mass is an extensive body of air within which horizontally, there is a marked uniformity of
temperature and humidity and vertically, their gradients are fairly uniform. This is acquired from
prolonged contact in its place of origin or source region. It is separated from an adjacent air mass by well
defined fronts.

Adiabatic process change of temperature within a gas because of compression or expansion, without
gain or loss of heat from the outside. Here compression leads to heating and expansion leads to cooling.

Lapse rate is generally referred to rate of change of temperature in the atmosphere with height. The
different types of lapse rate are

Dry adiabatic lapse rate at which rising air is cooled by expansion when no condensation is occurring
(Average 1C per 100 meters of ascent)

Saturated or wet adiabatic lapse rate is a reduced rate of cooling for rising air, in which, condensation is
taking place. (between 0.2C to 0.9C per 100 meters of ascent, variables as it depends on temperature
and pressure of air and its moisture).

Environmental lapse rate which is around 0.6C per 100 meters of ascent, is defined as the decrease in
measured air temperature with increasing altitude.

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 Before we start with stability and instability, another conceptual thing needs to be understood.

Atmosphere goes on to absorb water vapour just as a sponge absorbs water. Water vapour can be
absorbed up to the saturation level. After this, condensation takes place with water vapour converting
back into water droplets. Just like squeezing of sponge releases water, temperature drop in atmosphere
has a squeezing effect. This goes on to release water as precipitation. The temperature at which
condensation starts is called as dew point temperature.

As a parcel of air gets heated as compared to the surrounding air, it tends to lift up. We further know that
air pressure, temperature and relative humidity vary at different altitudes of the atmosphere. Hence,
after the initial uplift of the heated air, its further upward movement will depend upon the air pressure,
temperature and relative humidity of the surrounding air of that altitudes.

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 If the air temperature of surrounding air is less, the warm air parcel continues to uplift, otherwise it
tends to stabilize there. The rate of its cooling will depend upon the air pressure and relative humidity of
the surrounding air. The surrounding air pressure influence the extent of expansion and the relative
humidity is similarly evolved. As the expansion takes place, rising air gets cooler and cooler. Till the
cooling is not accompanied by condensation, dry adiabatic lapse rate applies. Once the rising air reaches
its dew point, condensation also starts which effectively heats up the, otherwise, rising and cooling warm
air. The effective cooling is reduced as the latent heat of condensation is compensated for. This cooling
with condensation takes place at wet adiabatic lapse rate.

B. main topic of the answer:

Instability conditions are divided into:

a) Absolute instability
b) Conditional instability

Absolute Instability in air occurs when environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry and wet adiabatic
lapse rate. Here, if a warm air parcel is forced aloft, it will be warmer than the surrounding air and will
continue to rise, causing absolute instability.

Conditions and examples of Absolute Instability:

1. Till the dry and wet adiabatic lapse rate are less than environmental lapse rate, the air will
continue to rise.
2. when its saturation (Dew point) temperature is reached, condensation produces clouds and
precipitation may result.
3. warm, humid air often is wastable, especially when it lies over a warm surface.
4. Any column of air may become unstable if its lower layers

a) are warmed.
b) Get their moisture content increased.

5. Cooling or introduction of dry air at upper levels also can induce instability.

Weather associated:

Thunderstorms, tornadoes and hurricanes are associated with intensity unstable conditions. Generally,
the ascending air forms clouds with great vertical thickness (cumulonimbus). They result in torrential
rainfall.

Conditional Instability occurs when the actual environmental lapse rate in the air is less than dry
adiabatic lapse rate and more than wet adiabatic lapse rate. It frequently happens that air is stable while
it rises and cools at dry rate (that is, without condensation). But same air becomes unstable or
condensation begins.

Conditions and examples of Conditional Instability:

1. It is stable with respect to dry rate but unstable with respect to the wet rate.
2. Unstability is thus, ‘Conditional’ upon the presence of considerable water vapour in the air.
3. Humid air which is initially stable but which becomes unstable when condensation takes place
within it is termed Conditionally unstable.

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 Weather associated:

Strong connective activity and heavy precipitation in the probable result.

The initial uplift may be result of

1. Heating at the earth’s surface.

2. Orographic lifting.
3. Convergence of air masses.

Neutral equilibrium exists when the actual lapse rate equals the respective adiabatic lapse rate.

1. (d) Role of International Seabed Authority. 10

Content support:

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is an intergovernmental body based in Kingston, Jamaica, that
was established to organize and control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area
beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, an area underlying most of the world’s oceans. It is an
organization established by the Law of the Sea Convention.

The Authority has 159 members and the European Union, composed of all parties to the Law of the Sea
Convention.

The Authority operates by contracting with private and public corporations and other entities authorizing
them to explore, and eventually exploit, specified areas on the deep seabed for mineral resources
essential for building most technological products. The Convention also established a body called the
Enterprise which is to serve as the Authority’s own mining operator, but no concrete steps have been
taken to bring this into being.

The exploitation system envisaged in the Law of the Sea Convention, overseen by the Authority, came to
life with the signature in 2001/02 of 15-year contracts with seven organizations that had applied for
specific seabed areas in which they were authorized to explore for polymetallic nodules. In 2006, a
German entity was added to the list.

Contrary to early hopes that seabed mining would generate extensive revenues for both the exploiting
countries and the Authority, no technology has yet been developed for gathering deep-sea minerals at
costs that can compete with land-based mines. Until recently, the consensus has been that economic
mining of the ocean depths might be decades away. Moreover, the United States, with some of the most
advanced ocean technology in the world, has not yet ratified the Law of the Sea Convention and is thus
not a member of the Authority.

1. (e) Give an account of erosional and depositional features of glacial erosion. 10

Content support: ( very elaborate content is given, pick only the main points for answer)

Erosional work of glacier

Erosion by glaciers is tremendous because of friction caused by sheer weight of the ice. As a glacier
moves over the land, it drags rock fragments, gravel and sand along with it. These rock fragments
become efficient erosive tools. With their help glacier scrapes and scours the surface rocks with which it
comes in contact. This action of glacier leaves behind scratches and grooves on rocks. Glaciers can cause
significant damage to even un-weathered rocks and can reduce high mountains into low hills and plains.

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 The landforms created by glacial erosion

Cirque (or Corrie): This is an arm chair shaped hollow found in the side of a mountain

Arete - This is a narrow, knife edge ridge separating two corries

Pyramidal Peaks - These are formed when three or more corries form in the side of one mountain.

Tarn - This is a lake found in a corrie

Bergschrund

These form when a crevasse or wide crack opens along the headwall of a glacier; most visible in the
summer when covering snow is gone.

Figure no.2- Bergschrund

‘U’ - shaped Valley

The glacier does not carve a new valley like a river but deepens. Glacier movement widens a preexisting
valley by smoothening away the irregularities. In this process the glacier broadens the sides of the valley
and form a ‘U’ - shaped valley. Such a valley is relatively straight, has a flat floor and nearly vertical
sides.

Hanging Valley

Just like tributary streams of river, there are tributary glaciers also which join the main glacier after
moving over their mountainous path. These tributary glaciers like the main glaciers carve U - shaped
valleys. However, they have less volume of ice than the main glaciers and thus their rate of erosion is less
rapid. As a result their valleys are smaller and not as deep as that of the main glacier. Due to this
difference in deepening; the valley of the tributary glacier is left at a higher level than that of the main
glacier. The valley of the tributary glacier just looks like hanging downwards at the point of its confluence
with the main valley. This type of a topographical feature is called a hanging valley. This feature is visible
when ice has melted in both the valleys. When the ice in the hanging valley melts, a waterfall is formed
at the point of confluence of this stream with the main river.

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 Truncated spurs

In the process of carving the sides of its valley, a glacier erodes or truncates the lower ends of ridges that
extended into the valley. These ridges that have triangular facets produced by glacial erosion at their
lower ends are termed as truncated spurs.

Paternoster lakes

A series of Tarns lakes, resembling a string of prayer beads, are known as paternoster lakes.

Roche Moutonnee

A roche moutonnée is a rock hill shaped by the passage of ice to give a smooth up-ice side (stoss side)
and a rough, plucked surface on the down-ice side(lee side).

Roche Moutonnee

Glacial landforms resulting from deposition

Glaciers carry along their bases the rock fragments they have scraped and plucked from the underlying
bedrock. These forms the feature of glaciated lowland.

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 The landforms created by glacial erosion are:

Boulder clay or glacial till

The unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped by the melting glaciers is called glacial till.

Outwash deposits

Some amount of rock debris small enough to be carried by such melt-water streams is washed down
and deposited. Such glacio- fluvial deposits are called outwash deposits. Unlike till deposits, the outwash
deposits are roughly stratified and assorted.

Erratics

When boulders of considerable size are deposited far from their origin, they are known as erratics. They
have been transported and deposited by a glacier.

Moraines

When glacial ice melts, different types of rock are laid down that have been carried along by the glacier.
Piles of these deposits are called moraines.

Different types of moraine

Terminal moraines are found at the terminus or the furthest (end) point reached by a glacier.

Lateral moraines are found deposited along the sides of the glacier.

Medial moraines are found at the junction between two glaciers.

Ground moraines are disorganised piles of rocks of various shapes, sizes and of differing rock types.

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 Outwash plain and Kettles-As the moraines are deposited, melting water emerges from the glaciers
rapidly in the form of streams. These streams carry loads of suspended materials. As the water moves, it
soon loses its velocity and load carrying capacity, and it drops most of its bed load. As a result, a broad
surface of stratified drift is formed, which is called an outwash plain. The basins or depressions found
between the outwash plains are called Kettles.

Kames-Rounded mounds/hills of fluvioglacial deposits are known as Kames.

Eskers-In glaciated areas sinuous ridges of sand and gravel are known as eskers. They marks the former
sites of sub glacial melt water streams.

Drumlins

Drumlins are elongated hills of glacial deposits. They can be 1 km long and 500 metres wide, often
occurring in groups. A group of drumlins is called a drumlin swarm or a basket of eggs. These would have
been part of the debris that was carried along and then accumulated under the ancient glacier. The long
axis of the drumlin indicates the direction in which the glacier was moving. The drumlin would have been
deposited when the glacier became overloaded with sediment. However glaciologists still disagree as to
exactly how they were formed.

2. (a) Discuss how slope development is a major point of difference between Davis and Penck. 20

Content support:

Slope decline Theory of W.M. Davis:

 This was given so as to explain the slope development in Davisian Geomorphic Cycle.
 Here hill slope and valley slope undergo cyclic development passing through Youth, maturity and
old age.

Youth:

 Slope’s convex
 Active down cutting resulting into valley deepening.
 Due to soil erosion.

Mature:

 Rectilinear slope.
 Lateral erosion dominates over vertical erosion.
 The interstream divide summits are eroded.
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  Decrease in slope angle with slope decline.
 Slope becomes smooth and graded.
 Due to gradation and deposition.

Old age:

 Concave slopes
 Marked slope decline
 Slope angles is less than 50.
 Due to dominance of lateral erosion over vertical erosion.
 The principle reason for slope decline, in this theory, is that debris is being transported from
upper convex part of the slope to the convex part.
 In his opinion, Slope decline, prevails in the humid regions.
 Later studies by him recognized that parallel retreat occurs in arid climates.
 His theory.

o Depends on crustal stability for long duration

o Empirical based upon direct observations.
o Cyclic concept makes it time dependent.

Slope replacement theory of Penck:

 His concept of slope development is associated with his ‘Morphological analysis’.

 His concept is dependent on relative rates of exogenetic and endogenetic processes, which says;

o Acceralerating rate of erosion lead to convex slopes,

o Uniform rate of erosion leads to rectilinear slopes,
o Decelerating rate of erosion leads to concave slopes,

Which are carved out by rivers cutting down at

 accelerating rate,
 constant rate,
 deccelerating rate,

respectively (See fig. 6)

(See fig 19 on 1.a.1.13b.19)

He further divided the hill slope or valley side slope into

 Gravity Slope (upper relatively steep sides) German term-BOSCHE or STEILWAND.

 Wash Slope (lower, more gentle slope) German term – HAIDENHANG.
 The English names gravity slopes and wash slopes were given by MEYER HOFF (1940).
 Penck further stated that (see diag. 7)

o Usually the gravity slope (the steeper one) or ‘bosche’ retreats upslope maintaining its
original angle. This is the principle of ‘Parallel retreat’.
o In continuity to this, the wash slope (the gentle one) or ‘haldenhang’ extended itself at the
expense, of the gravity slope.

 Hence Penck believed that flattening of slopes took place from below upwards through
extension of wash slopes.
 Penck believed that once slopes become graded they maintain a nearly constant angle as they
retreat.

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  Penck’s theory was initially called the ‘Theory of parallel retreat’. But at later stage in slope
evolution slope replacement from below towards upwards also takes place. Hence now it is
called as ‘Theory of slope replacement’.

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2. (b) Elaborate the possible effect of Global warming on ocean currents. 15

Content support:

Global warming could potentially disrupt thermohaline circulation (THC), which is a massive, worldwide
system of ocean currents that is responsive to many factors, including the temperature of various
climates, ocean depth and salt content in the seawater. Global warming is responsible for melting huge
amounts of Arctic ice. As this ice melts, voluminous amounts of cold, fresh water dump into the world's
oceans. This fresh water dilutes the warm water in ocean currents and disrupts them. A 2005 study of
the North Atlantic, for example, has shown that this flow of fresh water already has reduced Gulf Stream
currents by as much as 30 percent . This effect on the thermohaline circulation of the ocean system could
even cause a climate change chain reaction. Ocean currents have a great influence on the climates of
different regions around the world. As climate change causes changes in ocean currents, new ocean
currents could begin to cause additional changes in regional climates (source: NOAA). Global warming's
effect on the oceans is not limited to current alteration. Research has shown that Earth's average
temperatures are slowly rising, and with these average temperatures, the sea level is rising as well.

So simply said global warming > melting polar ice > freshwater addition at poles > decreasing salinity
> decreasing density > less vertical downward sinking > less surface water going away at poles >
reduced speed of incoming currents from lower latitudes , that means weakened surface currents.

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2. (c) Explain the difference in weather conditions associated with cold and warm fronts along with
differences in geophysical formations associated with these fronts. 15

Content support:

Warm Front

1. Cold front is formed when a cold airmass invades a zone occupied by a warm airmass. The colder
airmass pushes under the warmer airmass, forcing the warm airmass to rise (Fig 1). Frictional
dray along the ground retards the advance of the cold air and it develops a relatively steep
forward surface in contrast to gentler surface of warm front (Fig 3.). Hence it is accompanied by
clouds with vertical development and heavy, showery precipitation.

Fig. 1, 2 & 3 here

When the precipitation is show the combination of low temperatures, strong winds, and blowing
snow along and following the cold front is called BLIZZARD in North America and BURAN in
Northern EURASIA.

2. Warm Front is formed when warm airmass moves int a region of colder air mass. Here, again, the
cold air mass remains in contact with ground as it is denser. The warm air mass is forced to rise
on a long ramp over the cold air below. Such front has a gentler slope (Fig 3). The great areal
expanse of rising air produces a vast cloud system, due to lack of steep front. The clouds are
predominantly stratified, Precipitation is light to moderately heavy and continuous, extending
over a wide zone. Fogginess and poor visibility are common in the precipitation area.

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3. (a) Discuss how climatic classifications are reflective of the purpose of classification. 15

Content support: (note that some additional points are given for a holistic understanding):

I. Some fundamentals about Climatic classification:

Climatic region is an area of the earth’s surface over which the combined effects (of selected climatic
elements) results in an approximately homogeneous set of climatic conditions (climatic types).– H.J.
Critchfield.

Regional climatology employs analytical and descriptive techniques to classify a climatic region.

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 Objectives of Climatic classification:

 Organization of climatic data in such a way that both descriptive and analytical generalizations
can be made.
 Attempts to store information in an orderly manner for easy reference and communication, often
as maps.

Different classifications of climate are done with different guiding purpose. So a classification done for a
specific intended use (e.g., vegetation distribution) might not be appropriate for some other specific use
(e.g.: weather forecasting). So debigning of climatic classification is started with defining the purpose.

Approaches to climatic classification:

3 broad approaches are there:

i) Empirical, ii) Genetic, iii) Applied.

It should be noted here that features of any / all these approaches may be incorporated in a single
classification.
1) Empirical–Based on observable features of climate, such as temperature, precipitation, humidity,
etc. As multiple features make a classification complex, hence only the most significant features
with respect to the intended purposes are taken. Heat and moisture factors have dominated
empirical classification.
2) Genetic–Organise climates according to their causes. Like the ancient Greeks recognized a
relationship between latitude (cause) for temperature and devised a system of KLIMATA (Torrid,
temperate & frigid).

Fig.1

Other causative factors in general are

 General atmospheric circulations (winds, air masses, storms)
 Terrain features such as elevation, slope, mountain barrier.
 Relative distribution of Land and Water (continentality and maritimity (oceanicity)
 Here various indices are developed to express the influences of land or water surfaces
determined on the basis of temperature, precipitation, wind etc. datas.

3) Applied (Also called technical or functional)

They assist in the solution of specialized problems that involve one or more climatic factors.

They are based on applied aspects such as

 Effects of climate on other phenomena (e.g.: vegetation)

 Systematic relationship and correlation between climatic elements and observed phenomena
(e.g.: potential evapotranspiration and soil and vegetation moisture availability).

All this brings us to an understanding that, there are many possible classifications of climate, for
classification is an artificial process based on human requirements rather than a natural phenomenon.

A complete classification should provide a system of pyramiding categories, ranging from

 Microclimates of excluding small areas.

 Microclimates containing microclimates selected on the basis of a common criteria.
 Macroclimates of highly generalized type on a world scale.

Keeping all these factors in mind, we should see the various climatic classifications.

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3. (b) Discuss what all comprises channel morphology and different aspects related to it. 20

Content support:

Channel morphology refers to scientific study of the ‘Trough-Like’ form which contains a river, i.e., a
channel, in very general terms. So it describes, explains and analyses the origin. Evolution, form,
classification and distribution of river channels. These have been, further distributed under some broad
categories for proper understanding.

These could be loosely said to be,

1. Fluid Dynamics
2. Channel character
3. Sediment load
4. Bed and Bank material

Fluid dynamics includes channel fluid dynamics and channel roughness etc.

Channel fluid dynamics includes channel discharge and velocity. Channel discharge is the volume of
water passing through a channel’s cross-section

Fig 1.

Channel roughness is the resistance of stream bad or bank, to the flow of water, due to boulders,
vegetation, sinuosity and bed form.

Channel character (or channel configuration) includes Hydraulic geometry, channel geometry, channel
types and channel pattern etc.

Hydraulic geometry is the analysis of the relationship moving stream discharge, velocity, channel shape,
sediment load, channel width, channel depth, channel slope etc.

a) Stream or channel discharge is the volume of water passing through cross-section. It is measured
by multiplying cross-sectional area by average stream velocity. Cross-sectional area is found by
multiplying channel width with channel depth,
Channel (as per G. Petts and I. Foster) presents a three–dimensional form defined by its slope, cross–
section and pattern.
b) Channel Width (as per M. Morisavia) is the mean of measurements taken at the cross overs,
which is the mean of straight lines jeining two points across the Channel
Channel Sinuosity is the deviation of actual channel path from expected theoretical (Straight
path), (Fig 2.)
c) Sediment Load is transported in three ways, i.e., solution, suspension and saltation and action
(rolling, sliding and short leaps).
d) Channel shape, Large channels are more efficient than small channels. The most efficient channel
shape is semicircular. Alluvial channels are usually shallower than semi circular and anything
which causes them to become wider and shallower will reduce their efficiency and tend to
promote a compensating increase in slope of channel.

Channel Geometry represents the size and shape of cross-sectional Fig 4a and b and longitudinal channel
form Fig. 3. It includes channel width, channel depth, wetted perimeter, channel slope channel bends,
shape of channel thalwegs and their interrelationship.

 Wetted perimeter is the length of channel margin in contact with water, or, putting it in other
words, the length of the cross-section at the interface between a channel bed and the stream
water.

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  Thalweg is a German term for the Long profile of a river valley. It connects the deepest water
from the source till the mouth of a stream.
 Channel Depth is the maximum channel depth of a river measured from the level of water of
bankfull stage of the river to the lowest point of the channel. It is having an alternating pattern of
pool and riffle. (Diag. 6)
 Pool is the deep water where meander flow ripples over finer sediment and lower gradient.
 Riffle is the shallow water where meander flow ripples over coarse sediment and steeper
gradient.
 Hence Pool and riffle are equally spaced irregularities on the gradient of a stream.

Cross-sectional profile of a stream is drawn between one bank and the other. It, differs from place to
place. (diag. 4a and b.).

Longitudinal profile is the distance of a channel from source to mouth of the river or stream. (diag. 3)

Channel type:

Based on Lithological characteristics of the region through which the river has developed its course, the
river channels are divided into 2 broad categories:

1. Bedrock channels
2. Alluvial channels

Bedrock channels are also called erosional channels or rock channels. They occur where removal of
material is more than deposition. As per Peus and Foster some such areas are, glaciated hard rock
regions, areas undergoing active tectonic uplift. A fine example is Colorado river (USA) cutting 1.380 m
deep and 12 km wide valley (Grand Canyon) between KAIBAB and COCO NINO plateaus.

 They have least sinuosity and are mostly straight channels.

Alluvial channel develop in regions of sedimentation, mostly their deposits of the real origin. Here the
deposited material are reworked in wet reasons. They are characterized by sinuous to meandering and
braided channel patterns, and features like pools and riffles, sand bars, sand islands etc. Since alluvial
channels are made up of highly erodible material, hence they change in form and pattern with time. H.W.
Shon and S.A. Schumm have described six time based changes in Alluvial channels.

There are many such long rivers of the world which are partly bedrock channels and partly alluvial
channels. Example are Indus, Satluj, Ganga are bedrock channel type in upper reaches and Alluvial
channel type in lower reaches.

Channel Pattern (Fig. 7) are also influenced by rock formation, Lithology and proportion of total sediment
load. Based on these the 5 main patterns are:

a) Straight Channel are generally erosional and found in mountain topography. Ex. upper reaches of
Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra.
b) Sinuous Channel developed in area of sedimentary rocks. Middle and lower course of above
mentioned rivers.
c) Meandering Channel are formed in plain areas of gentle slope. Ex. Ganga between Haridwar and
Patna.
d) Braided Channel is formed when the main stream of a river is divided into numerous
distributaries. ex. Brahmaputra in Assam and Bangladesh.
e) Anastomatic Channel are formed when sand bess take shape of island permanently with
vegetation growth. ex. Sunderban Delta.

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 Sediment Load is transported in 3 ways as given below:

a) Suspension load which are fine particles of clay and silt. They make the stream brown.
b) Dissolved/Solution load, such as acid in water dissolving soluble bedrock (e.g.: limestone).
c) Bed load

 Saltation such as pebbles, sand and gravel.

 Traction such as cobbles and boulders.

Bed and Bank material influence channel morphology in two way mainly. If such material is resistant and
hard they restrict downward and lateral erosion, restricting the width or river channel. If such material is
soft and less resistant, the late of erosion will be greater and so will be the channel shape and width.

Channel bed topography consists of the bed material and includes pools and riffles with relatively fine
and course material, sand bars, sand islands etc.

So from above we see how channel morphology is an inter-related field comprising all the above
mentioned aspects in various degrees.

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3. (c) Elaborate the various types of precipitation in the world. 15

Content support:

They can be classified in two ways:

a) According to the physical state of the falling water.

b) On the basis of the process which leads to its formation.

According to Physical state, the following types are commonly known:

i) Rain falls from clouds formed in rising air when temperature, at least at lower levels, is above 0
C.
ii) Snowfall is precipitation that begin to fall as snow crystals and they grow in size or remain the
same size during their descending motion and reach the ground as snow.
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 iii) Sleet is rain drops that freeze as it passes from warm air through a cold layer of air near the
ground surface to form ice pallets.
iv) Drizzle consists of numerous uniformly minute droplets of water that sum to float in response to
the slightest movement of air. It may fall continuously from low stratus – type clouds, never from
connective clouds, and often accompanies fog and poor visibility. It is also some times called
mist.
v) Hail is formed when strong, rising convective currents, as in a cumulonimbus cloud, carry the
raindrops formed by intense condensation and coalescences of water droplets to higher levels
where they freeze. These frozen drops fall again and take on a coat of ice. Repeated ascent and
descent results in concentric layers of alternately clear and crystalline ice. Hailstones weighing
more than a kilogram have been recorded.

Hail rarely falls at high latitudes, in the tropics it is most common in highlands but occasionally
occur even at sea level.

vi) Freesing rain, also known as glaze or ice storm is formed if rain while falling though subfreezing
air, supercools and freezes as it strikes cold surface. Rime and haze are some other forms of
precipitation.

According to the process, that leads to its formation, precipitation could be divided into following
types:

i) Convectional or convective precipitation occurs when a parcel of moist air is heated, it becomes
lighter and moves up. As condensation acts in, leading to release of latent heat, the moving air is
forced up. Precipitation from such process is convectional. It causes formation of vertical clouds.

Fig. 1

ii) Orographic Precipitation occurs when a mass of air is forced upward over a mountain range. If
the air is moist enough and the mountain range is high enough, then precipitation will occur,
which is called orographic precipitation.

Fig. 2

iii) Cyclonic Precipitation occurs when air is forced upward through the movement of air masses. Air
masses, while moving west to east in mid-latitudes, over take one another. When this happens,
one of them, usually the warm air mass is forced aloft. This causes cyclonic conditions along the
front, hence, causing cyclonic precipitation, also called frontal precipitation or convergence
precipitation.

Fig. 3

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4. (a) Discuss the vertical distribution of temperature, pressure and density in the oceans. 15

Content Support: ( the question intended to ask temp., salinity and density, hence support for this is given as
pressure distribution vertically is not that imp.) so explaining and using the following kindly develop the
answer

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 Plots of typical water properties in the open ocean. The thermocline is where the temperature changes
rapidly, the halocline is where the salinity changes rapidly and the pycnocline is where the density
changes rapidly.

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 Salt in the ocean makes the ocean water more dense than fresh water. Salinity generally increases with
water depth and saltier water is more dense. The temperature of the water also affects the density of
water. In the ocean, temperature generally decreases with depth and colder water is more dense.
Temperature and the salinity are the primary factors in determining the density of seawater. A vertical
profile through the ocean will typically show an increasing density with depth.

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4. (b) Analyse how Jet streams influence weather and climate in different parts of the world. 15

Content support:

Given here are types of jet streams , and some of the effects are ementioned

a) Polar jet streams, coming from west are at altitude of 10-12 km and Speeds ranging 350 to 450
km/hr. They could be guiding mechanism for temperate cyclonic storm as well as a means of
transporting great quantities of air across the continents. In summers they shift polewards and
intensity is reduced.
b) Subtropical jet steams, above the subtropical highs persists through most of the year. Wind speeds
are in the range of 345-385 km/hr.

They carry the western disturbances into Asian parts, specifically India.

c) Tropical easterly jet streams occur only in summers in the northern hemisphere over Southeast Asia,
India and Africa. They are associated with thermal conditions arising from summer heating of the
Asian continent. They are also called as Krakatoa easterlies. They drive tropical cyclones and lead to
monsoonal rain outbreaks in India.
d) Polar night jet, caused by absence of sun’s heat and related strong temperature gradient during
winter. They are normally at 60 km altitude and cross speeds beyond 1000 km/hr.

Hence, we see that all these upper air circulations go on to complement and complete the cycles of
surface atmospheric circulations. Hence they balance the global atmospheric circulations.

4. (c) Briefly bring forward the main points of Equilibrium concept of Landscape Development. 20

Content support: ( here the whole non cyclic landscape development related content is given for holistic
understanding)

The basic idea behind concepts based on this school of thought is that landscape can be usually viewed
as an open system, in which variables in the system attempt to regulate themselves towards the
establishment of equilibrium state.

The geomorphologists supporting this view have further explained that once the dynamic equilibrium is
attained between landforms and the environment. There need be no further changes to the shape of
landforms. This does not mean that mass and energy do not continue to flow through the system. Its
only that individual morpho-metric properties (i.e., the measurable properties such as shape of
landform) of the landscape become independent of the reduction of relief and passage of time. Only
when the environmental factors change, such as climatic change or variation in rate of uplift, will there
be readjustment of form.

Hence, it could be said that non cyclic landscape development theories have been developed to
challenge the cyclic landscape development theories.

J.T. Hack and A.N. Strahler, (1960 – 1966), have more recently challenged the cyclic development
theories, specially the Davisian geomorphic cycle.

Their concept is known as Dynamic Equilibrium concept. This concept, as W.D. Thormary puts it,
represents as outgrowth of some of G.K. Gilbert’s ideas.

According to Hack:

When in equilibrium, a landscape may be considered a part of an open system in a steady state of
balance.

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  Here, every scope and every form is adjusted to every other.
 Changes in topography takes place as equilibrium conditions change, but no cycle or sequential
change occur, as assumed by Davis and other supporters of cyclic development theories.
 Differences in form from place to place are based on differences in

Bed rock.
Processes acting on bed rock.

Changes taking place through time are due to

Climatic changes.
Diastrophic changes.
Changes in Pattern & Structure of bed rock.

 Equilibrium conditions are quickly attained and then maintained as a ‘graded system’,
independent of time.
 Hack challenged the cyclic development views based on old ideas of periodic diastrophism.
Hack’s concept is based on the new idea of continuity of diastrophism.
 Hack recognized that condition of complete equilibrium hardly exists so as to always maintain
the same relief.
 Thus, changes may occur in relief due to changes in diastrophic or climatic conditions. Hence,
relief related changes are part of dynamic equilibrium concept also.
 A.N. Strahler recognizes that geomorphic cycles (called by him as Geographical cycle) specially
that of Davis is useful for understanding landscapes development over very long periods of time,
but they do little to explain the diversity of the features observed in real landscape. This
diversity, as per him is well explained by equilibrium concept.

As per equilibrium concept, explained by Strahler:

 Landform is the product of forces acting upon it, including both forces of uplift and denudation.
 Characteristics of the rock material also plays an important role in evolution of landform and
hence, the land scape.
 For example, steep slopes and high relief are found where the underlying rock is strong and
highly resistant to erosion.
 Even a ‘youthful’ landscape may be in a long lived equilibrium state in which hill slopes and
stream gradients remain steep in order to maintain a ‘graded condition’ while eroding a strong
rock like massive granite.
 Davisian geographic cycle only applies where the land surface is stable over long periods of time.
But Plate tectonics and Isostatic compensation prove that crustal movements are frequent and
happening globally. As continental lithosphere floating on Asthemosphere is stripped by erosion,
it gets lighter and hence, buoyed upward. Hence, as per equilibrium model uplift is an ongoing
process (what Hack called as ‘continuity of diastrophism’ ) balanced constantly by erosional
processes. Hence, sudden uplift followed by denudation, as assumed by Davis, is doubted.
 R.J. Chorley, has argued that the basic difference between the Davisian Philosophy and Principles
of dynamic equilibrium is the difference between closed and open systems.

Davisian assumption of rapid uplift followed by standstill contains essential elements of a closed system,
wherein there is a given amount of potential energy with no further addition. This is followed by steadily
declining amount of potential energy.

An open system is maintained by a continuing supply of material and energy which permits the
attainment of a steady state condition under which the landscape may remain essentially unchanged so
long as a particular set of diastrophic climatic and geologic conditions exists.

 Hack disregarded the historical approach for geomorphole which as per Thornbury is an
important approach in Geomorphic studies.
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  Thornbury stated that it is inappropriate to deny the time dimension as a major factor in
landscape interpretation, as done by non cyclic development theorists.
 R.J. Chorley and B.A. Kennedy said that the position is basically that there are constant
adjustments made in every landscape to new steady – state conditions.
 These steady state conditions are part of a larger general tendency for change towards the
reduction of relief as time passes, and in tune with cyclic principles. This results in landscape
evolution.

Schumm and Litchy stated that:

Depending upon one’s view point, the landform is in

 One stage in a cycle of erosion.

or

 A feature in dynamic equilibrium concept.

So, as per them these views are not mutually exclusive.

Climate’s influence on Landscape development:

 J. Budel (1944, 48) suggested about climatic influence on landscape development. He talks of
morphogenetic regions which implies that under a certain set of climatic conditions, particular
geomorphic processes will dominate, leading to particular landscape development. Hence,
landscapes developed under different climatic conditions would differ.
 Davis also recognized to some extent the importance of Climatic differences in classing under
‘Climatic accidents’, the arid and glacial cycles.
 King thought that the glacial and extreme desert conditions climatic plays an unimportant role in
influencing landform characteristics, hence giving less importance to climate.

Hence, we see that different theories and views have been presented by various scholars regarding
landscape development. For a comprehensive understanding of the concept of landscape development,
all these theories and views have to be considered in unision.

5. (a) Examine the properties of earthquake waves that are useful in understanding the interior of the
earth and briefly explain how. 25

Content support:

Explanation based on Seismic studies:

It is observed that whenever an earthquake occurs creating primary, secondary and surface waves, there
is a clearly demarcated region on the other side of the globe, where P waves and S waves are not
observed i.e., they don’t reach this zone after crossing through the earth’s interior (P and S wave Shadow
Zones).

Now, if earth’s interior was having uniform density, then the waves should have passed throw earth’s
interior without reflection or refraction and if the interior is not of uniform density then these 2
phenomenon will occur.

Put figure 2 and 3

Based on observations, P wave and S wave shadow zones have been found as shown.

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 Put figure 4 and 5

Based on these waves, it is concluded that while passing through the interior, these waves have gone
through Reflection and Refraction. A certain change of velocity is also observed, giving a somewhat clear
picture of earths interior.

Put figure here 6 and 7

Further the relationship between seismic wave’s velocity and earth’s interior has been studied. It has
given a much more elaborated insight into the earth’s interior.

Put diagram 9 here

This diagram leads to the conclusion of low velocity zone. Further the gradual increase in velocity of P
and S waves can be attributed to the gradual increase in the density of the mantle. After reaching the
depth of 2900 km, there is a marked decrease in the velocity of P waves, while S waves vanishes. This
confirms the change in medium from solid to liquid. This core mantle boundary is called butter berg
discontinuity.

Further increase in P wave’s velocity is due to increase in density of the Liquid outer towards earth’s
centre. There also exists a transition zone from Liquid to Solid, represented by market change in velocity.
This is followed by sudden increase in velocity confirming the solid core. Density of inner core does not
vary much as there is not much change in P wave’s velocity.

These studies also confirm the presence of what Strahler and Strahler call as, MOHO (A contraction of
the name of the seismologist A. Mohorovicic). Detected by abrupt increase in speed of earthquake
waves, when passing through crust – mantle boundary.

Conard also speaks of a, not yet universally accepted. Conard discontinuity, dividing crust further into
upper and lower crust.

The final picture, based on all these observations is as given.

Draw figure 8

Physical State based division of earth:

As per Strahler and Strahler, based on brittleness, strength or plastic behavior.

Lithosphere: upper 80-100 km (rigid, single and cool) layer, divided into plates, quite complex beneath
continents.

Asthenosphere: upto 300-400 kms depth, rocks here behave both as, solid plastic and solid elastic.

Merosphere: All mantle below the asthenosphere has semi-molten state.

Barrysphere: Solid, inner core.

Chemical composition based division of earth:

Crust – SiAL

Mantle – SiMa

Core – NiFe

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 The upper layer has higher uranium and Thorium, which declines after 100 km,  rate of increase of
temperature decreases, towards centre.

Temperature variation Rate of increase of temp.

For first 100 kms 120C/km.

Next 300 km 20C/km.

Rest <10C/km.

Temperature at the core is around 30000C. Pressure at core is nearly 3500 kilobar.

Important Note:

Latest U.S. – Japanese collaboration based ‘Baby O Benzene telescopic detector’ used to measure total
radioactivity of earth has started a new era of being able to see inside the earth. Observations based on
these will help better understand what keeps the planet warm, the volcanoes burbling, the continents
drifting of the magnetic fields generating – All things that contribute to enabling life’. Until now we relied
on reverberation from earthquakes to get an idea of earth’s interior.

As per report published in ‘NATURE’ magazine (2005).

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5. (b) Briefly discuss the bottom topography of Indian ocean. 15

Content support:

Bottom topography of Indian Ocean:

It is the 3rd largest ocean, after Pacific and Atlantic. The average depth here is 4,000 m, which is less
varying and comparatively lesser than that of other oceans. Around 60 percent of the total area forms
the deep sea plains (abyssal plains). The linear deeps are almost absent, with only exception of Sunda or
Java trench.

(Put fig. 1 here )

The continental shelves of the Indian ocean have a wide variation. It is extensive along the margins of the
Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, African coast and Madagascar, extending beyond 600 kms, at plaus. It
is narrow along the eastern side near Java and Sumatra. Australian coast and much narrower along the
Antarctica continent.

The submarine ridges are present extensively here as well as in the Atlantic. The ridges here are not
extending so near to the sea surface and unlike the ridges in Atlantic, these are wider.

A prominent submarine ridge runs from the Tip of the Indian subcontinent and extends up to Antarctica.
It is situated in the middle and divides the ocean into two basins on either side. In the north, this ridge is
called Lakshdweep–Chagos ridge, has a width of more than 300 kms and bears many small islands. In the
middle, it is called Chagos–saint pant ridge the width here also is above 300 kms. Further, South from
30’s to pole wards, it widens upto 1,600 kms and is known here as Amsterdam–St. Paul plateau, which
again goes on to split further south into Kergulan–Gaussberg ridge towards west and Indian–Antarctic
ridge toward east.

The central ridge is further split into many small ridges heading towards African and Indian coasts. Major
ridges of these are Socotra–Chagos ridge and Seychelles ridge.

Other prominent ridges are:

a) Carlsberg ridge dividing Indian ocean into 2 parts.

b) South Madagas car ridge extending south wards where it is called Prince Edward Crozet ridge.
c) Andaman Nicobar ridge extending up to Nicobar Island, starting from the mouth of Irrawaddy.

The floor of the Indian ocean has fewer irregularities in comparison to the other 2 larger oceans. The
central and other ridges divide Indian Ocean into many basins with depth of 4,000 – 6,000 m. Chief
among them are Oman basin, Arabian Basin, Somali Basin, Mauritius basin, Natal basin, Agullas basin,
Atlantic – Indian Antarctic basin (South Indian Basin), Andaman Basin.

The deep sea plains (abyssal plains) of importance, here, are Somali, Sri Lankan and Indian Abyssal
plains.

The basins and associated abyssal plains cover nearly 60% of the total area here.

Most of the islands in the Indian Ocean represent detached parts of the continental blocks. The Andaman
and Nicobar, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and Zanzibar are important examples.

Coral Islands here are Lakshdweep and Maldive Islands.

Volcanic origin islands are Mauritius and Reunion Islands, Islands in Indian Ocean are mostly in western
and northern parts and eastern section are almost free of Islands.

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 Marginal seas which are of significance are Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal are
merely extensions of the Indian Ocean. Mozambique Channel separates Madagascar from Africa.

Hence, this gives us detailed picture of the topography of Indian Ocean.

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5. (c) Differentiate between tornadoes and watersprouts. 10

Content support:

A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth and a
cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to as twisters.

Tornadoes often develop from a class of thunderstorms known as supercells. Supercells contain
mesocyclones, an area of organized rotation a few miles up in the atmosphere, usually 2–10 km across. In
addition to tornadoes, very heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong wind gusts, and hail are common in such
storms.

tornadoes
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 watersprout

Waterspouts fall into two categories: fair weather waterspouts and tornadic waterspouts.

Tornadic waterspouts are tornadoes that form over water, or move from land to water. They have the same
characteristics as a land tornado. They are associated with severe thunderstorms, and are often
accompanied by high winds and seas, large hail, and frequent dangerous lightning.

Fair weather waterspouts usually form along the dark flat base of a line of developing cumulus clouds. This
type of waterspout is generally not associated with thunderstorms. While tornadic waterspouts develop
downward in a thunderstorm, a fair weather waterspout develops on the surface of the water and works
its way upward. By the time the funnel is visible, a fair weather waterspout is near maturity. Fair weather
waterspouts form in light wind conditions so they normally move very little.

If a waterspout moves onshore, the National Weather Service issues a tornado warning, as some of them
can cause significant damage and injuries to people. Typically, fair weather waterspouts dissipate rapidly
when they make landfall, and rarely penetrate far inland.

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