CHAPTER- TWO

PRECIPITATION
Definition:- In hydrology, precipitation is when the water in the atmosphere returns back to the earth in
liquid or solid forms, such as rain, snow, sleet, or hail1. Precipitation is one of the three main processes
(evaporation, condensation, and precipitation) that constitute the hydrologic cycle, the continual
exchange of water between the atmosphere and Earth’s surface.

2.1 Causes and forms of precipitation

The process by which water vapor in the atmosphere condenses and falls to the Earth's surface might
be in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail. It is a vital part of the Earth's water cycle and plays a
crucial role in replenishing freshwater resources. The causes and forms of precipitation are influenced
by various factors, including temperature, humidity, air pressure, and atmospheric conditions.

Causes of Precipitation:
1. Condensation: When warm, moist air rises and encounters cooler temperatures, the water
vapor within it begins to condense into tiny water droplets or ice crystals. This condensation
forms clouds, which can later produce precipitation.
2. Frontal Lifting: Precipitation often occurs when two air masses with different characteristics,
such as temperature and humidity, collide. The warmer, less dense air tends to rise over the
cooler, denser air, leading to the formation of clouds and subsequent precipitation.
Cyclonic rainfall is also called frontal rainfall because it occurs along the fronts of a cyclone.
Frontal rainfall occurs when warm air and cool air meet each other. Warm air is lighter than
cool air. So, the warm air rises above the cool air.
The name of this cyclones vary in different places
 Tropical cyclone (in India)
 Typhoon (South East Asia)
 Hurricane (America)
3. Orographic Uplift: When moist air encounters a mountain or elevated terrain, it is forced to
rise. As the air ascends, it cools, leading to condensation and the formation of clouds. This
process, known as orographic lifting, can result in significant precipitation on the windward
side of the mountain.

4. Convection: Solar radiation heats the Earth's surface, causing air near the surface to warm and
rise. As the warm air ascends, it cools and forms clouds, which can result in precipitation.
Convectional precipitation is common in tropical regions, where the intense heating of the
surface leads to the rapid uplift of moist air.
Forms of Precipitation:

1. Rain: Rain is the most common form of precipitation and occurs when liquid water droplets
fall from the clouds to the Earth's surface. It typically occurs in areas where the temperature is
above freezing.
2. Snow: Snow forms when the temperature in the atmosphere is below freezing, and water
vapor directly transitions into ice crystals. These ice crystals then combine to form
snowflakes, which fall to the ground. Snow is characteristic of colder regions and higher
elevations.
3. Sleet: Sleet is a form of precipitation that occurs when raindrops freeze into ice pellets before
reaching the ground. This usually happens when there is a warm layer of air above the surface
and a shallow layer of freezing air near the ground.
4. Hail: Hail is a type of precipitation that occurs during severe thunderstorms. It forms when
strong updrafts in the storm carry raindrops upward into extremely cold regions of the
atmosphere, where they freeze. The frozen raindrops are then coated with additional layers of
ice as they are carried up and down within the storm, resulting in hailstones of varying sizes.

It's important to note that the specific forms of precipitation and their occurrence depend on a
combination of atmospheric conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and the presence of ice nuclei.
2.2 Measurement of precipitation
The measurement of precipitation is crucial for understanding and monitoring weather patterns, water
resources, and climate conditions.

Meteorologists and hydrologists employ various instruments and methods to measure precipitation
accurately.

The common types of instruments that measure precipitation are:

 Non-recording
 cylindrical container type
 Self-recording
 weighing type
 float type
 tipping bucket type

Here are some common techniques used for precipitation measurement:

1. Rain Gauges: Rain gauges are the most basic and widely used instruments for measuring rainfall.
They consist of a cylindrical or funnel-shaped container that collects and measures the amount of
liquid precipitation. The collected rainwater is typically measured in millimeters (mm) or inches
(in) and represents the depth of rainfall over a specific area.
2. Tipping Bucket Rain Gauges: Tipping bucket rain gauges are an automated version of rain gauges.
They consist of a funnel that directs precipitation into a small bucket with a pivot mechanism. When
a certain amount of rainfall accumulates in the bucket (usually 0.2 mm or 0.01 in), it tips and
empties, allowing for the measurement of rainfall. These gauges can provide real-time data and are
often used in weather stations.
3. Snow Gauges: Snow gauges are designed specifically to measure snowfall. They typically consist
of a large cylinder or tube open at the top, placed vertically to collect snow. After the snowfall event,
the snow is melted, and the resulting water is measured to determine the equivalent liquid
precipitation. Snow gauges are used in regions where snowfall is common.
4. Weather Radars: Weather radars are powerful tools used to measure precipitation over large areas.
They emit radio waves that reflect off precipitation particles, allowing for the detection and
estimation of the intensity, location, and movement of precipitation. Weather radars can provide
valuable information about the spatial distribution of rainfall and are particularly useful for
monitoring storms and severe weather events.
5. Satellite Observations: Satellites equipped with specialized sensors can also provide valuable
information about precipitation over wide geographical regions. They measure the reflected or
emitted electromagnetic radiation from clouds and precipitation systems, allowing for the estimation
of precipitation intensity and coverage. Satellite observations are especially useful for monitoring
precipitation in remote or inaccessible regions.
6. Weather Stations: Automated weather stations often include instruments to measure precipitation.
These stations are equipped with various sensors, including rain gauges, that record and transmit
data in real-time. Weather stations provide continuous and localized measurements of precipitation,
temperature, humidity, and other meteorological parameters.

Ideal Location for a Rain Gauge Station

While setting up any rain Gauge station the following points should be noted.
• The site should be on a level ground, i.e., slopping ground, hill tops or hill slopes
are not suitable.
• The site should be an open space.
• Horizontal distance between the rain gauge and the nearest objects should be twice
the height of the objects.
• Site should be away from continuous wind forces.
• The site should be easily accessible.
• The gauge should be truly vertical.
• Ten percent of total number of rain gauge stations of any basin should be self-
recording.
• The observer must visit the site regularly to ensure its proper readiness for
measurement.
Precipitation data errors
The most significant cause of error in rain data
 Observations are usually turbulent airflow around the gauge.
 The dependence of rain gauge catch on wind speed
 Evaporation from within the measuring cylinder
 Adhesion of water to funnel, (water then evaporates)
 Gauge leaks, blockages or overflows in storms
 Error in observation or transcription
 Splash in or out

2.3 Rainfall data process

Rainfall data plays a fundamental role in hydrology, as it provides valuable information for studying
and managing water resources. The process of handling and analyzing rainfall data in hydrology
involves several steps. Here's an overview of the typical rainfall data process in hydrology:

1. Data Collection:
Rainfall data collection involves the deployment of rain gauges or weather stations at various
locations to measure precipitation. These instruments collect data over time, usually in the form of
rainfall depth (in millimeters or inches) and the corresponding time of measurement. Rain gauges
can be manual or automated, and the data may be recorded at different intervals, such as hourly,
daily, or monthly.
2. Data Quality Control:
 Before analyzing rainfall data, it's important to ensure its quality and reliability. Data quality control
involves identifying and addressing potential issues such as instrument malfunctions, data gaps,
outliers, and inconsistencies. Quality control checks may include automated procedures and manual
inspection to detect and correct errors or missing values.
3. Data Management:
Rainfall data management involves organizing and storing the collected data in a structured manner.
This typically involves creating a database or using specialized software for data storage and
retrieval. Metadata such as location information, time stamps, and measurement units are often
associated with the rainfall data to facilitate proper interpretation and analysis.
4. Data Processing:
Rainfall data processing involves various calculations and transformations to derive meaningful
information. This may include aggregating rainfall measurements from multiple stations to obtain
areal rainfall, calculating rainfall intensity, determining rainfall duration, and estimating total
rainfall over specific time periods. Statistical analyses, such as frequency analysis and probability
distributions, are commonly applied to rainfall data to understand its patterns and characteristics.
5. Spatial and Temporal Analysis:
Rainfall data is often analyzed spatially and temporally to assess its distribution and variability.
Spatial analysis involves interpolating rainfall measurements from different stations to create
rainfall maps or grids, allowing for the visualization of rainfall patterns across a region. Temporal
analysis explores rainfall trends, seasonality, and changes over time, such as long-term trends or
short-term extreme events.
6. Hydrological Modeling:
Rainfall data is a critical input for hydrological models, which simulate and predict water-related
processes such as runoff, streamflow, and flood events. Rainfall-runoff models use rainfall data to
estimate the amount of water that enters the hydrological system and contributes to streamflow.
These models help in understanding the response of watersheds to rainfall events and support water
resource management decisions.
7. Data Visualization and Reporting: Rainfall data is often presented through visualizations, such as
graphs, charts, or maps, to effectively communicate its characteristics and trends. Visual
representations help hydrologists, water managers, and other stakeholders understand and interpret
rainfall data. Reports summarizing the findings, trends, and analyses of rainfall data are often
prepared to support decision-making processes and scientific studies.
The rainfall data process in hydrology is iterative and continuous, with ongoing data collection, analysis,
and interpretation to support water resource planning, flood forecasting, drought monitoring, and other
hydrological applications.

2.3.1 Estimating missing data and of Adjustment of records

Complete measured precipitation data are important to many problems in hydrologic analysis
and design but it is common to have a missing values. Some of the causes of missing rainfall
data are:
 The failure of the observer to make the necessary visit to the gage may result in
missing data.
 Vandalism of recording gages is another problem that results in incomplete data
records
 Instrument failure because of mechanical or electrical malfunctioning can result in
missing data.

Some of the methods of estimating missing rainfall values are

1. Station-Average Method
2. Normal-Ratio Method
3. Inverse distance weighting method (IDW)

1. Station-Average Method:- The station-average method for estimating missing data uses
n gages from a region to estimate the missing point rainfall, P, at another gage

Example, consider the following data

This method is often used in flat areas with very less rainfall variability
2. Normal-Ratio Method

When the average annual catches differ by more than l0%, the normal-ratio method is
preferable; such differences might occur in regions where there are large differences in
elevation (for example, regions where orographic effects are present) or where average annual
rainfall is low but has high annual variability.

10% of Nc = 93.5 x 10/100 = 9.35

After the addition of 10% of Nc in Nc, we get 93.5 + 9.35 = 102.85

And by subtracting 10% we get a value of 84.15

So Na, Nb, Nd or Ne values are to be checked for the range 102.85 to 84.15.

Pc = (1/4)(93.5 x 9.7/100.3 + 93.5 x 8.3/109.5 + 93.5 x 11.7/125.7 + 93.5 x 8.0/117.5) = 7.8 cm

3 Inverse distance weighting method (IDW)

Inverse distance weighting method is most commonly used for estimation of missing data. The inverse
distance weighting method is based on the proximity of the neighboring stations or surrounding stations
to the target station.
The inverse distance method has been advocated to be the most accurate method as compare to other
two methods discussed above. Amount of rainfall to be estimated at a location is a function of; rainfall
measured at the surrounding index stations. Distance to each index station from the ungauged location.

2.3.2 Areal rainfall estimation

The mean areal precipitation (MAP) is an estimate of the average depth of precipitation over a
region for a specific time interval. Accurate estimation of mean rainfall or mean areal
precipitation (MAP) over a region or watershed is essential for hydrologic modeling. There are
three common methods for calculating areal rainfall:

1. Arithmetic Mean Method:

This method involves calculating the average rainfall over a specific area by dividing the
total rainfall by the number of rain gauges within that area. It provides a simple and
straightforward estimate of the areal rainfall.
2. Thiessen Polygon Method:
This method divides the area into polygons based on the proximity of rain gauges. Each
polygon is assigned a weight based on the percentage of the area it covers. The rainfa ll
recorded at each rain gauge is then multiplied by its corresponding weight, and the sum of
these values provides an estimate of the areal rainfall.

3. Isohyetal Method:
 This method involves drawing contour lines connecting points of equal rainfall intensity on
a map. The contour lines are then used to estimate the areal rainfall by calculating the area
between the lines and multiplying it by the average rainfall intensity within that area.

These methods provide different approaches to estimating areal rainfall and can be used
depending on the available data and the desired level of accuracy.