Hydrology and Water Resource MGT For Winter Narm

Hydrology and Water Resource Mgt.
for Winter student (NaRM224) February 10,

2021
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Concept and Definition of Hydrology

Hydrology is the science that deals with the occurrence, circulation and distribution of water of
the earth and earth’s atmosphere. It concerned with the water in streams and lakes, rainfall and
snowfall, snow and ice on the land, and water occurring below the earth’s surface in the pores of
the soil and rocks as a ground water. To further emphasise the degree of applicability the subject
may divided as:
Scientific hydrology- the science which concern with academic aspect
Applied hydrology-the branch of hydrology that serves the application of scientific knowledge
in engineering practice and thus forms the basis for designing and operation of water resources
engineering projects.
In general, applied hydrology focused on:
 estimation of water resources

 study processes (such as: precipitation, runoff, evapo-transpiration and their
interaction)
 study of extremes (such as: floods and droughts) and methods to deal with them
 Setting out rules/polices for the operation of water resources infrastructures
1.2 Hydrologic cycle

Water occurs on the earth in all its three states (Liquid, Solid and gaseous). The sequence of
conditions through which water passes from vapor in the atmosphere through precipitation upon
land or water surfaces and ultimately back into the atmosphere as a result of evaporation and
transpiration is called hydrological cycle or water cycle (see figure 1.1).
Water in the oceans evaporates due to the heat energy provided by solar radiation. The water
vapour moves upwards and forms clouds. While much of the clouds condense and fall back to
the oceans as rain, a part of the clouds is driven to the land areas by winds. The air mass reached
the land surface it condense and precipitate onto the land mass as:Rain, snow, hail, etc.
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Hydrology and Water Resource Mgt. for Winter student (NaRM224) February 10,
2021
Figure1 1: Diagrammatic representation of hydrologic cycle
1.3 Water Balance

The area of land draining into a stream or a water course at a given location is known as
catchment area. It is also called as drainage area or drainage basin, and commonly known as
watershed. A catchment area is separated from its neighboring areas by a ridge called divide. The
areal extent of the catchment is obtained through topographical map delineation. The balance
between inputs and outputs is known as the water balance or budget. For a given problem area,
say a catchment, in an interval of time ∆t, the continuity equation for water in this various phases
is written as:
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If the density of the inflow, outflow and storage volumes are the same:
Where,
Vi – inflow volume of water into the problem area during the time period
V0 – outflow volume of water from the problem area during the time period
∆S – change in the storage of the water volume over and under the given area during the given
period
In hydrologic calculations, the volumes are often expressed as average depths over the catchment
area. Rainfall, evaporation and often runoff volumes are expressed in units of depth over the
catchment. Considering different components of the hydrologic cycle, the water balance equation
can be written as:
Where,
P – precipitation, R – surface runoff, G – net ground water flow out of the catchment,
E – evaporation, T – transpiration and ∆S – change in storage
1.4 . Scope and application of Hydrology

Agriculture: Irrigation crop water requirement design, drainage design and irrigation scheduling
is based on the hydrological analysis.
Hydropower: Power/energy potential assessment, reservoir capacity determination, reservoir

operation, and sediment monitoring is based on hydrological information.
Flood control: Flood protection design, flood mapping, and property damage evaluation mostly
derived from hydrological analysis.
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Water Transport/Navigation: Ship’s log design and operation, Channel water depth estimation,
needs hydrologic analysis.
River Engineering:River channel rectification and meandering design require hydrological

computations.
Water Governance: River basin management, trans-boundary issues, water demand and supply
analysis, water pricing are mostly require hydrological information and analysis.
2. PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is any form of water that rich the earth from atmosphere. The usual form are
rainfall, snowfall, hail, frost and dew. Rainfall being the predominant form of precipitation
causing stream flow in Ethiopia. For precipitation to be formed; the atmosphere must have
moisture, there must sufficient nuclei present to aid condensation, weather condition must be
good for condensation and the product of condensation must rich the earth.
2.1 Form of precipitation

Some form precipitation are rain, snow, drizzle hail and others.
 Rain: Rain is liquid precipitation that reaches the surface in the form of drops that are
greater than 0.5 mm in diameter and the maximum size of rain fall is 6mm. The intensity
of rain is determined by the accumulation over a given time. Categories of rain are light,
moderate and heavy.
Type of rain Intensity
fall
Light < 2.5 mm/hr.
Moderate 2.5 to 7.5 mm/hr.
Heavy >7.5mm/hr.
 Snow: Snow is an aggregate of ice crystals that form into flakes. Snow forms at
temperatures below freezing.
 Drizzle: Drizzle is liquid precipitation that reaches the surface in the form of drops that
are less than 0.5 millimeters in diameter and have intensity of less than 1mm/hr.
 Hail: Hail is dense precipitation ice that is that least 5 millimeters in diameter.
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 Sleet: Sleet (Ice Pellets) are frozen raindrops that strike the earth's surface. In a sleet
situation the precipitation aloft when it is first generated will be snow. The snow falls
through a layer that is a little above freezing and the snow partially melts.
 Glaze: when rain or drizzle come in contact with cold earth surface at 0 0c, the water
drops freezes to form ice coating called glaze or freezing rain.
2.2 Types of Precipitation
The cooling of air masses necessary for condensation results from air rising. This can be
accomplished in one or a combination of three different ways in which precipitation can be
subdivided.
Convective rainfall: Occur if warm air rises into a cool environment of greater density. During
this process the air cools and water vapour condenses. The warm air is a result of a heated
surface of the earth. This type of rainfalls are of high intensity and are referred to as heavy rain
or rainstorm. Usually they are of short duration and limited spatial extension. A characteristic
attribute of this type of rainfall is extreme spatial variability.
Orographic rainfall:Drives from the forced rise of humid air masses along mountain ranges.
Again, the rise of air results in cooling and condensation. This type of rainfall, termed
deceleration precipitation is of variable duration and intensity. Due to this orographic effect, the
mean height of precipitation in mountainous regions is above average.
Cyclonic rainfall:Is usually linked to front systems. Warm air slips on top of cold air (warm
front) or it is pushed up by approaching cold air (cold front). A cold front provides a higher
velocity of rise and therefore rainfall of higher intensity. Compared to convective rainfalls, the
mean spatial extension and duration is significantly higher (continuous precipitation). Cyclonic
rainfall accounts for the largest precipitation of the total annual precipitation in temperate
latitudes.
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2.3 Measuring Precipitation

Precipitation is collected and measured in rain gauge. The term such as pluviometer, ombrometer
and hyetometer are also used to designate the rain gauge. Rain gauge essentially consist of
cylindrical vessel assemble open to collect rain. To enable the of rain gauge to accurately
represent the rain fall in the area surrounding the rain gauge standard setting are adapted. For
sitting rain gauge the following consideration are important.
o Ground must be level and in the open and the instrument must present a horizontal catch
surface.
o The gauge must be set as near the ground as possible to reduce the wind effect but it must
be sufficiently high to prevent the splashing, flood etc.
o The instrument must be surrounded by open fenced area of at least 5.5m by 5.5m. no
object should near to the instrument distance than 30m or twice of the height of
obstruction.
Rain gauge can be broadly categorized as recording and non-recording rain gauge.
a. Non recording rain gauge
Non-recording type rain gauge is most common type of rain gauge used by meteorological
department. It consists of a cylindrical vessel 127mm in diameter with a base enlarged to 210mm
diameter. At its top section, funnel is provided with circular brass rim which is 127mm exactly
so that it can fit into vessel well. This funnel shank is inserted in the neck of a receiving bottle
which is 75 to 100mm high from the base section and thinner than the cylinder, placed into it to
receive rainfall.
Figure 2. 1: Non recording (Symons) Rain gauge with graduated glass of accuracy 0.1mm
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A Receiving bottle has capacity of 100mm and during heavy rainfall, amount of rain is
frequently exceeded, so the reading should be measured 3 to 4 times in a day. Water contained in
this receiving bottle is measured by a graduated measuring glass with an accuracy up to 0. 1mm
b. Recording type rain gauges

There are three types of recording rain gauges
i. Weighing Bucket Type Rain Gauge

Weighing bucket type rain gauge is most common self-recording rain gauge. It consists of a
receiver bucket supported by a spring or lever balance or some other weighing mechanism. The
movement of bucket due to its increasing weight is transmitted to a pen which traces record or
some marking on a clock driven chart.Weighing bucket type rain gauge instrument gives a plot
of the accumulated (increased) rainfall values against the elapsed time and the curve so formed is
called the mass curve.
Figure 2. 2: Weighing type rain gauge
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ii. Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge

Tipping bucket type rain gauge is a 30cm sized circular rain gauge adopted for use by US
weather bureau. It has 30cm diameter sharp edged receiver and at the end of the receiver is
provided a funnel.Pair of buckets are pivoted under this funnel in such a manner that when one
bucket receives 0.25mm of precipitation (rainfall),it tips discharging its rainfall into the
container, bringing the other bucket under the funnel.
Figure 2. 3: Tipping type rain gauge
iii. Floating or Natural Syphon Type Rain Gauge

The working of this type of rain gauge is similar to weighing bucket rain gauge. A funnel
receives the water which is collected in a rectangular container. A float is provided at the bottom
of container, and this float raises as the water level rises in the container. Its movement being
recorded by a pen moving on a recording drum actuated by a clock work.
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Figure 2. 4: Weight type rain gauge
When water rises, this float reaches to the top floating in water, then syphon comes into
operation and releases the water outwards through the connecting pipe, thus all water in box is
drained out. This rain gauge is adopted as the standard recording rain gauge in India and the
curve drawn using this data is known as mass curve of rain fall
2.4 Errors in measurement of point Precipitation

Gauging rainfall is subject to a variety of errors and interferences which can significantly alter
the results. Beside errors that are random in nature and thus equalize over time, other important
sources of error are:
Influence of the wind: Errors due to wind effects result fro a deformation of the wind field
caused by the gauge itself as well as other neighbouring obstacles. Especially for small rain
drops and snowfall in high wind areas, this leads to losses in measurement
Influence of evaporation:Losses due to evaporation are mainly caused by the wetting of the
gauge collector and evaporation from the water surface in the measuring cylinder. Both errors
lead to systematic underestimation of observed precipitation. The so called catch-deficiency is
dependent on the location of the gauge and ranges from 10-20% for rainfall to roughly 25% for
snowfall. Errors of a different type occur when point precipitation is transformed to areal
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precipitation. Errors caused by this transformation may be significantly higher than those
mentioned above. They are dependent on the examined period of time, the density of the gauge
network and transformation technique.
2.5 Rain-gauge network

Since the catchment area of the rain-gauge is very small compared to the areal extent of a storm,
it is obvious that to get a representative picture of a storm over a catchment the number of rain-
gauges should be as large as possible.The catchment area per gauge should be small. The number
of gauges to be maintained depends ; Economic consideration (to a larger extent), Topography
(to some extent) and Accessibility (to some extent). Hence, there should be an optimum density
of gauges from which reasonably accurate information about the storms in place within a
catchment area. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) recommends the following
densities:
If there are already some ran-gauge stations in a catchment, the optimal number of
stations that should exist to have an assigned percentage of error in the estimation of
mean rainfall is obtained by statistical analysis as:
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Where,
N – optimal number of stations
Є – allowable degree of error in the estimate of the mean rainfall
Cv – coefficient of variation of the rainfall values at the existing m stations (in percent)
If there are m stations in the catchment each recording rainfall values P1, P2, …, Pi,..Pm
in a known time, the coefficient of variation is calculated as:
Where,
Pi – precipitation magnitude in the ith station
The value and are standard deviation and mean precipitation, respectively
2.6 Estimation of missing rain fall

Some precipitation stations may have short breaks in the records because of absence of the
observer or because of instrumental failures. It is often necessary to estimate this missing record.
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The station whose data is missing is called interpolation station and gauging stations whose data
are used to calculate the missing station data are called index stations.
i. Simple Arithmetic Mean Method

According to the arithmetic mean method the missing precipitation 'Px' is given as:
In case of three stations 1, 2 and 3,
Px = (P1 + P2 + P3)/3
ii. Normal Ratio Method

According to the normal ratio method the missing precipitation is given as:
Normal Ratio Method
Where Px is the missing precipitation for any storm at the interpolation station 'x', Pi is the
precipitation for the same period for the same storm at the "ith" station of a group of index
stations, Nx the normal annual precipitation value for the 'x' station and Ni the normal annual
precipitation value for 'ith' station.
For example, for the symbols defined above for three index stations in a catchment area.
If the normal annual precipitation of the index stations lies within ±10% of normal annual
precipitation of interpolation station then we apply arithmetic mean method to determine the
missing precipitation record otherwise the normal ratio method is used for this purpose.
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Consider that record is missing from a station 'X'.
Now let
N = Normal annual precipitation. (Mean of 30 years of annual precipitation data)
P = Storm Precipitation.
Let Px be the missing precipitation for station 'X' and Nx , the normal annual precipitation of this
station, Na, Nb and Nc are normal annual precipitations of nearby three stations, A, B and C
respectively while Pa, Pb and Pc are the storm precipitation of that period for these stations.
2.7 Mean Precipitation Calculation over an Area

Hydrological Analysis requires information on rainfall over an area, say, a catchment. Methods
used to convert point rainfall values at different rain gauge stations into an average value over a
catchment include: Arithmetical Mean Method, Thiessen Polygon Method and Isohyetal Method.
2.7.1 Arithmetical Mean Method
2.7.2 Thiessen Polygon Method

Rainfall recorded at each station is given a weightage based on the area closest to the station.
Consider a catchment area with say, 3 raingauge stations. Let there be 3 stations outside the
catchment, but in its neighborhood.The catchment area is drawn to scale and the position of these
6 stations are plotted on it. These 6 stations are joined so as to get a network of
triangles.Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to each of the sides of these triangles. These bisectors
form a polygon around each station. If the boundary of the catchment cuts the bisectors, then the
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boundary is taken as the outer limit of the polygon. These bounding polygons are called Thiessen
Polygons. The area of these polygons is measured with a planimeter or by grid overlay.
This method is considered superior to the arithmetical averaging method since some weightage is
assigned to each raingauge station. Even raingauge stations located outside the catchment are
used in computing mean precipitation.
2.7.3 Isohyetal Method

Isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude. The catchment area is drawn to scale
and the raingauge stations are marked on it. The recorded rainfall values for which areal average
is to determine are marked at the respective stations. Neighboring stations outside the catchment
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are also considered. Taking point rainfall values as the guide, isohyets of different rainfall values
are drawn (similar to drawing contours based on spot levels).
The area between adjacent isohyets is measured using a planimeter.
If isohyets go out of the catchment, the catchment boundary is used as the bounding line. It is
assumed that the average value of rainfall indicated by two isohyets acts over the inter isohyet
area. This method is considered superior to the previous methods when the number of raingauge
stations are large
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3. EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET)
3.1 The process of Evaporation
Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapour (vaporization) and
removed from the evaporating surface. Water evaporates from a variety of surfaces, such as
lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet vegetation. Energy is required to change the state of the
molecules of water from liquid to vapour. Direct solar radiation and, to a lesser extent, the
ambient temperature of the air provide this energy. The driving force to remove water vapour
from the evaporating surface is the difference between the water vapour pressure at the
evaporating surface and that of the surrounding atmosphere. As evaporation proceeds, the
surrounding air becomes gradually saturated and the process will slow down and might stop if
the wet air is not transferred to the atmosphere. The replacement of the saturated air with drier air
depends greatly on wind speed. Hence, solar radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind
speed are climatological parameters to consider when assessing the evaporation process.
3.2. Factor affecting evaporation

o Vapor pressures at the water surface and the air above
o Wind speed
o Incident solar radiation
o Atmospheric pressure
o Quality of water
o Air and water temperatures
o Size of the water body
Vapour pressure: Rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between the saturation
vapour pressure (SVP) at the water temperature ew and the actual vapour pressure in the air ea.
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This equation is called Dalton’s Law of Evaporation. Evaporation occurs till . If

condensation takes place.
3.3. Measurement of Evaporation

The rate of evaporation may estimate or measured by the following methods:
o Using evaporimeters
o Using empirical equations
o By analytical methods
3.3.1 Evaporimeters
Evaporimeters: are the pans containing water which are exposed to the atmosphere. Loss of
water by evaporation from these pans are measured at regular intervals (daily). Meteorological
data such as humidity, wind velocity, air and water temperatures, and precipitation are also
measured and noted along with evaporation. An evaporation pan holds the water used during the
process. The observer notes the quantity of water at certain weather conditions and notes the
change in the quantity. Pans occur in different sizes and shapes, the most common being circular
and square or “Class A” and the Sunken Colorado Pan.
3.3.1.1 USWB Class A Evaporation Pan

A pan of diameter 1210mm and depth 255mm. Depth of water is maintained between 18 and
20cm. The pan is made of unpainted GI sheet. The pan is placed on a wooden platform of
height 15cm above ground level to allow free air circulation below the pan. Evaporation is
measured by measuring the depth of water in a stilling well with a hook gauge.
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Figure3. 1: USA ClassA evaporation pan
3.3.1.2 Pan Coefficient

Evaporation pans are not exact models of large reservoirs. Their major drawbacks are the
following:
 They differ from reservoirs in the heat storage capacity and heat transfer characteristics
from the sides and the bottom (sunken and floating pans aim to minimize this problem).
Hence evaporation from a pan depends to some extent on its size (Evaporation from a
pan of about 3m dia is almost the same as that from a large lake whereas that from a pan
of about 1m dia is about 20% in excess of this).
 The height of the rim in an evaporation pan affects wind action over the water surface in
the pan. Also it casts a shadow of varying size on the water surface.
 The heat transfer characteristics of the pan material is different form that of a reservoir.
 Hence evaporation measured from a pan has to be corrected to get the evaporation from a
large lake under identical climatic and exposure conditions.
Lake Evaporation = Pan Coefficient * Pan Evaporation
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Table3. 1 Values of Pan Coefficients Cp
S. Types of Pan Average Range

No. Value
1 Class A Land Pan 0.70 0.60 – 0.80
2 ISI Pan (Modified Class A) 0.80 0.65 – 1.10
3 Colorado Sunken Pan 0.78 0.75 – 0.86
4 USGS Floating Pan 0.80 0.70 – 0.82
Evaporation pans are normally located at stations where other hydro-meteorological data are
collected. WMO recommends the following values of minimum density of evaporimeters
o Arid Zones – 1 station for every 30,000 sq.km

o Humid Temperate Zones – 1 station for every 50,000 sq.km
o Cold regions – 1 station for every 1,00,000 sq.km
3.3.2 Empirical Equations

Most of the available empirical equations for estimating lake evaporation are a Dalton type
equation of the general form.
Dalton's Equation for Evaporation Estimation
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Meyer’s Formula
Rohwer’s Formula
Accounts for the effect of pressure in addition to the wind speed effect
Wind Velocity
In the lower part of the atmosphere, up to a height of about 500m above the ground level, wind
velocity follows the one-seventh power law as
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3.3.3 Analytical Methods of Evaporation Estimation

o Water Budget Method
o Energy Budget Method
o Mass Transfer Method
3.3.3.1 Water Budget Method
can only be measured.
can only be estimated
If the unit of time is kept very large, estimates of evaporation will be more accurate. It is the
simplest of all the methods, but the least reliable.
3.3.3.2 Energy Budget Method

It involves application of the law of conservation of energy. Energy available for evaporation is
determined by considering the incoming energy, outgoing energy, and the energy stored in the
water body over a known time interval. Estimation of evaporation from a lake by this method
has been found to give satisfactory results, with errors of the order of 5%, when applied to
periods less than a week.
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Figure3. 2: Energy Balance in a water bod
This is the energy balance in a period of 1 day. All energy terms are in calories/ sq.mm/day.If
time periods are short, can be neglected as they are negligibly small. All terms
except can either be measured or evaluated indirectly. is estimated using Bowen’s ratio
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3.3.4 Piche Evaporimeter:

It consists of a 32 cm long graduated tube of 1 cm inside diameter. It is closed at one end. The
other end of the tube is open and has flat edge. There is a disk and clamp arrangement by which
this end can be covered by a filter paper as shown in Fig. 3.5.
Figure3. 3: PicheEvaporimeter
The tube is filled up with distilled water. The open end is then covered by filter paper supported
by the disk and the clamp. The evaporimeter is then hung in inverted position. The water in the
tube is soaked by the filter paper which moves rapidly outward through the paper and ultimately
gets evaporated. The rate of loss of water from the tube gives the evaporation rate. This
instrument is very sensitive to winds.
3.2 The process of Transpiration

Transpiration: Transpiration consists of the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant
tissues and the vapour removal to the atmosphere. Crops predominately lose their water through
stomata. These are small openings on the plant leaf through which gases and water vapour pass.
The water, together with some nutrients, is taken up by the roots and transported through the
plant. The vaporization occurs within the leaf, namely in the intercellular spaces, and the vapour
exchange with the atmosphere is controlled by the stomatal aperture. Nearly all water taken up is
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lost by transpiration and only a tiny fraction is used within the plant. Transpiration, like direct
evaporation, depends on the energy supply, vapour pressure gradient and wind. Hence, radiation,
air temperature, air humidity and wind terms should be considered when assessing transpiration.
The soil water content and the ability of the soil to conduct water to the roots also determine the
transpiration rate, as do waterlogging and soil water salinity. Crop characteristics, environmental
aspects and cultivation practices also influence the transpiration rate. Different kinds of plants
may have different transpiration rates. Not only the type of crop, but also the crop development,
environment and management should be considered when assessing transpiration.
 Plant use only 1% among water it receive through its root.

3.3 The process of Evapotranspiration
The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost on the one hand from the soil
surface by evaporation and on the other hand from the crop by transpiration is referred to as
evapotranspiration (ET).Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy
way of distinguishing between the two processes. Apart from the water availability in the topsoil,
the evaporation from a cropped soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar radiation
reaching the soil surface. This fraction decreases over the growing period as the crop develops
and the crop canopy shades more and more of the ground area. When the crop is small, water is
predominately lost by soil evaporation, but once the crop is well developed and completely
covers the soil, transpiration becomes the main process.
At sowing nearly 100% of ET comes from evaporation, while at full crop cover more than 90%
of ET comes from transpiration. The evapotranspiration rate is normally expressed in millimeters
(mm) per unit time. The rate expresses the amount of water lost from a cropped surface in units
of water depth. The time unit can be an hour, day, decade, month or even an entire growing
period or year.
3.3.1 Factors affecting Evapotranspiration

The major factors affecting evapotranspiration are Weather parameters, Crop
factors,management and environmental conditions.
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3.3.1.1 Weather parameters

The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are radiation, air temperature,
humidity and wind speed. Several procedures have been developed to assess the evaporation rate
from these parameters. The evaporation power of the atmosphere is expressed by the reference
crop evapotranspiration (ETo). The reference crop evapotranspiration represents the
evapotranspiration from a standardized vegetated surface.
3.3.1.2 Crop factors

The crop type, variety and development stage should be considered when assessing the
evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-managed fields. Differences in resistance to
transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection, ground cover and crop rooting
characteristics result in different ET levels in different types of crops under identical
environmental conditions. Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) refers to the
evaporating demand from crops that are grown in large fields under optimum soil water,
excellent management and environmental conditions, and achieve full production under the
given climatic conditions.
3.3.1.3 Management and environmental conditions

Factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility, limited application of fertilizers, the presence of
hard or impenetrable soil horizons, the absence of control of diseases and pests and poor soil
management may limit the crop development and reduce the evapotranspiration. Other factors to
be considered when assessing ET are ground cover, plant density and the soil water content. The
effect of soil water content on ET is conditioned primarily by the magnitude of the water deficit
and the type of soil. On the other hand, too much water will result in waterlogging which might
damage the root and limit root water uptake by inhibiting respiration.
3.3.2 Measuring of evapotranspiration (ET)

Evapotranspiration is not easy to measure. Specific devices and accurate measurements of
various physical parameters or the soil water balance in lysimeters are required to determine
evapotranspiration. The methods are often expensive, demanding in terms of accuracy of
measurement and can only be fully exploited by well-trained research personnel. Although the
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methods are inappropriate for routine measurements, they remain important for the evaluation of
ET estimates obtained by more indirect methods.
a) Lysometer:
A lysimeter is a measuring device which can be used to measure the amount of actual evapo-
transpiration which is released by plants, usually crops or trees. By recording the amount of
precipitation that an area receives and the amount lost through the soil, the amount of water lost
to evapotranspiration can be calculated. Lysimeters are foremost devices, typically tanks or
containers that define a specific boundary to contain soil water and permit measurement of either
the soil- water balance or the volume of water percolating vertically and/or its quality.
Lysimeters can be broadly defined as percolation lysimeters (sometimes called drainage
lysimeters) or weighing lysimeters. Both can serve the purposes of determining the soil-water
balance, the vertical percolation flux (drainage), and the chemistry of the percolating water
b) Pan evaporation
These are pans containing water which are exposed to the atmosphere. Loss of water by
evaporation from these pans are measured at regular intervals. Meteorological data such as
humidity, wind velocity, air and water temperatures, and precipitation are also measured and
noted along with evaporation.An evaporation pan holds the water used during the process. The
observer notes the quantity of water at certain weather conditions and notes the change in the
quantity. Pans occur in different sizes and shapes, the most common being circular and square.
“Class A” and the Sunken Colorado Pan are the most common.
Class A Evaporation Pan: The U.S National Weather Service recommends the Class A
evaporation pan. The pan contains cylinder that is 1.207m in diameter and 0.25m in depth. The
pan is placed on a leveled wooden base and is enclosed by a chain-link fence to avoid
interference by animals and insects. The rate of evaporation is determined daily by recording the
depth of water.
The initial quantity of the water is set at exactly two inches; at the end of the day, the water is
then refilled. The amount of water it takes to fill the pan back to two inches is the rate of
evaporation. The Class A Evaporation Pan is ineffective when the level of rainfall is beyond
30mm unless it is emptied several times in a 24 hour period. Past recordings using the pan have
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revealed that areas that experience heavy rainfall in excess of 30mm experience higher rates of
evaporation on a daily basis than months where conditions suitable for evaporations prevail.
When rainfall more than 55 mm is recorded, the pan is likely to overflow.
Figure3. 4: Evaporation Pan
c) Penman’s formula:
In 1948, Penman combined the energy balance with the mass transfer method and derived an
equation to compute the evaporation from an open water surface from standard
climatological records of sunshine, temperature, humidity and wind speed. This so-called
combination method was further developed by many researchers and extended to cropped
surfaces by introducing resistance factors.The resistance nomenclature distinguishes
between aerodynamic resistance and surface resistance factors. The surface resistance
parameters are often combined into one parameter, the 'bulk' surface resistance parameter
which operates in series with the aerodynamic resistance. The surface resistance, rs,
describes the resistance of vapour flow through stomata openings, total leaf area and soil
surface. The aerodynamic resistance, ra, describes the resistance from the vegetation upward
and involves friction from air flowing over vegetative surfaces. Although the exchange
process in a vegetation layer is too complex to be fully described by the two resistance
factors, good correlations can be obtained between measured and calculated
evapotranspiration rates, especially for a uniform grass reference surface.
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Where:
Rn is the net radiation, G is the soil heat flux, (es - ea) represents the vapour pressure
deficit of the air, ra is the mean air density at constant pressure, cp is the specific heat of
the air, ∆ represents the slope of the saturation vapour pressure temperature relationship,
γis the psychrometric constant, and γs and γa are the (bulk) surface, ρa dry air density
(kg m−3) and aerodynamic resistances.
d) Hargreaves method:
Hargreaves developed a method in 1985 to estimate evapotranspiration is an empirical
relation based on air temperature and radiation. The Hargreaves method is given by:
ETo = 0.0023 RA Td0.5 (Tm+ 17.8)
Where:
ETo is reference evapotranspiration (mm day-1), RAis extra-terrestrial radiation (mm day-
1)
, Tdis difference between maximum and minimum temperature ( oC), Tmis mean
temperature (oC).
4 INFILTRATION
4.1 Process of infiltration
Infiltration is the process of water entry into a soil from rainfall, or irrigation. Soil water
movement (percolation) is the process of water flow from one point to another point within the
soil. Infiltration rate is the rate at which the water actually infiltrates through the soil during a
storm and it must be equal the infiltration capacities or the rainfall rate, whichever is lesser. In
other word infiltration rate of soil is the velocity at which water can seep into it.It is usually
measured by the depth (in mm) of the water layer that can enter the soil in one hour. An
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infiltration rate of 15 mm/hour means that a water layer of 15 mm on the soil surface, will take
one hour to infiltrate. In dry soil, water infiltrates rapidly. This is called the initial infiltration
rate. As more water replaces the air in the pores, the water from the soil surface infiltrates more
slowly and eventually reaches a steady rate. This is called the basic infiltration rate
Infiltration capacityis the maximum rate at which a soil in any given condition is capable of
absorbing water. The rate of infiltration is primarily controlled by the rate of soil water
movement below the surface and the soil water movement continues after an infiltration event, as
the infiltrated water is redistributed. Infiltration and percolation play a key role in surface runoff,
groundwater recharge, evapotranspiration, soil erosion, and transport of chemicals in surface and
subsurface waters.
4.2 Factors affecting infiltration

The process of infiltration is affected by many different factors. Important factors are the
following:
Soil Texture and Structure:It is already made clear that the water cannot continue to enter soil
more rapidly than it is transmitted downward. The conditions at the surface, therefore, cannot
increase infiltration unless the transmission capacity of the soil profile is adequate.The continuity
of non-capillary or large pores provides easy paths for percolating water. If the subsoil formation
has coarse texture the water may infiltrate into the soil so quickly that no water will be left for
runoff even if rainfall is quite heavy. On the contrary clayey soils after soaking some water in the
initial stages of the rainfall may swell considerably. It makes the soil almost watertight and
infiltration may get reduced to practically negligible extent.
Soil type Basic infiltration rate (mm/hour)

sand >30
sandy loam 20 - 30
loam 10 - 20
clay loam 5 - 10
clay 1-5
Table 4. 1: Infiltration rate affected by soil type
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Conditions at Soil Surface:Even if the subsoil has excellent under drainage but at the surface
soil pores are sealed due to turbid water or by in wash of fine soil particles it may prevent entry
of water into the soil and infiltration rate will be low.
Soil-Moisture Content:When the soil is fairly dry the rate of infiltration into the soil is quite
high. The infiltration rate diminishes as the soil-moisture storage capacity is exhausted. After this
infiltration rate equals transmission rate. The rate of infiltration in early phases of a rainfall will
be less if the soil pores are still filled from previous rain storm.
Type of Vegetative Cover:Vegetative cover affects surface entry of water significantly. The
vegetation or mulches protect the soil surface from impact of rain drops. The lengthy and
extensive root system penetrate the soil and increases its porosity. Organic matter from crops
promotes a crumbly by structure and improves soil permeability. Forest canopy protects soil
surface whereas row crops provide less protection to soil.
Soil Temperature:If saturated soil mass gets frozen due to severe low temperature it becomes
nearly impermeable. It affects the infiltration.
Human Activities on Soil Surface: If the soil surface gets compacted due to construction of
roads, operation of tractors and other farm implements and machinery the porosity of the soil is
decreased. As a result bigger pores are almost eliminated making soil impermeable. It reduces
the infiltration rates appreciably.
4.3 Measuring of infiltration rate

Infiltration rate is measured by instrument called infiltrometer. There are four types of
infiltrometers: the ponded-water ring or cylinder type, the sprinkler type, the tension type, and
the furrow type. From these four type of infiltrometers cylindrical type is more common. These
infiltrometers are usually metal rings with a diameter of 30 to 100 cm and a height of 20 cm. The
ring is driven into the ground about 15 cm, water is applied inside the ring with a constant-head
device, and intake measurements are recorded until a constant rate of infiltration is attained. To
help eliminate the effect of lateral spreading use a double-ring infiltrometer, which is a ring
infiltrometer with a second larger ring around it.
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The most common method to measure the infiltration rate is by a field test using a cylinder or
ring infiltrometer. In this method we use two ring (inner and outer ring) together.
Figure 4. 1: The cylindrical ring

4.4 Infiltration
equations
Infiltration is a component of the general mass balance hydrologic budget. There are several
ways/models are commonly used to estimate volume and/or the rate of infiltration of water into a
soil. The validity of each of these models should be viewed relative to their consistency with the
theoretical infiltration process. The excellent methods are the SCS Method, Darcy’s Law, or
most frequently used in engineering practice are Horton Model and Green-Ampt.
4.4.1 Horton infiltration model

In 1993, Horton suggested that during the early part of a storm (rainfall event) will produce
capacity to rapidly declined. Plus, it also tends towards an approximately constant value after a
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couple of hours for the remainder of the event. It is an empirical formula that infiltration capacity
starts at a constant rate (fₒ) and is decreasing exponentially with time (t). When the soil saturation
level reaches a certain value, the rate of infiltration will level off to the rate fc, which is the
minimum asymptotic value of infiltration. In addition, this model is frequently used in
engineering practice.
Where,
fp = the infiltration rate capacity potential (depth/time) at some time (mm/hr or cm/hr)
fc = a final or equilibrium infiltration capacity (mm/hr or cm/hr)
fₒ = the initial infiltration capacity (mm/hr or cm/hr)
k = a constant representing the rate of decrease in the infiltration capacity (decay coefficient)
and depends on soil characteristics (1/time)
t = time
Figure 4. 2: Horton model curve
Horton Infiltration Model (Cumulative Infiltration): If water not continuously ponded above
the soil column, the potential
infiltration fp can be
expressed in terms of the
cumulative infiltration, F (t),
which is the total amount of
water entering the soil.
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Horton Infiltration Model (Ponding Time): Time of ponding according to Horton’s model is
given by the following equation:
4.4.2 Green - Ampt model

Green-Ampt Model is based on a simple conceptualization of an infiltrating front in a dry soil
with an approximated sharp interface. It is physically based semi-empirical model was first
proposed by Green and Ampt (1911) and was put on a firm physical basis by Philip (1954). It
sometimes called delta function model is today one of the most realistic model of infiltration.
This sharp interface is the wetting front that divides the soil of moisture content θᵢ below from
saturated soil with moisture content of θs (equals porosity). The wetting front has penetrated a
depth of L in time t since infiltration began. Water is ponded to a depth of H.Apparently, total
cumulative infiltration after time t (since infiltration began) equals:
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In addition, we can implement Darcy’s Law where the infiltration rate depends on hydraulic
conductivity of the soil along with the head difference, or
Cumulative infiltration F (t) in Green-Ampt model is given by the following equation:
While infiltration rate f (t) is given by the following equation:
The above equation used under the assumption that water is ponded to a small but negligible
depth on the soil surface. When water is applied at rate higher than K (i>K) of the soil, ponding
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occurs. To find ponding time and the cumulative infiltration at ponding (using Green-Ampt
model) use the following equations:
Example:
Compute the infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration after one hour of infiltration into a soil
that initially had a water content of 0.1 and a saturated water content of 0.44. The average
wetting front capillary pressure head is 16.7 cm and the hydraulic conductivity is 0.65 cm/hr.
4.5 Infiltration indices

Infiltration index is defined as the average rate of water loss through infiltration, such that the
volume of rainfall excess is equal to the volume of direct runoff. There are two types of
infiltration indices:
ɸ-Index:It is defined as the rate of rainfall, at which the volume of excess rainfall is being equal
to the direct runoff volume. The ɸ-index incorporates the initial loss of rain water, caused by
infiltration phenomenon. It is predicted by counting as a constant rate of infiltration capacity.
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Figure 4. 3: The relationship between ɸ index and runoff
The ɸ-index also demarcates the limit of rainfall intensity producing the runoff over the
catchment, e.g., if rainfall intensity is less than the ɸ-index of the soil, then there is no runoff and
when rainfall intensity exceeds the ɸ-index, then there resulted the runoff, which is equal to the
difference between rainfall and infiltration during a specified time. The rainfall amount in excess
of ɸ-index is referred as rainfall excess.
Numerically, the ɸ-index may be written as
ɸ index = P-R/ effective time
where P and R are rain fall and run off respectively.
The above formula is valid only if the intensity of rain fall is greater than or equal to ɸ index
W-Index:It is also known as average infiltration rate, is defined as the average rate of infiltration
during the time, when rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity (i.e., maximum
infiltration rate).It is given by the following expression:
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Where:
F = total water lost through infiltration
tr = time during which rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity
P = total amount of rainfall for the duration tr
Q = amount of surface runoff
S = amount of effective surface retention.
In the very wet condition, when infiltration rate of soil approaches to its basic intake rate and
surface retention is at minimum level, then the values of W and ɸ-indexes are almost same.
Under this condition W-index is known as Wmin – index.
5. RUNOFF
5.1. Process of runoff
When rain falls, the first drops of water are intercepted by the leaves and stems of the vegetation.
This is usually referred to as interception storage. As the rain continues, water reaching the
ground surface infiltrates into the soil until it reaches a stage where the rate of rainfall (intensity)
exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. Thereafter, surface puddles, ditches, and other
depressions are filled (depression storage), after which runoff is generated. The infiltration
capacity of the soil depends on its texture and structure, as well as on the antecedent soil
moisture content (previous rainfall or dry season). The initial capacity (of a dry soil) is high but,
as the storm continues, it decreases until it reaches a steady value termed as final infiltration rate.
The process of runoff generation continues as long as the rainfall intensity exceeds the actual
infiltration capacity of the soil but it stops as soon as the rate of rainfall drops below the actual
rate of infiltration.
Rainfall is the primary source of water for runoff generation over the land surface. In common
course of rainfall occurrence over the land surface, a part it is intercepted by the vegetation’s,
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buildings and other objects lying over the land surface; and prevent to reach them on ground
surface, called interception. Some part of rainfall is also stored in the surface depressions,
referred as depression storage, which in due course of time gets infiltrated or evaporated.
When all these losses are satisfied, then excess rainfall moves over the land surface and reaches
to the smaller rills, known as overland flow. The overland flow again builds a greater storage
over the land surface and draining the same into channels/streams is termed as runoff.Thus,
runoff may be defined as that portion of rainfall as well as any other flow, which makes its way
towards the river, stream or oceans etc. Since, runoff is through the channel, stream/or rivers etc.,
therefore, sometimes it is also called as channel flow.
5.2. Types of Runoff

Based on the time delay between the instance of rainfall and generation of runoff, the runoff may
be classified into following three types:
Surface Runoff:It is that portion of rainfall, which enters the stream immediately after the
rainfall. It occurs, when all losses are satisfied and if rain is still continued with the rate greater
than the infiltration rate; then excess water makes a head over the ground surface (surface
detention), which tends to move from one place to another following land gradient, is known as
overland flow. As soon as the overland flow joins to the streams, channels or oceans, is termed
as surface runoff.
Sub-Surface Runoff: That part of rainfall, which first enters into the soil and moves laterally
without joining the water-table to the streams, rivers or oceans, is known as sub-surface runoff or
inter flow. Sometimes sub-surface runoff is also treated under surface runoff due to reason that it
takes very little time to reach the river or channel in comparison to ground water. The sub-
surface runoff is usually referred as interflow.
Base Flow:It is delayed flow, defined as that part of rainfall, which after falling on the ground
surface, infiltrates into the soil and meets to the water-table; and flow to the streams, oceans etc.
The movement of water in this type of runoff is very slow, that is why it is also referred as
delayed runoff. It takes a long time to join the rivers or oceans, say for as years. Sometimes, base
flow is also known as ground water flow. Thus, Total Runoff = Surface runoff (including sub-
surface runoff) + Base flow
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5.3. Factors Affecting Runoff

The runoff rate and its volume from an area, mainly influenced by the following two factors:
(A) Climatic Factors:The climatic factors of the watershed affecting the runoff are mainly
associated to the characteristics of precipitation, which include:
i. Type of Precipitation:
Types of precipitation have great effect on the runoff. For example, a precipitation which occurs
in the form of rainfall, gets start immediately to flow in form of surface flow over the land
surface, depending on its intensity as well as magnitude, while a precipitation which takes place
in the form of snow or hails, the flow of water on ground surface does not take place
immediately, but after melting of the same. During the time interval between occurrence and
their melting, the melted water infiltrates into the soil and results a very little surface runoff
generation.
ii. Rainfall Intensity:

The intensity of rainfall has a dominating effect on runoff yield. If rainfall intensity is greater
than the infiltration rate of the soil, then the surface runoff takes place very shortly, while in case
of low intensity rainfall, there is found a reverse trend of the same. Thus, high intensities rainfall
yield higher runoff and vice-versa.
iii. Duration of Rainfall:

Rainfall duration is directly related to the volume of runoff generation due to the fact that the
infiltration rate of the soil goes on decreasing with the duration of rainfall, till it attains a constant
rate. As result of this, even a mild intensity rainfall lasting for longer duration may yield a
considerable amount of runoff.
iv. Rainfall Distribution:

Runoff magnitude from a watershed depends very much on the distribution of rainfall. The
rainfall distribution for this purpose is expressed by a term “distribution coefficient”, which is
defined as the ratio of maximum rainfall at a point to the mean rainfall of the watershed. For a
given total rainfall, if all other conditions are the same, then greater the value of distribution
coefficient, greater will be the runoff and vice-versa. However, for the same distribution
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coefficient, the peak runoff would be resulted from the storm falling on the lower part of the
basin i.e., near outlet.
v. Direction of Prevailing Wind:

The direction of prevailing wind affects greatly the runoff flow. If the direction of prevailing
wind is same to the drainage system then it has a great influence on the resulting peak flow and
also on the duration of surface flow to reach the outlet. A storm moving in the direction of
stream slope, produces a higher peak in shorter period of time, than a storm moving in opposite
direction.
vi. Other Climatic Factors:

The other climatic factors such as temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity, annual rainfall
etc., affect the water losses from the watershed to a great extent; and thus the runoff is also
affected, accordingly. If the losses are more, then runoff will be less; and vice-versa.
(B) Physiographic Factors: Physiographic factors of watershed consist of both the watershed as
well as channel characteristics. Different characteristics of watershed and channel which affect
the runoff, are listed below:
i. Size of Watershed:
Regarding size of watershed, if all other factors including the depth and intensity of rainfall are
same, then two watersheds irrespective of their size will produce about the same amount of
runoff. However, a large watershed takes longer time for draining the runoff to the outlet, as
result the peak flow expressed as depth becomes smaller and vice-versa.
ii. Shape of Watershed:

The shape of watershed has a great effect on runoff. The watershed shape is generally expressed
by the terms “form factor” and “compactness coefficient”. The form factor may be defined as the
ratio of average width to the axial length of the watershed, expressed as:
Axial length (l) of watershed is the distance between outlet and remotest point of the watershed.
Average width (B) is obtained by dividing the area (A) with the axial length (l) of the watershed.
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Thus, form factor,
The compactness coefficient (Cf) of watershed is the ratio of perimeter of watershed to the
circumference of a circle, whose area is equal to the area of the watershed, is expressed as:
Regarding watershed’s shape there are two types of watershed’s shape are very common, in
which one is fan shape and other is fern shape. The fan shape watershed tends to produce higher
peak rate of runoff very early than the fern shape, due to the fact that in former one all parts of
the watershed contribute the runoff to the outlet simultaneously, comparatively in little period of
time than the fern shape watershed.
iii. Slope of Watershed:

The slope of watershed has an important role over runoff, however its effect is complex. It
controls the time of overland flow and time of concentration of drainage basin which provide a
cumulative effect on resulting peak runoff. For example, in case of a sloppy watershed, the time
to reach the flow at outlet is less, because of greater runoff velocity, which results into formation
of peak runoff very soon; and vice-versa.
iv. Orientation of Watershed:

This factor affects the evaporation and transpiration losses from the area by making influence on
the amount of heat to be received from the sun. The north or south orientation of watershed
affects the time of melting of collected snow. In mountainous watersheds, the parts located on
the wind ward side of the mountain receive high intensity rainfall, resulting into more runoff
yield, while the parts of watershed lying towards leeward side have reverse effect.
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v. Land Use:
The land use pattern and land management practices used have significant effect on the runoff
yield. For example, an area which is under forest cover, where a thick layer of mulch of leaves
and grasses etc. has been accumulated, there forms a little surface runoff due to the fact that
more rain water is absorbed by the soil. While in a barren field, where no any cover is available,
a reverse effect is obtained.
vi. Soil Moisture:

The magnitude of runoff yield depends on the amount of moisture present in the soil at the time
of rainfall. If rain occurs over the soil which has more moisture, then infiltration rate becomes
very less, which results into more runoff yield. Similarly, if the rain occurs after a long dry spell,
when soil becomes dry, then a huge amount of rain water is absorbed by the soil. In this
condition even intense rain may fail to produce appreciable runoff. But on the other hand if the
rain occurs in a close succession, as in the rainy season, then runoff yield gets sufficiently
increased.
vii. Soil Type:

In the watershed, surface runoff is greatly influenced by the soil type, as loss of water from the
soil is very much dependent on infiltration rate, which varies with the types of soil.
viii. Topographic Characteristics:

Topographic characteristics include those features of watershed, which create effect on runoff. It
is mainly undulating nature of the watershed. Undulate land yields greater runoff than the flat
land, because of the reason that runoff water gels additional power to flow due to slope of the
surface; and tittle time to infiltrate the water into soil. Regarding channel characteristics to
describe their effects on runoff, the channel cross-section, roughness, storage and channel
density are mainly considered. These also have significant effect on runoff yield.
ix. Drainage Density:

The drainage density is defined as the ratio of the total channel length in the watershed to the
total area of watershed. It is expressed as:
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A watershed having greater D.D. includes formation of peak runoff very shortly to that of the
lesser D.D. watershed.
5.4. Hydrograph and its components

Hydrograph is a graphical or tabular presentation of instantaneous runoff/discharge rate against
time. Sometimes, it is also known as storm hydrograph, flood hydrograph or simply hydrograph.
A hydrograph presents the total runoff (direct + base flow) occurring at a given time. It also
shows the distribution of total runoff with respect to time at a certain point of measurement. All
hydrographs have three characteristics regions viz., - rising limb, crest segment or peak point and
falling limb. The hydrographs are mainly in two types, i.e., – single peaked and multi-peaked.
The multi-peaked hydrograph is also known as complex hydrograph.
Crest segment
Rising Limb
Falling Limb
Figure 4. 4: Schematic diagram of hydrograph
5.4.1. Components of Hydrograph:

Rising Limb:It is also known as concentration curve, is the ascending portion of hydrograph. Its
slope steepness depends on the rise of discharge due to gradual building of storage in drainage
channels as well as over the watershed surface. The shape of rising limb is dependent on the
storm and watershed characteristics, both. In general, the shape of rising limb is being concave
upwards and rises slowly in the early stage of the flow, but as the storm continues and more and
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more flow from distant apart reaches to the outlet of watershed, the rising limb rises very rapidly
up to the peak point of the hydrograph. The time base of hydrograph is fixed by the duration of
outflow. In a simple hydrograph, the extent of rising limb is comparatively shorter than the
falling limb, as a result the area below this limb is less to that of the falling limb.
Crest Segment:This segment is one of the very important parts of the hydrograph, as it contains
the peak flow. It is extended from the point of inflection on the rising limb to a similar inflection
point on the falling limb. The peak flow occurs, when various parts of the watershed yield the
runoff simultaneously to the outlet. Generally, in large watersheds the peak flow occurs, when
rainfall gets stop. The time interval from center of mass of rainfall to the peak is controlled by
the storm and watershed characteristics. Hydrographs of some watersheds resulted from a single
and relatively short duration rainfall, have two or more peaks. Multi-peak, i.e. complex
hydrographs can also occur, when two or more storms occur in a close succession.
Falling Limb:It is the descending portion of hydrograph, is also known as recession limb. The
falling limb is extended from the point of inflection at the end of crest segment to the
commencement of natural ground water flow. It represents the withdrawal of water from the
storage build up in the watershed during initial phase of hydrograph. The point of inflection on
the falling limb of the hydrograph indicates the stage, when rainfall has been stopped and
channel flow is due to storage made over the watershed. The shape of falling limb is dependent
only on the physical features of the channel; and is independent of the storm characteristics.
Generally, falling limb is in convex shape due to continuous decrease in runoff volume.
Variation in areal rainfall distribution minutely affects the shape of recession curve. Unusually
high rainfall intensity results the rapid recession, while delayed recession is due to concentration
of rainfall in upper portion of the basin.
5.4.2. Type of Hydrograph

This classification of hydrographs is a partial list, suitable for use in watershed work.
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o Natural hydrograph: obtained directly from the flow records of a gaged stream.
o Synthetic hydrograph: obtained by using watershed parameters and storm characteristics
to simulate a natural hydrograph.
o Unit hydrograph: a discharge hydrograph resulting from 1 inch of direct runoff
distributed uniformly over the watershed resulting from a rainfall of a specified duration.
o Dimensionless unit hydrograph (DUH):a hydrograph developed to represent several unit
hydrographs; plotted using the ratio of the basic unit’s time to peak and peak rate; also
called an index hydrograph.
5.4.3. Unit hydrograph
It is a typical hydrograph of direct runoff which gets generated from one centimeter of effective
rainfall falling at a uniform rate over the entire drainage basin uniformly during a specific
duration. Effective rainfall is that portion of rainfall which fully contributes towards direct
runoff. Therefore, unit hydrograph can also be defined as the hydrograph of a drainage basin
which gives one centimeter of direct runoff from a rain storm of specific duration. The theory of
unit hydrograph is based on certain assumptions.
i. The effective rainfall is uniformly distributed over the entire drainage basin.
ii. The effective rainfall occurs uniformly within its specified duration.
iii. The effective rainfalls of equal (unit) duration will produce hydrographs of direct runoff
having same or constant time base.
iv. The ordinates of the direct runoff hydrographs having same time base (i.e., hydrographs
due to effective rainfalls of different intensity but equal duration) are directly
proportional to the total amount of direct runoff given by each hydrograph. This
important assumption is called principle of linearity or proportionality or superposition.
v. The hydrograph of runoff from a given drainage basin resulting, from a given pattern of
rainfall reflects all the combined physical characteristics of the basin. In other words the
hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from a given pattern of effective rainfall will remain
invariable irrespective of its time of occurrence. This assumption is called principle of
time invariance.
Limitations of Unit Hydrograph Theory:
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i. In theory, the principle of unit hydrograph is applicable to a drainage basin of any size. In
practice, however, uniformly distributed effective rainfall rarely occurs on large areas.
Also on large areas effective rainfall is very rarely uniform at all locations, within its
specified duration. The unit hydrograph method cannot be applied when appreciable
portion of storm precipitation falls as snow because snow-melt runoff is governed mainly
by temperature changes.
ii. Also when snow covered area in the drainage basin is significant the unit hydrograph
method becomes inapplicable. The reason is that the storm rainfall gets mixed up with the
snow pack and may produce delayed runoff differently under different conditions of
snow pack.
iii. The physical basin characteristics change with seasons, man-made structures in the basin,
conditions of flow etc. Obviously the principle of time invariance is really valid only
when the time and condition of the drainage basin are specified.
iv. It is commonly seen that no two rain storms have same pattern in space and time. But it
is not practicable to derive separate unit hydrograph for each possible time- intensity
pattern. Therefore, in addition to limiting drainage basin area up to 5000 km 2 if storms of
shorter duration say 1/3 to 1/4 of peaking time are selected it is seen that the runoff
patterns do not vary drastically.
v. The principle of linearity is also not completely valid. This is so because due to
variability in proportion of surface, subsurface and groundwater runoff components
during smaller and larger storms of same duration, the maximum ordinate (peak) of the
unit hydrograph derived from smaller storm is smaller than the one derived from larger
storm. magnitude.
vi. The unit hydrograph can be used theoretically to construct a flood hydrograph resulting
from a storm having same unit duration. Obviously it necessitates construction of several
unit hydrographs to cover different durations of storms. In practice however it is seen that
a tolerance of ± 25% in unit hydrograph duration is acceptable. Thus a 2 hour unit
hydrograph can be applied to storms of 1.5 to 2.5 hours duration.
5.5. Application of Unit hydrograph
The unit hydrograph theory has several advantages to its credit which can be summarized as
below:
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i. Flood hydrograph can be calculated with the help of very short record of data.
ii. In addition to peak flow unit hydrograph also gives total volume of runoff and its time
distribution.
iii. The unit hydrograph pro
iv. cedure can be computerized easily to facilitate calculations.
v. It is very useful in checking the reliability of flows obtained by using statistical methods.
5.6. Base flow separation

Baseflow is a portion of stream flow that is not directly generated from the excess rainfall during
a storm event. In other words, this is the flow that would exist in the stream without the
contribution of direct runoff from the rainfall. Estimation of base flow and direct runoff is useful
to understand the hydrology of a watershed, including interaction of surface and sub-surface
water, role of urbanization on runoff generation and the health of aquatic habitat within a stream.
Base flow is generally regarded as sourced from groundwater discharging into streams. It is the
ground water contribution to stream flow. In some cases, base flow is also considered as the
result of natural processes such as delayed flow through wetlands and lakes, and anthropogenic
processes such as flow regulation and wastewater discharge. Runoff can be considered as the
non-base flow portion of the total flow hydrograph.
5.6.1. Base flow

separation by
constant discharge
method
The equation of base flow

is:
Q= Q
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QBF= Q, t<= ts
QBF =Qs,ts<=t<=te
QBF= Q, t>=te
Example, separate the amount of base flow from the following table
t(hr) QT(cfs)
0 100
1 90
2 85
3 150
4 200
5 148
6 113
7 50
5.7. Estimation of runoff

Estimates of runoff are made for two reasons:
1. They are essential guides in the decision of which system of runoff measurement to use, either
volumetric or continuous. After this decision has been made, these estimates must be used to
determine the size and capacity (peak flow and flow volume) of the equipment.
2. If the measurement of runoff is not to be undertaken, then calculations must be made to

estimate the design specifications of bunds, channels etc. that are to be used in the mechanics of
water harvesting and field layouts.
Several method can use to estimate the amount of runoff from water shade or catchment. Rational
method
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The rational method has been in use for over 150 years and remains the most widely used
method to estimate peak flows from urban and small rural ungauged catchments. It relates peak
flow (m3
/s) to catchment area (km2), rainfallintensity (mm/hr) and runoff coefficient. It has the form of:
Q = CiA
Where Q is the peak flow rate, i is the rainfall intensity, A is catchment, area and C is the runoff
coefficient.
The method is based on the assumptions that rainfall intensity and storm duration isuniform over
the area of study; storm duration must be equal to the time ofconcentration of the catchment; and
that the runoff coefficient is constant during a storm. The above equation is divided by 360 for SI
units.
The rainfall intensity i is the amount of rain that has fallen per unit of time. The averagerainfall
intensity i can be read from an intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curve of thecatchment of
interest for duration equal to the time of concentration (hr) and specifiedstorm return period.
Rainfall intensity varies with time during a given storm fordifferent geographical regions and
also for different locations specific to a region,resulting in different rainfall distributions.
The time of concentration is defined as the travel time for a runoff to get from the
mosthydraulically remote point of the contributing catchment area to the point where peakflow is
estimated. It can be determined using empirical formulas such as the Kirpich’sequation (shown
below), Kerby's Equation, or Kinematic wave equationand also from hydrographs. The
calculated time of concentration is used to determineaverage rainfall intensity to be applied
uniformly over the catchment to produce its peakflow for a specified return period using rational
formula.
Tc = 0.0195 L0.77 S-0.385
Where Tc is time of concentration in min, L is maximum length of river in m, and
Sis the catchment gradient in m per m (the difference in elevation between the outlets
and the most remote point divided by the length, L).
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5.7.1. Manning’s Equation

When stream cross-section is available, Manning’s equation can be used to determine mean flow
velocity (V) from the equation
V =(1/n) R2/3 S1/2
And Q=A.V
Where, V is mean velocity of flow in m/s, n is Manning’s roughness coefficient, R is hydraulic

mean depth in m given by R= A/P and S is the energy slope, A is area of cross section normal to
flow in m2 and Q is flow in m3/s. Manning’s n-values can be obtained from standard textbook of
hydraulics (Chow, 1970; French, 1986). Assuming different stages (water levels), Q-values
corresponding to the different stages can be found from Manning’s equation for the given stream
section. Stage-discharge curve can be obtained by plotting discharges against corresponding
stages/water levels.
5.7.2. Curve Number Method

The SCS Runoff Curve Number method is developed by the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA) Soil Conservation Service (SCS) and is a method of estimating rainfall
excess from rainfall. The major disadvantages of the method are sensitivity of the method to
Curve Number (CN) values, fixing the initial abstraction ratio, and lack of clear guidance on how
to vary Antecedent Moisture Conditions (AMC). However, the method is used widely and is
accepted in numerous hydrologic studies. SCS assumed that the ratio of actual retention to
potential maximum retention (S) was equal to the ratio of actual runoff (RO) to the potential
maximum runoff (P – Ia).
F/S = RO/ (P-Ia) (1)
After runoff has started, all additional rainfall becomes either runoff or actual retention.
P – Ia = RO + F
F = P - Ia –RO (2)
By combining equation (1) and (2)
RO = (P – Ia)2/(P-Ia+S) (3)
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The following relationship between two parameters (Ia and S) was found by SCS from recorded
rainfall runoff data relevant to large number of small catchments.
Ia = 0.2S (4)
By combining equation (3) and (4)
RO = (P-0.2S) 2/ (P+0.8S) (5)
Equation (5) is the rainfall runoff relationship used in the Curve Number method. The potential
maximum retention (S) mainly represents infiltration occurring after runoff has started. This is
controlled by the rate of infiltration at the soil surface or by the rate of water transmission in the
soil profile or by the water storage capacity of the soil profile, whichever the limiting factor. The
potential maximum retention S can be converted to Curve Number (CN) in order to make the
operations of interpolating, averaging and weighting more easily.
CN = 25400/ (254+S) (6)
Since S can theoretically vary between zero and infinity, the Curve Number can range from one
hundred to zero.
CN has a range from 30 to 100; lower numbers indicate low runoff potential while larger
numbers are for increasing runoff potential. The lower the curve number, the more permeable the
soil is. As can be seen in the curve number equation, runoff cannot begin until the initial
abstraction has been met. It is important to note that the curve number methodology is an event-
based calculation, and should not be used for a single annual rainfall value, as this will
incorrectly miss the effects of antecedent moisture and the necessity of an initial abstraction
threshold
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6. STREAM-FLOW MEASUREMENT
Stream flow, or channel runoff, is the flow of water in streams, rivers, and other channels, and is
a major element of the water cycle. It is one component of the runoff of water from the land to
waterbodies, the other component being surface runoff. Water flowing in channels comes from
surface runoff from adjacent hillslopes, from groundwater flow out of the ground, and from
water discharged from pipes. The discharge of water flowing in a channel is measured using
stream gauges or can be estimated by the Manning equation. The record of flow over time is
called a hydrograph. Flooding occurs when the volume of water exceeds the capacity of the
channel.Stream flow is a measurement of the amount of water flowing through a stream or river
over a fixed period of time. Stream flow cannot be measured directly, say, by plunging an
instrument into a river. Instead, it must be calculated in a process known as stream gaging.
6.1. Selection of site for stream gauging station

Before a stream-gauging station is constructed, ageneral reconnaissance is made so that the
mostsuitable site may be selected. The reconnaissance isgreatly facilitated by an examination of
geologic,topographic and other maps of the area. Tentativesites are often indicated on the maps.
Aerial photographs, when available, are especially helpful in thisrespect.Each tentative site is
given a critical examinationin the field. Particular attention is paid to
a) The hydraulic conditions necessary for maintaining afixed and permanent relation between
stage and discharge.
b) The possible access to the site at allseasons of the year, and
c) The availability of acompetent local gauge reader.
Also of importance isto locate a suitable cross section for use when making discharge
measurements.
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6.2. Methods of measuring stream flow
6.2.1. Slope-area method

The slope-area method consists of using the slope of the water surface in a uniform reach of
channel and the average cross-sectional area of that reach to give a rate of discharge. The
discharge may be computed from the Manning formula:
Q = (1.486/n)ARh2/3S1/2
where:
Q = discharge (ft3/s)
A = mean area of the channel cross section (ft2)
Rh = mean hydraulic radius of the channel (ft)
S = energy slope of the flow
n = a roughness factor depending on the character of the channel lining
The slope, may be determined by dividing the difference in the water surface elevations at the
two ends of the reach by the length of the reach. A gage point, carefully referenced to a common
datum level, should be placed on each bank of the channel and in the center of the reach, in
stilling wells if possible.The hydraulic radius, Rh, is defined as the area of the cross section
divided by its wetted perimeter. Where the channel or canal is of regular cross section, and the
depths at the ends of the course are equal, the area and the wetted perimeter will be constant
through-out the course. In irregular channels, the area and the wetted perimeter at several cross
sections will be required, and a mean value will be used in computing the hydraulic radius. The
factor, n, depends on the character of the channel. It may vary from 0.010, where conditions
approaching the ideal are maintained, to 0.060, where the channel is strewn with stones and
debris or is about one-third full of vegetation.
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6.2.2. Salt-concentration method.

The salt dilution method is a simple and practical technique for measuring the discharge of
mountainous streams where turbulence is high and flow does not exceed 5m3/s. The optimal flow
for this measurement method is 1-2m3/s. The technique is based on the principle that a given
amount of salt is diluted more by a large amount of water than by a small amount. This means
that the higher the discharge the more diluted will be salt that is placed in the water upstream.
The salt dilution method involves injecting (inserting) a known amount of salt into a stream. This
process is technically known as slug injection. The salt acts as a tracer to measure the discharge.
The concentration of dissolved salt is measured downstream at a point where it has fully mixed
with the stream water.
The following conditions are needed for the salt dilution method to be used accurately:
 Stream discharge is constant during the measurement period;

 All the injected salt passes the measurement point without any of it being absorbed or lost
in any way;
 T\here are no ponds or calm zones or other conditions that prevent the salt from being
evenly dispersed in the stream; and
 There are no livestock bathing in the stream whose urine and other body fluids (sweat)
could cause fluctuations in the conductivity of the water, which is used to measure the
discharge.
6.2.3. Bucket and Stopwatch method

A very easy method to estimate discharge is to simply measure the time it takes to fill a container
of a known volume. This method only works for systems with fairly low flow volume. Its main
limitation is that the discharge must fall from a pipe or ditch in such a way that the bucket can be
placed underneath it to capture all the discharge. Any size bucket can be used as long as it does
not fill up too fast to get an accurate measurement.
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Equipment Needed
Container to fill of known volume, Timer (stopwatch), Paper and pencil for record keeping
Procedure
1. Locate the site’s discharge pipe. If discharge occurs via a channel, then a temporary dam may
need to be placed across the channel with the discharge directed through a single outlet pipe.
2. Place the container of a known volume (e.g., a 1 or 5 gallon bucket) directly under pipe. All
of the discharge should flow into the container. Note: The 5-gallon line on the bucket may need
to be measured and marked ahead of time.
3. Using a stopwatch, time how long it takes to fill the container.
4. Repeat this process three times to obtain an average.
Example Calculation
A 5 gallon clean paint bucket was placed under the spout of a discharge pipe. The bucket filled
up in 15 seconds, 18 seconds and 14 seconds.
Calculate average time:
Add the three recorded times together and divide by three to obtain the average fill time.
Average time = (15 + 18 + 14)/3 = 15.7 seconds
Convert average time in seconds to minutes:
Divide average time by 60 seconds per minute to obtain minutes.
Average time = 15.7 sec/60 = 0.26 minutes
Calculate the site discharge:
Divide the volume of the container (gallons) by the average time needed to fill the
container (minutes).
Discharge = 5 gal/0.26minutes = 19.2 gallons per minute (gpm)
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6.2.4. Area-velocity methods

If discharge from the site flows through an open ditch or channel, another fairly simple method
to use is the float method. This method requires the measurement and calculation of the cross-
sectional area of the channel as well as the time it takes an object to “fl oat” a designated
distance.
Equipment Needed
 Measuring tape
 Markers (flagging tape, cones, etc.)
 Timer (stopwatch)
 Float (an orange or plastic bottle half fi lled with water)
 Paper and pencil for record keeping
 Waders or boots
Procedures
1. Estimate the cross-sectional area of the channel. For a rectangular shaped channel, a simple
way to do this is to multiply the bottom width (m) of the channel by the depth (m) of the
discharge. This is the cross-sectional area (m2).
2. To determine the velocity of the discharge, mark off a 25 to 100 m long section of the channel
that includes the part where you measured the cross-section. The length youchoose will be
dependent upon the speed of the water. In many channels, 25 m would be too short a distance
because the float would travel too fast to get an accurate time estimate. Gently release the float
into the channel slightly upstream from the beginning of the section. Measure the amount of time
it takes the “float” to travel the marked section. Repeat this process at least three times and
calculate the average time.
3. Compute the velocity (m/s) by dividing the length of the section (m) by the time (s) it took the
float to move through the section.
Example Calculation
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A rectangular shaped channel is 1 foot wide and average depth in the channel is measured to be
0.4 feet deep. For a 50 feet long section, an orange traveled from one end to the other in 57
seconds, 48 seconds and 64 seconds.
Calculate cross-sectional area:
Multiply the width of the channel by the depth (in feet).
Cross-sectional area = 1 ft x 0.4 ft = 0.4 ft2
Calculate average time:
Add the three recorded times together and divide by three to obtain the averagefill time.
Average time = (57 s + 48 s + 64 s)/3 = 56.3 s
Calculate velocity:
Divide the distance the fl oat traveled by the average time.
Velocity = 50 ft/ 56.3s = 0.89 fps
Calculate discharge in feet per second:
Multiply the velocity (fps) by the cross-sectional area (ft2) and by a correction factor
(0.8).
This correction factor is needed to take into account the different speeds in the water
column. Water fl ows faster closer to the surface (where the orange floated) and slower
near the channel bottom.
Discharge = 0.4 ft2 x 0.89 fps x 0.8 = 0.29 cfs
Convert discharge from feet per second to gallons per minute:
Discharge (gpm) = 0.29 cfs x 448.83
Discharge = 130 gpm
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6.2.5. Current Meter Gaugings

A current meter is oceanographic device for flow measurement by mechanical, tilt, acoustical or
electrical means.
Selecting a Site
Measurements should be taken just upstream from where discharge from the site enters the
stream. The site should be safely accessible and should be in a section of the stream that is free
fl owing. Other considerations:
Stream should be straight enough to have uniform form.
The flow should not be affected by tributaries or tides.
There should not be any side channels so that all the water flows through the main channel.
Areas where there are large boulders, logs, or thick brush which can create eddies, slack water,
turbulence or disturbed flow should be avoided.
Equipment needed
 Measuring tape
 Meter
 Top-setting rod (if available) or measuring stick
 Paper and pencil for record keeping Waders
1. Tighten a measuring tape across the stream at right angles to the flow. It should be snug and
not sag in the middle.
2. Measure the total stream width and record this measurement.
3. Divide the total stream width into equal segments. If the stream is less than 10 feet wide, use
½ foot intervals. For streams greater than 10 feet, use 1 foot or greater intervals.
4. Step out to the first measuring point and position the rod. Stand downstream from the
measuring tape with the rod next to the tape. The rod should be held vertically, the meter should
face upstream and you should be standing off to the side or behind the meter.
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5. Record the distance to the bank. Measure total stream depth and record this depth. Multiply
the total depth by 0.6 and set the propeller at this depth. (Note: 0.6 times the total depth is
considered the point of average discharge in a spot that is less than 2 feet deep. If the depth is
greater than 2 feet, two different velocity measurements are required one at 0.2 times the depth
and one at 0.8 times the depth.) Read and record the velocity at this depth. (Note: If your meter is
attached to a “top setting rod” the propeller can be easily set at this 0.6 depth without calculation
by you. Directions on using a top setting rod should be provided by the manufacturer.)
6. Move to the next measuring point and repeat the process. (Note: The standard method is to
obtain three velocity measurements at each point and average them.) Make sure to record the
distance to the bank, the total stream depth and the velocity at the 0.6 depth for each point across
the stream. See Table 1 for an example of how to record and calculate the data.
7. Stream flow measurements should be collected for a minimum of two separate years.
6.3. Uses of Stream flow measurement

Streamflow information provided many ways and often the information from any give
streamgage is used for not just one of the following but for many of the following purposes.
Water Supply Management: Streamflow information is required to determine how much water
is available in different locations so the citizens can make informed decisions about growth and
to help assure there is an adequate water supply even during periods of drought. Today, the
effects of climate change on the water available could become an issue in certain regions of the
nation, and accurate long-term streamflow information is required to determine what if any
impacts.
Legal Settlements – i.e., water rights, interstate agreements and court decrees: Because of
growing populations, contaminated supplies, and potentially changing supplies, the amount of
water crossing political boundaries has come under much more scrutiny in recent years.
Engineering design:Streamflow information is used for many of our nation's infrastructure

designs- i.e., dams and reservoirs, water treatment plants, and roads, bridges, and culverts. It is
important to have accurate information because to over design is very costly, but to under design
can be even more costly.
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Operations: Most of the nation's reservoirs, rely on streamflow information to know how much
water to release and when to release it, whether for flood control or for aquatic habitat.
Hydropower plants, water transport systems, ecosystem managers and recreational rafters also
rely on streamflow information to regulate the amount and timing of releases
Assessing Impacts – Water Diversions, Changing Land Management & Climate Change:
Major changes in land use can have significant effects on streamflow, as can even more obvious
changes in water use. In the near future it will be the effects of climate change on the amount and
timing of streamflow that will get the most attention.
Flood Planning, Management & Warning Systems: Streamflow information is used by the
National Weather Service (NWS) in making flood forecasts. The streamflow information is used
to check flood model results and to help calibrate the models. The Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) uses streamflow information in map flood prone areas to help
protect citizens from building or developing in areas that have a high probability of being
flooded.
Streamflow Forecasting: To help water management agencies do a more efficient job, more are
relying on computer models to forecast the amount of water that will be available for different
time periods (week, months, seasons). Streamflow information is used to help calibrate the
models and to provide verification checks.
Water Quality Monitoring: Streamflow is a key water quality monitoring parameter that is
measured. Streamflow measurements help monitors assess general water quality conditions and
trends, the movement of contaminants and information is required to determine the load, or
amount, of a contaminant that is moving past a given point - Total Maximum Daily Loads
(TMDLs).
Ecosystem & Recreational Management: Streamflow information is required to determine the

amount and timing of streamflow to assess habitats and to develop stream flow requirements. In
addition, many boaters, swimmers, and fishermen use streamflow information to decide if the
streamflow is appropriate for them to visit their favorite locations.
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7. GROUNDWATER
When rain falls to the ground, some of it flows along the land surface to streams, rivers or lakes,
some moisturizes the ground. Part of this water is used by vegetation; some evaporates and
returns to the atmosphere. Part of the water also seeps into the ground, flows through the
unsaturated zone and reaches the water table, which is an imaginary surface from where the
ground beneath is saturated. That last one is Groundwater: all water found beneath the ground
surface in the saturated zone. Groundwater is contained in what are called ‘aquifers. An
aquifer is a geological formation or part of it, consisting of permeable material capable to
store/yield significant quantities of water. Aquifers can consist of different materials:
unconsolidated sands and gravels, permeable sedimentary rocks such as sandstones or
limestone’s, fractured volcanic and crystalline rocks, etc.
Groundwater can be found almost everywhere. The water table may lie deep or shallow
depending on several factors such as the physical characteristics of the region, the
meteorological conditions and the recharge and exploitation rates. Heavy rains may increase
recharge and cause the water table to rise. But in the other hand, an extended period of dry
weather may cause the water tableto fall.When groundwater reaches an aquifer it does not stand
still. It normally will keep flowing but much slower than before reaching the aquifer. How fast
groundwater flows depends on the characteristics of the aquifer. The direction it moves is
normally from high to lower levels ruled by gravity, unless there is any anthropogenic impact
such as pumping wells. The groundwater will move until it discharges into another aquifer or
another water body like a lake, a river, the ocean or until it is extracted by a well.
To be able to store and yield groundwater, an aquifer needs to have certain physical
characteristics. It needs to have empty space (pores or fractures) where groundwater can be
stored and the spaces need to be connected to allow it to flow through.Groundwater represents
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about 30% of world’s fresh water. From the other 70%, nearly 69% is captured in the ice caps
and mountain snow/glaciers and merely 1% is found in river and lakes. Groundwater counts in
average for one third of the fresh water consumed by humans, but at some parts of the world, this
percentage can reach up to 100%.
7.1. Aquifer formation

Materials which permit water to pass through them easily are said to be permeable and those
which permit water to pass only with difficulty, or not at all, are described as impermeable. A
layer of rock that is sufficiently porous to store water and permeable enough to transmit water
in quantities that can be economically exploited is called an aquifer. Groundwater flow may take
place through the spaces between the grains or through fissures, or by a combination of the two
in, for example, a jointed sandstone or limestone. For any aquifer, distinguishing whether inter-
granular or fissure flow predominates is fundamental to understanding the hydrogeology and to
designing monitoring systems, particularly for point source pollution incidents.
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or

unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater can be extracted using a water well.
The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology.
Related terms include aquitard, which is a bed of low permeability along an aquifer and
aquiclude (aquifuge), which is a solid, impermeable area underlying or overlying an aquifer. If
the impermeable area overlies the aquifer, pressure could cause it to become a confined aquifer.
Sedimentary rock formations are exposed over approximately 70% of theearth’s land surface.
These sedimentary formations are typically hundredsto thousands of meters thick, and they are
underlain by the igneous andmetamorphic rocks that make up the rest of the crust.
7.2. Properties of aquifers
7.2.1. Aquifer materials

Both consolidated and unconsolidated geological materials are importantas aquifers. Of the
consolidated materials (ie. bedrock), sedimentary rocksare the most important because they tend
tohave the highest porositiesand permeability’s.Although most bedrock aquifers are within
sedimentary rock, in someareas igneous or metamorphic rock can be important as aquifers.Much
of the bedrock is also covered with tens to hundreds of metres ofunconsolidated sediments (a.k.a.
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surficial deposits or drift). Theseinclude colluvial materials (deposited from mass wasting)
alluvial materials(deposited by flowing water), glacial deposits and eolian (wind-blown)deposits.
They are “unconsolidated” because they have not been aroundlong enough, and have not been
buried deep enough to have becomelithified.Surficial deposits that are more than a few metres
thick can be veryimportant sources of groundwater, partly because they tend to have quitehigh
porosities and permeabilities, and also because they are amenable forthe development of wells.
7.2.2. Rock properties

From the perspective of hydrogeology the important characteristics ofrocks are how much open
space they have, how well connected thoseopen spaces are, how strong the rocks are, and how
soluble they are. Igneous rocks (i.e. rocks formed from thecooling of magma) are comprised of
tightlyinterlocking crystals - primarily crystals ofsilicate minerals such as quartz, feldspar
andamphibole - which tend to be relativelyinsoluble. In most cases the spaces betweencrystals
are very small. In intrusive igneousrocks these crystals can be quite large (> 1mm), whereas in
volcanic igneous rocks theytend to be much smaller. Some volcanic rockshave vesicular textures
caused by theexsolution of gases. Most intrusive igneousrocks (e.g. granitic rocks) are hard and
strong,and are less likely to become fractured thanother types of rocks. On the other hand,
manyvolcanic rocks are quite well fractured becauseof their relatively rapid cooling or
violentformation.
Sedimentary rocks are formed close to the surface of the earth at relativelylow temperatures and
pressures. Clastic sedimentary rocks are comprisedof weathered and transported fragments of
other rocks and minerals.Depending on the degree of sorting and rounding of those fragments,
andthe extent to which they are cemented together, clastic sedimentary rockscan be quite porous.
Some clastic sedimentary rocks are also relativelysoft and weak, and are easily susceptible to
fracturing. Most sedimentaryrocks also have some bedding features that can enhance porosity.
Chemical sedimentary rocks are comprised of minerals made up ofmaterial originally derived
from other rocks, but transported in solution(such as the Ca2+ and HCO3-that combine to make
calcite). As in igneousrocks, these crystals can be tight and interlocking. On the other hand,some
chemical sedimentary rocks, such as limestone and evaporates, candevelop significant porosity
because of their solubility.Metamorphic rocks form when existing sedimentary or igneous rocks
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getheated to the extent that the existing minerals start to recrystallize into newminerals. Almost
invariably this leads to the development of interlockingtextures with low porosities. Most
metamorphic rocks are comprised of therelatively insoluble silicate minerals.
7.2.3. Porosity
The ratio of openings (voids) to the total volume of a soil or rock is referred to as its porosity.
Porosity is expressed either as a decimal fraction or as a percentage. Thus,
Vt −Vs Vv
n= n=
Vt Vt
where n is porosity as a decimal fraction, Vt is the total volume of a soil or rock sample, VS is
the volume of solids in the sample, and V,, is the volume of openings (voids). If we multiply the
porosity determined with the equation by 100, the result is porosity expressed as a percentage.
Soils are among the most porous of natural materials because soil particles tend to form loose
clumps and because of the presence of root holes and animal burrows. Porosity of
unconsolidated deposits depends on the range in grain size (sorting) and on the shape ofthe rock
particles but not on their size. Fine-grained materials tend to be better sorted and, thus, tend to
have the largest porosities.
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Table: Range of value of porosity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979)
7.2.4. Specific yield and specific retention

Porosity is important in ground-water hydrology because it tells us the maximum amount
ofwater that a rock can contain when it is saturated. However, it is equally important to know
that only a part of this water is available to supply a well or a spring. Hydrologists divide water
in storage in the ground into thepart that will drain under the influence of gravity (called specific
yield) (1) and the part that is retained as a film on rock surfaces and in very small openings
(called specific retention) (2). The physical forces that control specific retention are the same
forces involved in the thickness and moisture content of the capillary,fringeSpecific yield tells
how much water is available for man's use, and specific retention tells how much water remains
in the rock after it is drained by gravity. Types of aquifer
7.2.5. Unconfined aquifer

An unconfined (free, phreatic) aquifer is an aquifer underlain by an impermeable stratum,
but the top of the aquifer consists of soil layers that are permeable enough to provide easy
passage of water, at least in vertical sense. Such an aquifer has a free water table or phreatic
surface.When perforating a hole into the ground until it fills with water, and letting the water
come to rest, the water level in the hole can be observed and it indicates the level of the
water table in the aquifer outside the hole. Many alluvial fans and river plains have
unconfined aquifers in the upper part of the sediment deposits.
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Figure7. 1: Aquifer types
7.2.6. Confined aquifer

A confined (artesian) aquifer is an aquifer bounded both at the bottom and at the top by an
impermeable stratum (aquiclude) and fully filled with water which is usually under (artesian)
pressure. When perforating a hole into the ground until reaching the confined aquifer, one will
see the water level in the hole rise to above the top of the aquifer and perhaps even above the
land surface. In the latter case the water will flow out from the hole over the land surface. In the
upstream part the confined aquifer gradually changes into an unconfined aquifer.
7.2.7. Semi-confined aquifer

A semi-confined aquifer is an aquifer underlain by an impermeable stratum and bounded at the
top by soil layers of relatively low permeability (hydraulic conductivity), especially in horizontal
sense. These layers form the semi-confining layer (the aquitard) in which a free water table is
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found. The flow of water in the top layer is mainly vertical while the horizontal flow is
negligible. Semi-confined aquifers are often found in river delta's and coastal plains.
7.3. Water table

The water table is a fundamental reference surface in the study of groundwater. It tends to follow
the ground surface, rising under hills and falling at valleys, but the gradient of the water table is
usually much less than that of the ground surface. Under hills the water table is usually at greater
depths below the surface than it is below valleys. Where the rocks are very permeable, water can
flow through them easily, so the water table will be flatter. Where the water table intersects the
ground surface, groundwater will flow out as springs, or directly to streams or rivers.
7.4. Ground water flow

The mathematical expression of groundwater flow was first developed in 1856 by a French
hydraulics engineer named Henri Darcy. The empirical relationship that now bears his name is a
universally accepted method in assessing groundwater flow. Darcy’s equation is used to
calculate the velocity and volumetric rate of flow through a porous medium such as gravel or
sand.Darcy’s equation states that the rate of flow through a porous medium depends on a
physical property of the medium, called its hydraulic conductivity, and is also proportional to the
slope of the water surface or hydraulic gradient. The hydraulic gradient is a measure of the
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energy available to overcome the resistance to flow, and the greater the gradient the more energy
is available. Darcy’s equation only applies to laminar not turbulent flow.
However because of the low velocities normally associated with natural groundwater flow, it is
normally valid under all conditions. The higher the hydraulic conductivity and the larger the
hydraulic gradient, the greater the rate of groundwater flow through an aquifer.
Hydraulic conductivity has the units of metres/ second (m/s) or metres/ day (m/day), and is
related to permeability. While hydraulic conductivity reflects the characteristics of both the
water and the geology, the fluid characteristics such as density, temperature or salinity are less
important. The hydraulic conductivity may also be considered as a measure of the resistance to
flow, where the greater the hydraulic conductivity, the lower the resistance to flow.
7.4.1. Steady state flow

Steady-state flow refers to the condition where the fluid properties at any single point in the
system do not change over time. These fluid properties include temperature, pressure, and
velocity. One of the most significant properties that is constant in a steady-state flow system is
the system mass flow rate.Groundwater flow models describe their capabilities as either steady
state and/or transient. Steady state flow occurs when the magnitude and direction of flow is
constant with time throughout the entire domain.
7.4.2. Unsteady state flow

Unsteady state flow or non-equilibrium flow occurs from the moment pumping starts till the
steady state is reached. Consequently in an infinite horizontal, completely confined aquifer of
constant thickness which is pumped at a constant rate, there will always be considered to be
unsteady state as long as in the piezometers the changes of the water level with time due to
pumping alone are measurable or as long as the hydraulic gradient changes in a measurable way.
7.4.3. Darcy’s law

Water flows from high elevation to low elevation and from high pressure to low pressure,
gradients in potential energy drive groundwater flow. Groundwater flows from high to low head.
In 1856, a French hydraulic engineer named Henry Darcy published an equation for flow
through a porous medium that today bears his name.
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Q = KA (h2-h1)/L or q = Q/A = -K dh/dl,
h: hydraulic head, h = p/rg + z
Thought experiment: hydraulic head distribution in a lake
q = Q/A
Q is the specific discharge [L/T], dh/dl is the hydraulic gradient
K is the hydraulic conductivity [L/T]
The law is very similar to Ohm's law for electrical curcuits I = 1/R * U (current = voltage divided
by resistance). The original Darcy experiment yielded these data.
7.5. Ground water recharging

Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process, where water
moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the primary method through
which water enters an aquifer. This process usually occurs in the vadose zone below plant roots
and, is often expressed as a flux to the water table surface. Groundwater recharge also
encompasses water moving away from the water table farther into the saturated zone. Recharge
occurs both naturally (through the water cycle) and through anthropogenic processes (i.e.,
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"artificial groundwater recharge"), where rainwater and or reclaimed water is routed to the
subsurface.
Groundwater is recharged naturally by rain and snow melt and to a smaller extent by surface
water (rivers and lakes). Recharge may be impeded somewhat by human activities including
paving, development, or logging. These activities can result in loss of topsoil resulting in reduced
water infiltration, enhanced surface runoff and reduction in recharge. Use of groundwaters,
especially for irrigation, may also lower the water tables. Groundwater recharge is an important
process for sustainable groundwater management, since the volume-rate abstracted from an
aquifer in the long term should be less than or equal to the volume-rate that is
recharged.Recharge can help move excess salts that accumulate in the root zone to deeper soil
layers, or into the groundwater system. Tree roots increase water saturation into groundwater
reducing water runoff.Flooding temporarily increases river bed permeability by moving clay
soils downstream, and this increases aquifer recharge.
7.6. Groundwater potential and management of Ethiopia

Ethiopia, with a total area of approximately 1.13 million km 2, is a country that is characterized
by a topography that consists of a complex blend of massive highlands, rugged terrain, and low
plains. The Great Rift Valley of the eastern Africa divides the country into two plateaus and
stretches from north–east to south–west with 40–60km wide flat-lying plain in the east, south,
and west borders of the country that has an elevation of around 600m above mean sea level
(amsl). It creates three major relief regions in the country: the Western Highlands, the Eastern
Highlands, andthelow-lyingRiftValleyandWesternLowlands. Theelevationalsoranges between
two extremes from 125m below mean sea level at Danakil Depression to 4,620m amsl at
RasDejen (Dashen) peak.
Ethiopia has a diversified climate ranging from semi-arid desert type in the lowlands to humid
and warm (temperate) type in the southwest. The mean annual rainfall of Ethiopia ranges from
141mm in the arid area of eastern and northeastern borders of the country to 2,275mm in the
southwestern highlands. The complex topographical and geographical features of the country
have a strong impact on these spatial variations of climate and different rainfall regimes in
Ethiopia.
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Ethiopia is also endowed with a substantial amount of water resources. The country is divided
into 12 basins; 8 of which are river basins; 1 lake basin; and remaining 3 are dry basins, with no
or insignificant flow out of the drainage system. Almost all of the basins radiate from the central
plateau of the country that separate into two due to the Rift Valley. Basins drained by rivers
originating from the mountains west of the Rift Valley flow toward the west into the Nile River
basin system, and those originating from the Eastern Highlands flow toward the east into the
Republic of Somalia. Rivers draining in the RiftValley originate from the adjoining highlands
and flow north and south of the uplift in the center of the Ethiopian Rift Valley.
Ethiopia constitutes 99.3% of land area and the remaining 0.7% is covered with water bodies.
The country has 12 major basins, 12 large lakes, and differently sized water bodies. However,
three of the major basins are dry basins, which do not have any stream flow in these basins.
Although it needs update and further detailed investigation, the country’s surface water potential
as identified and estimated in different integrated river basin master plans is 124.4 billion cubic
meter (BCM). Since most of the rivers are trans-boundary, 97% of this estimated annual stream
flow of the country flows out of Ethiopia into neighboring countries and only 3% of this amount
remains within the country.
The rivers that originate from the western side of central highlands and western plateaus of the
country are flowing to the west and joining the Nile system. These include theAbbay, Baro-
Akobo, Mereb, and Tekeze basins and cover 39% of the land mass of the country. This section of
the country has the major flow of surface water in the country. It accounts for about 70% of the
estimated surface water flows in this section.The second section includes the basins that originate
from the Eastern Highlands and flow toward east. It covers about 33% of the country land mass
but accommodates only 8% of surface water of the country. The other two sections include the
basins along the Great Rift Valley. And they flow to the south and north of the central part of
Great Rift-Valley around Meki.Awash is the only river basin that flow to the northeast direction
and it covers 10% of the country land mass and 4% of surface flow in the country. It is the most
utilized basin of the country. The south flow section includes two basins, the Rift-Valley lake
basin and the Omo-Gibe basin. They cover about 5% of the land mass and 18% of the surface
flow. With regard to the Nile, Ethiopia contributes about 85% of the Nile water, mainly during
the rainy seasons from June to September.
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Always, the occurrence of groundwater is mainly influenced by the geophysical and climatic
conditions of the area. The difficulty in obtaining productive aquifers is a peculiar feature of
Ethiopia, which is characterized by the wide heterogeneity of geology, topography,
andenvironmentalconditions. Actually, the geology of the country provides usable groundwater
and provides good transmission of rainfall to recharge aquifers, which produce springs and feed
perennial rivers. In many parts of the country, groundwater is an important source of domestic
and industrial water use especially in rural areas and towns. However, the occurrence of
groundwater is not uniform because it depends on various environmental and geologicalfactor.
Geologically, thecountrycanbecharacterized with generalized classifications, such as 18% of the
Precambrian basement, 25% of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, 40% of
theTertiary sedimentary and volcanic rocks, and 17% of the Quaternary sediments and volcanic
rocks.
The exact value of ground water of Ethiopia is not well known. At present, detailed groundwater
assessments are ongoing in several areas and these indicate that the previously estimated
groundwater usage potential of 2.6 BCM was underestimated. And it needs to be revised. Best
guesses in this respect range between 12 and 30 BCM, or even more if all aquifers in the
lowlands are assessed. Alemayehu (2006) estimated the total groundwater reserve of the country
as 185 BCM, which is distributed in an area of 924,140km 2 made of Sedimentary, Volcanic, and
Quaternary rocks and sediments, including the highlands and the Rift-Valley.
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PART 2
2. CONCEPTS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. It is
important because it is needed for life to exist. Many uses of water include agricultural,
industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all of these human uses
require fresh water. Only 2.5% of water on the Earth is fresh water, and over two thirds of this is
frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the
world, and many more areas are expected to experience this imbalance in the near future. It is
estimated that 70% of world-wide water use is for irrigation in agriculture. Due to the expanding
human population competition for water is growing such that many of the worlds major aquifers
are becoming depleted. Many pollutants threaten water supplies, but the most widespread,
especially in underdeveloped countries, is the discharge of raw sewage into natural waters.
2.1. Ethiopia Water Resource Potential
Ethiopia is endowed with plentiful amounts of water resources potential. However, the backbone
of Ethiopian economy, Agriculture, is highly rainfall dependent and the energy source relays on
fuel wood. Even though the country has enough amounts of water resources potential, clear
current figure of water resources potential especially in ground water part, utilization constraints
and future water resources utilization opportunities is not clearly known. Reviews of different
secondary data from various sources were conducted to fill these gaps. The country has sufficient
amount of surface water resources potential which is around 124 billion cubic meter and 30
million cubic meter (some but insufficient evidences shows it reaches 40 cubic meter) of ground
water. The hydro power generation potential of major Rivers and Rift valley lakes is estimated to
reach about 160,000 Megawatt/year. Irregular place to place and time to time sharing of major
rivers and rain fall, cross boundary nature, topographic features of the country, technical and
financial challenges are among main utilization constraints. The region has eye opening bright
outlooks to go further in water resources development and utilization. Different factors hinder
the utilization of the country water resources but these plenty amounts of water resource shows
bright future opportunities to use it.
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2.2. Integrate River Basin Management
Effective river basin planning and management can have benefits as wide as poverty alleviation,
sustainable development, access to energy, healthy ecosystems, gender equality and thriving
livelihoods. Yet complex hurdles threaten to stand in the way of a water-secure world. When
rivers cross international, interstate, or administrative boundaries, there are often different
institutional, regulatory, policy, and planning procedures and processes in place and no
coordinating mechanisms to bring these together. Across sectors, there are different indicators
for success, and across communities there are a variety of competing reasons to use water
resources.
Integrated river basin management aims to break these barriers to establish a holistic framework
for coordination, bringing together diverse regulatory, policy and planning. It involves all
stakeholders involved in river basin planning and management collaboratively develop an agreed
set of policies and strategies to achieve a balanced approach to land, water, and natural resource
management. It helps us understand that we can find best practice river management in many
activities—from community use to environmental science, economics, urban planning or
business management. And, it puts the focus back onto achieving healthy river ecosystems with
wide-ranging benefits for all communities, economies and biological processes within it.
2.3. Water supply and Demand Management
Today, most countries are placing unprecedented pressure on water resources. The global
population is growing fast, and estimates show that with current practices, the world will face a
40% shortfall between forecast demand and available supply of water by 2030. Furthermore,
chronic water scarcity, hydrological uncertainty, and extreme weather events (floods and
droughts) are perceived as some of the biggest threats to global prosperity and stability.
Acknowledgment of the role that water scarcity and drought are playing in aggravating fragility
and conflict is increasing.
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Feeding 9 billion people by 2050 will require a 60% increase in agricultural production, (which
consumes 70% of the resource today), and a 15% increase in water withdrawals. Besides this
increasing demand, the resource is already scarce in many parts of the world. Estimates indicate
that 40% of the world population live in water scarce areas, and approximately ¼ of world’s
GDP is exposed to this challenge. By 2025, about 1.8 billion people will be living in regions or
countries with absolute water scarcity. Water security is a major – and often growing –challenge
for many countries today.
The fragmentation of this resource also constrains water security. There are 276 transboundary
basins, shared by 148 countries, which account for 60% of the global freshwater flow. Similarly,
300 aquifers systems are trans-boundary in nature, meaning 2 billion people worldwide are
dependent on groundwater. The challenges of fragmentation are often replicated at the national
scale, meaning cooperation is needed to achieve optimal water resources management and
development solutions for all riparian’s. To deal with these complex and interlinked water
challenges, countries will need to improve the way they manage their water resources and
associated services.
2.4. Water resources planning and management
Water resources planning and management activities are usually motivated, by the realization
that there are problems to solve and/or opportunities to obtain increased benefits by changing
the management and use of water and related land resources. Reducing the frequency and/or
severity of the adverse consequences of droughts, floods, and excessive pollution are common
goals of many planning and management exercises. Other reasons include the identification and
evaluation of alternative measures that may increase the available water supplies, hydropower,
improve recreation and/or navigation, and enhance water quality and aquatic ecosystems.
Quantitative system performance criteria can help one judge the relative net benefits, however
measured, of alternative plans and management policies.
Some of the multiple purposes served by a river can be conflicting. A reservoir used solely for
hydropower, or water supply, is better able to meet its objectives when it is full of water. On the
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other hand, a reservoir used solely for downstream flood control is best left empty so it can
store more of the flood flows when they occur.
A single reservoir serving all three purposes introduces conflicts over how much water to store
in it and discharge from it, i.e., how it should be operated. In basins where diversion demands
exceed the available supplies, conflicts will exist over water allocations. Finding the best way to
manage, if not resolve, these conflicts are reasons for planning.
2.4.1 Too Little Water
Issues involving inadequate supplies to meet demands can result from too little rain or snow.
They can also result from patterns of land and water use. They can result from growing
urbanization, the growing needs to meet instream flow requirements, and conflicts over private
property and public rights regarding water allocations. Other issues can involve transbasin
water transfers and markets, objectives of economic efficiency versus the desire to keep non
efficient activities viable, and demand management measures, including incentives for water
reuse and water reuse financing.
2.4.2 Too Much Water
Damage due to flooding is a direct result of floodplain development that is incompatible with
floods. This is a risk many take, and indeed on average it may result in positive private net
benefits, especially when public agencies subsidize these private risk takers who incur losses in
times of flooding. In many river basins of developed regions, annual expected flood damages
are increasing over time, in spite of increased expenditures in flood damage reduction measures.
This is in part due to increased economic development taking place on river flood plains, not
only of increased frequencies and magnitudes of floods.
2.4.3 Too Polluted
Wastewater discharges by industry and households can have considerable detrimental effects on
water quality and hence on public and ecosystem health. Planning and management activities
should pay attention to these possible negative consequences of industrial development and the
intensive use and subsequent runoff of pesticides and fertilizers in urban as well as in
agricultural areas.
Issues regarding the environment and water quality include:
 Upstream versus downstream conflicts on meeting water quality standards,
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 Threats from aquatic nuisance species,

 Threats from the chemical, physical, and biological water quality of the watershed’s
aquatic resources,
 Quality standards for recycled water,
 Nonpoint source pollution discharges including sediment from erosion, and
 Inadequate groundwater protection, compacts, and concerned institutions.
2.4.4 Too Expensive
Too many of the world’s population do not have adequate water to meet all of their drinking
and sanitation needs. Much of this is not due to the lack of technical options available to
provide water to meet those needs. Rather those options are deemed to be too expensive. Doing
so is judged to be beyond the ability of those living in poverty to pay and recover the costs of
implementing, maintaining, and operating the needed infrastructure. Large national and
international aid grants devoted to reducing water stress—demands for clean water exceeding
usable supplies—in stressed communities have not been sustainable in the long run where
recipients have been unable to pay for the upkeep of whatever water resource systems are
developed and provided. If financial aid is to be provided, to be effective it has to address all the
root causes of such poverty, not only the need for clean water.
2.4.5 Ecosystem Too Degraded
Aquatic and riparian ecosystems may be subject to a number of threats. The most important
ones include habitat loss due to river training and reclamation of floodplains and wetlands for
urban and industrial development, poor water quality due to discharges of pesticides, fertilizers
and wastewater effluents, and the infestation of aquatic nuisance species.
2.5. Water System Optimization: Concepts and Methods
Engineering project design and optimization can be effectively approached using concepts of
systems analysis. A system can be thought of as a set of components or processes that transform
resource inputs into product (goods and services) outputs.
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The inputs define the flow of resource into the system and the outputs and products from the
system. A system often has several subsystems. In the more detailed representation of Figure
1.2, the inputs include controllable or decision variables, which represent design choices that
are open to the engineer. Assigning values to controllable variables establishes an alternative.
Optimization tools are utilized to facilitate optimal decision making in the planning, design and
operation of especially large scale water resources systems. The application of optimization
techniques is most challenging in Water Resources Systems area, due to the large number of
decision variables involved, stochastic nature of the inputs, and multiple objectives. One
important example is the multipurpose planning, design and real-time operation of a system of
multiple reservoirs.
Most of the optimization models use some kind of mathematical techniques like Linear
programming (LP), Dynamic Programming (DP) and Non Linear Programming (NLP) or their
variations. A typical set of constraints of the optimization model may include mass balance
equation, maximum and minimum permissible releases and storage as function of time,
penstock or canal system capacity, plant capacity, legal and institutional constraints, and other
physical bounds such as demands.
No doubt, of all the optimization methods LP has found the maximum acceptance due to the
associated ease in solution, capacity to solve large scale problems and easily available computer
codes. Dynamic programming based on sequential sub-optimal decisions to obtain an optimal
decision is capable of efficiently solving reservoir operation problems with linear or nonlinear
separable objective functions and constraints. Such modifications include: Many modifications
of the discrete. Differential DP, Constrained differential DP, Reliability constrained DP and
Stochastic DP.
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2.6. Water Resources Management Policy
The overall goal of Water Resources Policy is to enhance and promote all national efforts
towards the efficient, equitable and optimum utilization of the available Water Resources of for
significant socioeconomic development on sustainable basis.
The objectives are :-
1. Development of the water resources of the country for economic and social benefits of the
people, on equitable and sustainable basis.
2. Allocation and apportionment of water, based on comprehensive and integrated plans and
optimum allocation principles that incorporate efficiency of use, equity of access, and
sustainability of the resource.
3. Managing and combating drought as well as other associated slow on-set disasters through,
interlay, efficient allocation, redistribution, transfer, storage and efficient use of water resources.
4. Combating and regulating floods through sustainable mitigation, prevention, rehabilitation

and other practical measures.
5. Conserving, protecting and enhancing water resources and the overall aquatic environment on
sustainable basis.
The following are the fundamental policy principles that guide the equitable, sustainable and
efficient development, utilization, conservation and protection of water resources in Ethiopia.
1. Water is a natural endowment commonly owned by all the peoples of Ethiopia.
2. As far as conditions permit, every Ethiopian citizen shall have access to sufficient water of
acceptable quality, to satisfy basic human needs.
3. In order to significantly contribute to development, water shall be recognized both as an

economic and a social good.
4. Water resources development shall be underpinned on rural-centered, decentralized

management, participatory approach as well as integrated framework.
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5. Management of water resources shall ensure social equity economic efficiently, systems
reliability and sustainability norms.
6. Promotion of the participation of all stakeholders, user communities; particularly women's

participation in the relevant aspects of water resources management.
2.7. Water resources project formulation.

At any stage of water resources development studies, from identification to master plan, and to
feasibility study, development projects have to be formulated. Once the basic data and the
projections of future conditions are assembled, actual formulation of the project can commence.
The important consideration is the compilation of a list of alternatives. As project formulation
proceeds, it may be evident that new data or projections are required, or that some revision of
background data is needed.
The first step in project formulation within a river basin is the definition of the boundary
conditions that restrict a project to be built. Example of Boundary Conditions:
 One or more aspects of water development can be eliminated on the basis of physical
limitations, i.e., no navigation on torrential mountain streams.
 Certain problems may be fixed in location, i.e., flood mitigation for an existing city
 The available water may be limited or subject only to minor changes.
 Maximum land areas usable for various purposes may be definable. This does not
exclude possibility of alternative uses for a given parcel of land.
 A policy decision may reserve certain lands for specific purposes, i.e., parks and
recreation area.
 Possible sites for water storage (both surface and underground) can be defined and their
limiting capacity evaluated
 Certain existing locations of water use exist and must continue to be supplied.
 Legal constraints may reserve certain lands or prohibit certain activities or actions.
 Negative environmental impacts may eliminate certain projects from further
consideration
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2.8. Aspects of water resource planning in Ethiopia

The Ethiopian Water Resources Management Proclamation, issued in March 2000
(Proclamation No.197/2000), is currently the basic legal instrument governing the
management, planning, utilisation and protection of water resources in Ethiopia.
The Proclamation provides the fundamental principles that need to be taken into account
for the management and administration of the water resources in the country (Article 6).
The basic thrust of these fundamental principles is that water resources management and
administration in the country should be based on the Ethiopian WRM Policy, the
Integrated Basin Master Plan Studies and the water resources laws of the country. It also
stipulates that the management of water resources of Ethiopia shall be based on a permit
system (Article 6).
The MoWR is designated as the "Supervising Body at the federal level where it pertains
to water resources at the central level, or any organ delegated by the Ministry. The latter
is further elaborated in Article 8.2 of the Proclamation which says, "the Supervising
Body may, where necessary, delegate its powers and duties to the appropriate body for
efficient execution of its duties It is not quite clear what the phrase "water resources at
the central level refers to. Again, as with the Constitution, this provision seems to imply
that the management of water resources that do not "hydrological link Regional States
or are not trans-boundary in nature (i.e confined groundwater and lakes) are under the
jurisdiction of Regional States. This duality of approach to water resources management
(federal and regional levels) has to be clearly addressed in subsequent laws if a unified
management and regulatory approach is to be adopted for IWRM in the country.
Overall, the Proclamation gives the MoWR the predominant jurisdiction over the
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management, utilisation and administration of the water resources of the country since
the bulk of the water resources are either trans-regional or trans-boundary, the exception
2.9. Water Harvesting and It’s use
The problem of water shortage in arid and semi-arid regions is one of low rainfall and uneven
distribution throughout the season, which makes rain fed agriculture a risky enterprise.
Therefore new interest came up in recent decades to evaluate traditional water management
techniques most of them being simple, sure to implement and of low capital investment which
called water harvesting technology.
The main purpose of the rainwater harvesting is to use the locally available rainwater to meet
water requirements throughout the year without the need of huge capital expenditure. This would
facilitate the availability of uncontaminated water for domestic, industrial, and irrigation needs.
Collecting your own rainwater is an excellent way to conserve this precious resource. A basic
rainwater collection system catches rainwater from your roof or other surface and channels it into
a container for storage. Rainwater itself is generally clean, but it can pick up microorganisms,
pollutants and debris when it hits your roof. This is why systems for rainwater use inside your
home often include filtration or other treatments for safety.
Outdoor rainwater collection systems don’t need as much treatment because the water is
typically used outside. One of the easiest rain collectors to make is a repurposed old garbage can.
Whereas, you can install a rainwater cistern if you want a larger system. There are many
different uses for collected rainwater no matter what type of rainwater harvesting system you
have.
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 Drinking and cooking, Bathing and laundry, Flushing toilets, Watering lawns,
gardens and houseplants, Composting Water for wildlife, pets or livestock, Outdoor
ponds and water features, Rinsing vegetables, Washing vehicles and equipment and
Fire protection
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Hydrology and Water Resource MGT For Winter Narm

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Hydrology and Water Resource MGT For Winter Narm

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Hydrology and Water Resource Mgt.

for Winter student (NaRM224) February 10,

1.1 Concept and Definition of Hydrology

Scientific hydrology- the science which concern with academic aspect

In general, applied hydrology focused on:

 estimation of water resources

1.2 Hydrologic cycle

Figure1 1: Diagrammatic representation of hydrologic cycle

1.3 Water Balance

1.4 . Scope and application of Hydrology

Hydropower: Power/energy potential assessment, reservoir capacity determination, reservoir

River Engineering:River channel rectification and meandering design require hydrological

2.1 Form of precipitation

2.3 Measuring Precipitation

b. Recording type rain gauges

i. Weighing Bucket Type Rain Gauge

Figure 2. 2: Weighing type rain gauge

ii. Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge

Figure 2. 3: Tipping type rain gauge

iii. Floating or Natural Syphon Type Rain Gauge

Figure 2. 4: Weight type rain gauge

2.4 Errors in measurement of point Precipitation

2.5 Rain-gauge network

N – optimal number of stations

Є – allowable degree of error in the estimate of the mean rainfall

Pi – precipitation magnitude in the ith station

2.6 Estimation of missing rain fall

i. Simple Arithmetic Mean Method

In case of three stations 1, 2 and 3,

ii. Normal Ratio Method

Normal Ratio Method

Consider that record is missing from a station 'X'.

N = Normal annual precipitation. (Mean of 30 years of annual precipitation data)

2.7 Mean Precipitation Calculation over an Area

2.7.1 Arithmetical Mean Method

2.7.2 Thiessen Polygon Method

2.7.3 Isohyetal Method

The area between adjacent isohyets is measured using a planimeter.

3.2. Factor affecting evaporation

This equation is called Dalton’s Law of Evaporation. Evaporation occurs till . If

3.3. Measurement of Evaporation

3.3.1.1 USWB Class A Evaporation Pan

Figure3. 1: USA ClassA evaporation pan

3.3.1.2 Pan Coefficient

Lake Evaporation = Pan Coefficient * Pan Evaporation

Table3. 1 Values of Pan Coefficients Cp

S. Types of Pan Average Range

o Arid Zones – 1 station for every 30,000 sq.km

3.3.2 Empirical Equations

Dalton's Equation for Evaporation Estimation

3.3.3 Analytical Methods of Evaporation Estimation

3.3.3.1 Water Budget Method

can only be measured.

can only be estimated

3.3.3.2 Energy Budget Method

Figure3. 2: Energy Balance in a water bod

3.3.4 Piche Evaporimeter:

3.2 The process of Transpiration

 Plant use only 1% among water it receive through its root.

3.3.1 Factors affecting Evapotranspiration

3.3.1.1 Weather parameters

3.3.1.2 Crop factors

3.3.1.3 Management and environmental conditions