PRECIPITATION.

MODULE 2

Lesson 1. Formation of Precipitation

Lesson 2. Measurement Instrumentation

Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation

Lesson 4. Frequency of Point Rainfall

Lesson 1. Formation of Precipitation
✓ Precipitation denotes all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere.
✓ Precipitation replenishes surface water bodies, renews soil moisture for plants, and recharges aquifers. Its
principal forms are rain and snow. The relative importance of these forms is determined by the climate of the area
under consideration.
✓ The magnitude of precipitation varies with time and space. It this variation that is responsible for many hydrological
problems, such as floods and droughts.
Formation of Precipitation

There are four conditions that must be present for the production of precipitation.
i. Condensation onto nuclei.
ii. Cooling at the atmosphere
iii. Growth of water droplets, and
iv. Mechanisms to cause a sufficient density of the droplets.
These conditions can occur in a relatively short time period and may be observed simultaneously.

✓ Vapors are present in the atmosphere and can change to a liquid. The process by which vapor changes to a liquid or solid
form is called condensation.
✓ In the atmosphere, cloud droplets form on condensation nuclei. The nuclei are usually sea salts and combustion by-
products. The size of the nuclei are less than 1 micron in diameter. Prior to precipitation, most water droplets and ice crystals
in clouds are less than 10 microns. During the condensation process, the water droplets and ice crystals will tend to enlarge
because of vapor pressure differences. However without any other factors present, it takes about one or two days for the
Lesson 1. Formation of Precipitation
particles of water and ice to reach the size of a small raindrop, which is about 3000 microns (3mm). Thus other factor is
more important if precipitation is to occur.
✓ One of the factors is the collision of particles. Collisions occur because of differences in rising and falling velocities.
Particles that collide usually coalesce to form larger particles. Gravity acts on the particles to increase its falling velocity,
but the friction drag causes a terminal velocity that depends on temperature, pressure, size of the raindrop. At around 7
mm in diameter, the raindrop travels at about 10 m/sec and usually break into smaller drops.
✓ Another factor is the ice crystal growth process. When ice elements for a vapor pressure imbalance with water, larger
water drops are created. The equilibrium vapor pressure over the water droplets is higher than over the ice elements.
This causes the water vapor to evaporate and condense on the ice. Larger particles formed and precipitation may result.
✓ Precipitation formation can be modified using cloud seeding. Dry ice and silver iodide deposited in clouds can increase
the possibility of rainfall from that formation. The effectiveness depends on many factors, but the idea is to increase the
number of condensation nuclei and promote ice crystal growth.
Forms of Precipitation
A meteor is a small particle of matter in the atmosphere. Any formation that results from the condensation process is called
hydrometeor. Fog, haze, frost and blowing snow are hydrometeors are some concern of science of hydrology. The general
classes of precipitation:
➢ Snow is complex ice crystals. Snowflake consists of agglomerated ice crystals. The average water content of snow is
assumed to be about 10% of an equal volume of water.
➢ Hailstones are balls of ice that are about 5 to over 125 mm in diameter. Their specific gravity is about 0.7 to 0.9. thus
hailstones have the potential for agricultural and other property damage
Lesson 2. Measurement Instrumentation
Forms of Precipitation
➢ Sleet results from the freezing of raindrops and is usually a combination of snow and rain.
➢ Rain consists of liquid water drops of a size 0.5 mm to about 7 mm in diameter.
➢ Drizzle refers to small water drops less than 0.5 mm in diameter. Th settling velocity is slow, with intensity rarely
exceeding 1 mm/hr.
➢ Glaze. When rain or drizzle comes in contact with cold ground at around 0C, the water drops freeze to form an
ice coating called glaze or freezing rain.
Measurement Instrumentation
Rainfall
❑ Precipitation is measured as the vertical depth of water (or water equivalent in the case of snow) that would
accumulate on a flat level surface if all the precipitation remained where it had fallen.
❖ Raingauge essentially consists of a cylindrical vessel assembly kept in the open to collect rain. The rainfall
catch of the raingauge is affected by its exposure condition. For sitting a raingauge the following
consideration are important:
▪ The ground must be level and in the open and the instrument must present a horizontal catch surface.
▪ The gauge must be set as near the ground as possible to reduce wind effects but it must be
sufficiently high to prevent splashing, flooding, etc.
▪ The instrument must be surrounded by an open fenced area of at least 5.5.m x 5.5. m. no object
should be nearer to the instrument than 30 m or twice the height of the obstruction.
Lesson 2. Measurement Instrumentation
Rainfall Gage Tipping Bucket

❑ The tipping-bucket gage works on the principle that water accumulated on the collector is funneled into a two-
compartment bucket. Each bucket is designed to collect the equivalent of 0.01 in. or 0.1 mm of water over either
an 8 in or 10-in diameter collector. Once one of the buckets is filled, the filled bucket will tip and empty its
contents. The bucket on the other side is now in position to collect water from the funnel. When the bucket tips,
an electrical signal for each 0.01 in or 0.1mm of precipitation is sent to a recording unit. As the buckets alternately
fill and tip, a momentary closure of an electrical switch is completed, causing electrical signal.
❑ The weighing-type gage measures the weight of rain or snow that accumulates in a bucket. The bucket sits on a
scale that is calibrated to read an equivalent depth of water for a weight of precipitation.
Lesson 2. Measurement Instrumentation
❑ A float can be used to record the depth of water. The float is placed in the collector area or in a special reservoir
of mercury or oil. As the depth of rainfall increases, the float increases and records the changes in depth with
time. This type of gage can be easily damaged by freezing conditions.

Errors in Gage Measuring

Errors in measuring precipitation are usually small but tend to result in lower-than-expected readings.
➢ Reduction of the collector area by damage to the collector or covering of part of the collector - if the
collector area is reduced, the depth of water recorded will be reduced.
➢ Other errors are related to the weighing mechanism calibration, recording drive friction problems and
electrical current failures.
➢ Obstacles that block precipitation
➢ Positioning of the gage – collector must be positioned in a vertical plane. If a gage is inclined towards the
wind, a greater amount of precipitation will be collected. Conversely, an incline away from the wind will
reduce the collected volume.
➢ Wind speed at the collector will reduce the estimate of precipitation because air is reflected upwards at the
collector and precipitation is diverted. The error is greatest for light or less dense precipitation such as mist
and snow. At a wind velocity of 20 mph Larson and Peck (1974) estimated about 20% reduction in volume
of rainfall collected. For snow measurement the reduction in volume was about 70%.
➢ The higher the gage is off the ground, the greater the error because of increased wing velocities. Trees,
fences, and buildings have been used as windbreaks, their height should be no higher than about one to
two times the distance from the gage to the windbreak.
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation
Problem 1

Part of rain gage collector is covered during a storm event by debris. The debris reflected rain from the collector.
Upon examination of the collector, it was found that 30% of the collector area was covered during rainfall. If the
total amount of rain recorded was 0.51 in., what would be an estimate of the actual assuming a standard 8 inch
diameter collector?
Solution
The collector diameter is 8 in. thus its area is ((8)2/4) = 50.3 in.2. The volume of rainfall recorded was 0.51 in.
from a 35.2 in2 area. The total volume of rainfall that should have been recorded is proportional to the total
collector area of 50.3 in2, and is

(35.5 in.2) / (0.51 in.) = (50.3 in.2) / [ X (in)]

Actual estimate X = 0.73 in.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE PRECIPITATION INPUT

Total precipitation is distributed in numerous ways. That intercepted by vegetation and trees may be equivalent to
the total precipitation input for relatively small storms. Once interception storage is filled. raindrops begin falling
from leaves and grass, where water stored on these surfaces eventually becomes depleted through evaporation.
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation
Precipitation that reaches the ground may take several paths. Some water will fill depressions and eventually
evaporate; some will infiltrate the soil. Part of the infiltrated water may strike relatively impervious strata near the
soil surface and flow approximately parallel to it as interflow until an outlet is reached. Other portions may
replenish soil moisture in the upper soil zone, and some infiltrated water may reach the groundwater reservoir that
sustains dry weather streamflow. The component of the precipitation input that exceeds the local infiltration rate
will develop a film of water on the surface (surface detention) until overland flow commences. Detention depths
varying from 1/8 to 1 1/2 in. for various conditions of slope and surface type have been reported.3 Overland flow
ultimately reaches defined channels and becomes streamflow

Missing Data
The precipitation measuring stations sometimes fail in providing a continuous record of precipitation. Instruments
do malfunction and back up systems may not always provide accurate data. Thus there are generally missing data,
the values of which must be estimated. The two procedures for estimating daily totals rely on the data from three
adjacent stations.
➢ If the average annual precipitation at each of the three adjacent stations differs from the average at the missing
data station by less than 10%, the following formula is used to estimate the missing daily data:
(𝑃𝐴 +𝑃𝐵 + 𝑃𝐶 )
𝑃𝑥 =
3
Where 𝑃𝑥 = estimated daily precipitation volume at the missing data site , X (depth)
𝑃𝐴 , 𝑃𝐵 , 𝑃𝐶 = estimated daily precipitation volume at the adjacent stations A, B, and C (depth)
A simple arithmetic averaging of the data is used.
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation
Missing Data
If the difference between the average annual precipitation at any of the adjacent station and the missing data station
is greater than 10% a normal ratio method is used. Normal is used as it refers to the arithmetic average. The
method consists of weighing each adjacent station daily value by a ratio of the normal annual precipitation values
and then average the numbers, or
1 𝑁𝑋 𝑁𝑋 𝑁𝑋
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 + 𝑃
3 𝑁𝐴 𝐴 𝑁𝐵 𝐵 𝑁𝐶 𝐶

Where 𝑁𝑋= average annual precipitation at the missing data site X (m, cm)
𝑁𝑖 = average annual precipitation at the adjacent sites m, cm)

Problem 2

The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B, C, and D in a basin are 80.79, 67.59, 76.28 and 92.01 cm respectively.
In the year 1975, station D was inoperative and the stations A, B and C recorded annual precipitation of 91.11,
72.23 and 79.89 cm, respectively. Estimate the rainfall at station D in that year.

Solution. As the normal rainfall values vary more than 10%, the normal ratio method is adopted.
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation
Interpretation and Quantification of Precipitation

To size the water transport and storage system, quantitative data for rainfall events must be provided. In some
areas, these data are specified by regulations, however, it may be advantageous to update these data and certainly
it is important how these data were developed. These data can be defined n terms of

1. Intensity ( rate of rainfall)

2. Duration of storm
3. Time distribution of rainfall
4. Return period and associated depth of rain
All of these measures are required to adequately define a rainfall storm event.

Intensity

Intensity or depth of rainfall per unit time, (mm/hour, inches per hour). Weather stations utilizing gages that provide
continuous records of rainfall can be used to obtain intensity data. These data are reported either in tabular form or
graphical form (hyetograph).

Another way of reporting intensity data is the use of different time intervals. Figure 3.2 illustrates a hyetograph
using a 15-min time interval for 6 in. of rain over 6 h. It corresponds to a rainfall volume occurring once every 25
years for a specific region.
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation

Cumulative Rainfall Diagram

A cumulative rainfall diagram that is plot of cumulative rainfall versus time also useful in runoff studies. At any given
time during a storm, the intensity is the slope of the cumulative rainfall curve at that point in time. A graph of the
cumulative rainfall diagram is shown in Figure 3.3. it can be used to determine the cumulative rainfall at any point
during the duration of the storm event.
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation
Problem 3

The maximum time it takes water to drain from a watershed under heavy rainfall is 45 min. Determine the maximum
intensity (in/hr) in a 45-min increment, assuming the cumulative rainfall diagram of Fig. 3.3. is representative of the
area where watershed is located.

Solution
One must select from the diagram the maximum intensity associated with a 45-min period. Since fig 3.3 was
derived from fig 3.2, either one can be used. The maximum intensity of rainfall does not necessarily generate the
maximum runoff condition. The maximum 45-min volume of rainfall from figure 3.2 is 2.52 in. or 3.36 in./hr.

Duration of Precipitation

The duration of a storm is the time from the beginning of rainfall to the point where the mass curve becomes
horizontal indicating no further accumulation of precipitation within a certain time after the rai stops, In fig, 3.2, the
storm duration is simply the width (time base) of the hyetograph.

Average watershed precipitation

Three common methods of estimating average precipitation for an area: a. Isohyetal; b.Theissen; c.
Arithmetic average
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation

Extrapolation of Point of Measures to Watersheds

The point measure of rainfall depth and intensity from a gage is of value for estimating volume and runoff for
larger areas. To accomplish this, the depth and intensity of measured at a point must be considered as constant
over an area or two or more point of measures to area measures.

Extrapolation of Point of Measures to Watersheds

The depth of rainfall or equivalent rainfall recorded on a gage ca be related to a watershed area if one can
assume that the point estimate is reasonable and constant for the watershed area. To convert from depth to
volume: V = PA (3630)
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation

Where V = volume of rainfall (CF)

P = rainfall (in)
A = watershed area (acres)
3630 = conversion factor (43,560 ft2 /acre divided by 12 in/foot

Intensity and watershed discharge

If the intensity remains constant over the time it would take for the total contributing area to drain the rainfall
excess to the time it would take for the total contributing area to drain the rainfall excess to the output site, the
precipitation intensity must equal runoff or:

Runoff (outflow) = precipitation intensity

And to balance units intensity must be multiplied by area or
Q = iCA (1.008) Qp = iA / 360
where: Q = runoff rate (CFS) i = intensity in mm per hour
i = precipitation intensity (in/hr) A = catchment area in hectares
CA = contributing area (acres) Qp = peak run - off
1.008 = conversion factor (CFS-hr/acre-in)
Lesson 3. Quantification of Precipitation

Problem 4

Strom lasting 4 hours has 30 mm of rainfall, over 800 hectares.

Assuming zero base flow, what fraction of precipitation appeared as
run off?

Solution
Volume of rainfall = 0.03(800)(10000)
Volume of rainfall -= 240 000 cu.m.
Volume of runoff = area of diagram
Volume of runoff = [2(1) + 4(1) + 5(1) + 4 (1) + 3 (1) + 2(1)]3600
Volume of runoff = 72 000 m3
Fraction of precipitation = (72 000 / 24000) x 100
Fraction of precipitation = 30%
Lesson 4. Frequency of Point Rainfall
Lesson 4. Frequency of Point Rainfall
Lesson 4. Frequency of Point Rainfall
Lesson 4. Frequency of Point Rainfall
Lesson 4. Frequency of Point Rainfall
Lesson 4. Frequency of Point Rainfall
Lesson 4. Frequency of Point Rainfall