Mrs. V.

Sunitha
Alignment of Railway
Lines
Alignment of railway line means the
direction and position given to the
centre line of the railway track on the
ground in horizontal and vertical plane.
Basic requirements of an Ideal
Alignment
1. Purpose of new railway line
1. Transportation Services
2. Political and Strategic’
3. Linking of Centres
4. To open up new track
2. Integrated development
3. Economic Consideration
1. Shortest route
2. Construction and maintenance cost minimum
3. Operational expenses minimum
4. Maximum Safety and Comfort
5. Aesthetic Considerations
Factors in Selection of Good
Alignment
1. Choice of Gauge
2. Obligatory or controlling points
1. Important towns and cities
2. Major bridges or river crossing
3. Hill passes and saddles
4. Site for tunnels
3. Topography of the country
1. Plain alignment
2. Valley alignment
3. Cross country alignment
4. Mountain alignment
1. Zia zag line method
2. Switch back method
3. Spriral or complete loop method
4. Geometric Standards
5. Geological formation
6. Effect of Flood and Climate
7. Position of Road and Road crossing
8. Proximity of labour and material
9. Location of railway stations and yards
10. Religious and historical monuments
11. Cost considerations
12. Traffic considerations
13. Economic considerations
14. Political Considerations
Types of surveys
1. Traffic survey
2. Reconnaissance survey
3. Preliminary survey
4. Final location survey
Traffic Survey
The most promising route for the railway in
the area
The possible traffic the railway line will carry
Standard of railway line to be followed
Data to be collected
1. Human resources
2. Agriculture and mineral resources
3. Pattern of trade and commerce
4. Industries located and projected
5. Prospects of tourist traffic
6. Existing transport facilities
7. Important Government and private offices
situated
8. Planning for economic development of the
area
The traffic survey report should
normally contain the following
information:
1. History of the proposal and terms of reference.
2. General description.
3. Potentials and prospects
4. Industrial and economic development and traffic projections.
5. Population projection and volume of passenger traffic.
6. Existing rates and rates to be charged.
7. Location of route or routes examined, alternate routes and
possible extensions.
8. Station sites and their importance.
9. Train services, section capacity and various alternatives to
increase capacity.
10. Coaching earnings.
11. Goods earnings.
Contd..
12. Working expenses and net receipts.
13. Engineering features.
14. Tele-communication facilities
15. Financial appraisal.
16. Conclusions and recommendations.
Field data in Reconnaissance
survey
1. General topography of the country
2. Approximate heights of different points on
alignment.
3. Position of rivers, streams and some hydrological
details of the same.
4. Position of roads and high-ways.
5. Nature of soil at different places.
6. Rough location of various station sites, etc.
7. Controlling points on the alignment, where the
railway line must pass.
8. Facilities for construction.
Preliminary survey
Field survey:
1. An open traverse along the centre line of the
proposed alignment with the help of a
theodelite, tacheometer or a compass.
2. Longitudinal and cross levels on the proposed
route for a width of 200 meters on either side
in order to make an accurate contour map.
3. Plane tabling of the entire area to get various
geographical details.
4. Special survey of station sites, level crossings,
bridges by plane tabling, etc.
Data to be collected in Preliminary
Survey
1. Geological information
2. Construction materials
3. Facilities for construction
4. Land
5. Bridges
6. Road crossings
7. High flood level and low water level of all
the rivers and streams coming in the
alignment.
8. Station sites
Final location survey
1. Centre line is fully marked out by pegs at 20
meters. At each 100 meters, a large peg
should be used.
2. Masonry pillars should be built at tangent
points of curves and along the centre line at
interval of 500 meters.
3. Longitudinal and cross levels are taken so as to
ascertain the final gradient of the alignments.
All gradients are compensated for curves.
4. The sites for a station yards are fully
demarcated.
Objectives to be met in Final
location survey of a railway line:
Correct obligatory points
Easy grades and flat curves.
Minimum cost of construction.
Minimum adverse effect on environment.
Ease of construction.
Potential for high speeds.
Avoid constraints for future expansion
Minimum maintenance cost.
Railway Track
 Requirements of Good Track
1. Gauge should be correct and uniform
2. Rails should have perfect cross levels –
superelevation on curves
3. Alignment should be straight and free from kinks
4. Gradient should be uniform and as gentle as possible.
The change of gradient should be followed by a
proper vertical curve to give a smooth ride.
5. Track should be resilient and elastic in order to absorb
shocks and vibrations of running track.
6. Track should have good drainage
7. Track should have good lateral strength
8. Provision for easy replacements and renewals of
various track components.
9. Initial and maintenance cost should be minimum
Coning of Wheels
Coning of Wheels
Tread of the wheels of a railway vehicle are not
made flat, but sloped like a cone in order to
enable these vehicles to move smoothly on
curves as well as on straight track.
Curves – circumference of the tread of outer wheel
becomes greater than that of inner wheel. This
helps the outer wheel to travel longer than the
inner wheel.
Due to rigidity of the frame, the rear axle has a
tendency to move towards the inner rail and this
does not permit the leading axle to take full
advantage of the coning. Rigidity however helps to
bring the vehicle back in central position.
Due to coning of wheels, the side movement in
straight track results in the tread circumference
of on a wheel increasing than the other.
As both the wheels have to traverse the same
distance, this leads one wheel to slide.
Due to resistance of sliding, further side
movement is stopped.
If no coining, flange will come in contact with
the side of the rail causing jerk and
uncomfortable riding.
Coning (adv & dis adv)
Disadvantages
Wear and tear due to slipping action

Advantages
Helps vehicle to negotiate curve smoothly
Gives smooth riding
Reduce wear and tear of wheel flanges
Tilting of rails
Rails are tilted inward at an angle of 1 in 20 to
reduce wear and tear on the rails as well on
the tread of the wheels.
Rails
Rails are placed end to end to provide
continuous and level surface for the trains to
move.
Rails are similar to steel girders.
Function of Rails
The rails provide continuous and level surface for
movement of trains.
The rails provide a pathway which is smooth and has very
less friction. The Friction between steel wheel and steel
rail is about 1/5th of the friction between the pneumatic
tyre and metalled road.
The rails serve as a lateral guide for the running of wheels.
The rails bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads
transmitted to it through axles and wheels of rolling stock
as well as due to braking forces and thermal stresses.
The rails carry out the function of transmitting the load to
a large area of formation through sleepers and ballast.
Types of rails
Requirements for an ideal rail
section
The rail should have most economical section
consistent with strength, stiffness and durability.
They should be of proper composition of steel and
should be manufactured by open hearth or duplex
process.
The vertical stiffness should be high enough to
transmit the load to several sleepers underneath. The
height of rail should, therefore, be adequate.
Rails should be capable of withstanding lateral forces.
Large width of head and foot endows the rails with high
lateral stiffness.
Contd…
The head must be sufficiently deep to allow for an adequate
margin of vertical wear. The wearing surface should be hard.
Web should be sufficiently thick to bear the load coming on it
and should provide adequate flexural rigidity in horizontal
plane.
Foot should be wide enough so that rails are stable against
overturning.
Bottom of the head and top of the rails foot should be so
shaped as to enable the fish plates to transmit efficiently the
vertical load from the head to the foot at rail joints.
Relative distribution of material in head, web and foot of rail
must be balanced.
Contd…
The centre of gravity of the rail section must lie
approximately at mid-height so that maximum
tensile and compressive stress are equal.
The fillet radii must be large to reduce the
concentration of stresses.
The tensile strength of the rail piece should not be
less than 72kg/Sq.mm.
The rail specimen should withstand the blow of
falling weight in test (as specified by Indian
Railway Standards without fracture).
 Comparison of Rail Types
Point of Comparison
1. Strength and stiffness
2. Laying and Relaying
3. Arrangements at points,
crossings and at sharp curves
4. Alignment and stability of
track
5. Initial Cost
Flat-footed rails
These have more strength and
stiffness for the same weight,
both laterally and vertically.
Fitting of these rails is simpler
and so can be easily laid and
relaid. No chairs are required.
The arrangement are simpler
In this impact of Rolling
wheels affects the fittings and
the loosening of fittings
disturbs the alignment and
gives less stability.
These rails require less and
cheaper fastenings, so the
cost is less.
Bull-headed rails and
Double-headed rails
There have less strength and
stiffness.
The fitting of these rails is
difficult and time-consuming
as they are supported on
chairs.
The arrangements are
complicated.
These rails when fitted on
chairs, provide a more solid,
smooth track and better
alignment. Due to broad base
of chairs and wooden keys,
the pressure is distributed
over the larger area and
hence rails can be used on
soft wooden sleepers.
These require more and costly
fastenings and hence cost is
more.
 Point of Comparison Flat-footed rails
6. Rigidity These rails can be used,
without bearing plates, on
sleepers as these rails are
strong as far as vertical loads
are concerned. Hence they
are more rigid.
7. Inspection Daily inspection is nor
necessary.
8. Replacement of rails In F.F. rails, the dog spikes
have to be taken out in
addition to fish bolts and fish
plates to change the rail, so
replacement is difficult.
9. Maintenance cost The maintenance cost is less
10. Suitability They are more suitable due
to better stability, economy,
strength and stiffness.
Bull-headed rails and
Double-headed rails
These rails without chairs
cannot be used on inferior
type of sleepers being less
strong as far as vertical loads
are concerned. It is less rigid.
Daily inspection of wooden
keys is necessary.
These rails can be changed
easily by driving out the keys
and taking out fish bolts and
fish plates, without disturbing
sleepers.
high
These are more suitable
when lateral loads are more
important rather than
vertical loads.
Functions of sleepers
Holding rails to correct gauge and alignment.
Giving a firm and even support to rails.
Transferring the load evenly from the rails to wider
area of the ballast.
Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and
the ballast to absorb the blows and vibrations of
moving loads.
Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to
premanent way.
Providing means to rectify the track geometry
during its service life.
Requirement of an ideal sleeper
 The initial cost as well as maintenance cost should be
minimum.
 The weight of the sleeper should be moderate so that it is
possible to handle the same.
 The design of sleeper and fastenings should be such that it is
possible to fix and remove the rails easily.
 The sleeper should have sufficient bearing area.
 The sleeper should be such that it is possible to maintain and
adjust gauge properly.
 The material of sleeper and its design should be such that it is
possible to have track circuiting.
 The sleeper should be capable of resisting vibrations and
shocks due to passage of fast moving trains.
 The sleeper should have anti-sabotage and anti-theft qualities.
Comparison of different types of
sleepers
Characterist Wooden Steel C.I. Sleepers Concrete
ics sleepers sleepers sleepers
1. Service life 12 to 15 yrs. 40 to 50 yrs. 40 to 50 yrs. 50 to 60 yrs.

2. Weight of 83kg 79kg 87kg 267kg

sleeper for
B.G.
3. Handling Manual Manual Manual No manual
handling; no handling: No handling: handling: gets
damage to damage to Liable to damaged by
sleeper while sleeper while break by rough
handling handling rough handling
handling
4. Type of Manual or Manual or Manual Mechanised
maintenance mechanised mechanised maintenance maintenance
maintenance maintenance only
5. Cost of High Medium Medium Low
maintenance
6. Gauge Difficult Easy Easy No gauge
adjustment adjustment
possible
7. Track Best Difficult:; Difficult; Easy
circuiting Insulating Insulating
pads are pads are
necessary necessary
8. Damage by Can be No damage Can be No damage
white ants damaged by by white ants damaged by by white ants
and corrosion white ants but corrosion corrosion or corrosion.
is possible
9. Suitability Suitable for CF & EF Suitable for Suitable for
for fastening CF & EF only CF only EF
10. Suitability suitable for all suitable for all Not suitable suitable for
to track routes routes for high speed high speed
routes routes.
11. Track Good Good Good Best
elasticity
12. Creep Creep is Less Creep Less Creep Creep is
excessive minimum
13. Scrap Low scrap Higher scrap High scrap No scrap
value value value than value value.
wooden
sleeper
Wooden Sleepers
Advantages
Cheap and easy to manufacture
Absorbs shocks and has got good capacity to dampen
the vibrations thereby retains packing well.
Easy handling without damage
Suitable for track circuited sections.
Suitable for areas having yielding formations.
Alignment can be easily corrected.
More suitable for modern methods of maintenance.
Can be used with or without stone ballast.
Can be used on bridges and ash pits also.
Can be used for gaunteletted track.
Wooden sleepers disadvantages
Lesser life due to wear, decay and attack by
vermin.
Liable to mechanical wear with beater
packing.
Difficult to maintain gauge.
Susceptible to fire hazards.
Scrap value is negligible.
Sleeper Density
Number of sleepers per rail length and it is
specified as (n + x), where n is the length of
the rail in meters and x is a number, varying
according to the following factors:
Axle load and speed
Type and section of the rails
Type of ballast and ballast cushion
Type of sleeper
 Functions of Ballast
To provide a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest
on.
To hold the sleepers in position during the passage of
trains.
To transfer and distribute the load from sleepers to a
large area of formation.
To provide elasticity and resilience to track for getting
proper riding comfort.
To provide necessary resistance to track for
longitudinal and lateral stability.
To provide effective drainage to track.
To provide effective means of maintaining level and
alignment of the track.
Requirements of good ballast
It should be tough and wear resistant.
It should be hard without getting crushed under the
moving loads.
It should be generally cubical having sharp edges.
It should be non-porous and non-absorbent of water
It should resist attrition.
It should be durable and should not get pulverized
under the weather conditions.
It should provide good drainage of water
It should be cheap and economical in proce.
Comparison of different type of
ballast
Type of Ballast Advantages Disadvantages Suitability
1. Sand ballast (i) Good (i) Causes (i) Suitable for
drainage excessive C.I. pot
properties wear sleeper track.
(ii) Cheap (ii) Blows off (ii) Not suitable
(iii) Gives silent easily for high
track (iii) Retentivity of speed track
(iv) Good packing packing poor
material for (iv) Maintenance
C.I. Pot of track not
sleepers to high
standards.

2. Moorum (i) Cheap, if (i) Very soft and (i) Used as sub-
Ballast locally turns into ballast.
available dust (ii) Initial ballast
(ii) Prevents (ii) Maintenance for new
water from of track construction .
percolating difficult
(iii) Provides (iii) Quality of
good track
aesthetic average.
3. Coal ash or (i) Easy (i) Harmful for (i) Normally
cinder availability steel used in
on railways. sleepers. yards &
(ii) Very cheap (ii) Corrodes sidings
(iii)Good rail bottom (ii) Suitable for
drainage. & steel repairs of
sleepers formation in
(iii)Soft & floods &
easily emergencies
pulverises .
(iv)Maintenanc (iii)Not fit for
e difficult high speed
track.

4. Broken stone (i) Hard and (i) Initial cost is (i) Sui9table for
ballast durable when high packing with
procured from (ii) Difficulties in track
hard stones procurement machines
(ii) Good (iii) Angular (ii) Suitable for
drainage shape may high speed
properties injure track
(iii) Gives stability wooden
and resilience sleepers.
to track.
(iv) Good
retentivity of
packing
Subgrade and Formation
Subgrade is normally defined as the naturally
occuring soil, which can be further prepared to
receive the ballast. Sometime this term is
loosely used for formation also.
Formation: The prepared flat surface, whish is
ready to receive the ballast, sleepers and rails
is called the formation. The formation can be
in the shape of an embankment or a cutting.
Function of Formation
To provide a smooth and uniform bed on
which track can be laid.
To bear the load transmitted to it from the
moving load through the section of ballast
To facilitate drainage.
To provide stability to the track.
Track Fittings and
Fastenings
Purpose & Type
1. Rail to Rail joining
2. Rail to Wooden sleepers fitting
3. Rail to steel trough sleepers
4. Rail to cast iron sleepers
5. Elastic fastenings to the used
with concrete, steel and wooden
sleepers
Details of Fittings and
Fastenings
Fish plates, Combination fish
plates, bolts and nuts
Dog spikes, Fang bolts, screw
spikes, Bearing plates
Loose jaws, keys and liners
Tie bars and cotters
Elastic or Pandrol clip, IRN 202
clip, H.M. rfastening, M.C.I. Insert,
Rubber pads and Nylon liners
Fish plate
Fish Plates Requirements
 They must support the underside of the rail and top of the
foot.
 They should allow a free movement of rails for expansion
and contraction; for this purpose, they should not touch the
web.
 They must be of such a section as to bear the stresses due
to lateral and vertical bending moments without getting
distorted and must absorb the shock caused by the jumping
of the wheel over the expansion gap.
 They should hold the ends of the rail both laterally in line
and vertically in level.
 They should be provided against wear of fish plates due to
impact, expansion and contraction.
Failure of fish-plates
Abrasion on top of fish-plate, especially along
central half length.
Reversal of stresses due large length of fish-
plates results into cracking along the section.
The crack starts from top.
Cracking along the section may extend upto
top or bottom of fish plate.
Spikes
Characteristics of good spike:
First of all, the spike should be strong enough
to hold the rail in position and it should have
enough resistance against movement to retain
its original position so that it does not lead to
creep under any circumstances.
The spike should be as deep as possible.
The spike should be easy in fixing and
removal from the sleepers.
It should properly maintain the Gauge.
Spikes
Screw Spikes Dog Spikes

Round Spike Fang Bolt

Fittings for wooden
Sleepers
Dog-spike
 Dog spikes are used for fixing rail to the
wooden sleepers. The number of dog spike
normally used is as follows:
On straight track - 2 (One on either side and
duly
staggered)
On curved track - 3 (2 outside and 1 inside)
Joint sleepers - 4 (2 outside and 2 inside)
Round Spikes:
 Round spikes are used for fixing the rails with sleepers
using anti-creep bearing plates.
These are also used for fixing assemblies of switches on
wooden sleepers.
Fang Bolts
These are employed for fastening slide chairs to sleepers,
under the switches. These are used in locations where
gauge is to be preserved.
Screw Spikes:
These are used for fixing the anti creep bearing plates.
They are also used on bridges and platform lines.
Bearing Plates
 They are used for fixing the wooden sleeper to the
rails.
Types of bearing plates
Mild steel canted Bearing Plates
 These are used on all joints and on curves to give better
bearing area to the rails.
 These bearing plates have got a cant of 1 in 20 and a groove
in the centre to prevent rocking.
 Bearing plates with only round holes are permitted to be used.

 The normal size of bearing plate is 260mm x 220mm x 18mm

for 52kg and 90R rails.
Flat M.S. Bearing Plates
 These plates are used for points and Crossings in the lead portion
of the turnout.
 No cant is provided in these bearing plates. The size of the
bearing plate is 260mm x 220mm x 18mm for 52kg and 90R rails.
Cast iron Anti Creep Bearing Plates
 These plates are provided with wooden sleepers at locations
where creep is likely to be developed.
 These bearing plates have got 1 in 20 cant and can be fixed with
normal round spikes.
 The A.C.B. plate is 285mm x 205mm for B.G.

Special C.I. Bearing Plate for B.H. Rail

 Special cast iron bearing plates are used for Bull headed rails.
 The rail is held in position with the help of a spring key.
Fittings of Steel Trough
Sleepers
 Loose Jaws
 Used for holding the rail to steel trough sleeper with the
helps of keys.
 These jaws can be easily replaced. These are
manufactured out of spring steel.
 Two way keys
 These keys are used universally with trough sleepers, pot-
sleepers and CST-9 sleepers.
 A two way taper is provided on both sides of the keys and
as such the keys can be driven in either direction.
 These keys are manufactured from a special rolled section.
 The length of the keys is about 190mm for B.G. with a
taper of 1 in 32.
 A gauge variation of +- 3mm can be adjusted by altering
the length of drive of these keys.
 Rubber Coated & Epoxy coated fish plates
 There were tried some time back for use on insulated
joints on trial basis on the Indian Railways.
 They get damaged early in service and their life is
limited.
 Trials were carried out for use on insulated joints.
 Mota Singh Liner
 The holes in trough sleepers get elongated in actual
service due to wear and tear caused on account of
moving loads.
 “Mota Singh Liner” is an effective liner used with loose
jaws for overcoming the problem of elongated holes.
Fitting of C.I. Sleepers
Cotters
These are used for fixing the tie bars with the
C.I. Sleepers.
Following four different types of cotters,
classified according to their methods of
splitting, are being used at present on Indian
Railways:
 Centre split cotter
 Side split cotter

 Solid end split cotter

 Bent plate cotter

 M.S. Tie Bars
 Are used for holding the two plates of CST-9 sleepers
together.
 The normal length of tie bar is 2720mm for B.G. and
1870mm for M.G.
 The section of the B.G. tie bar is 50mm x 13mm and that
of M.G. is 45mm x 10mm.
Elastic Fastenings
Necessity for elastic Fastenings:
To fix the rail with the sleeper.
To meet the present challenge of heavy
dynamic forces and high frequency vibration
of the order of 800 to 1000 cycles per second
even at a moderate speed of 100 kmph.
It safeguard the track parameters and
dampen the vibrations.
Requirements of an Elastic
Fastening
It should hold gauge well
It should have adequate toe load which should not
reduce under service.
It should provide sufficient elasticity to absorb the
vibrations and shocks caused by moving loads.
It should keep the track well maintained.
It should provide adequate resistance to
longitudinal forces caused due to acceleration of
moving loads and other miscellaneous factors.
These longitudinal forces tend to develop creep in
the track.
It should be of “Fit and Forget” type to require least
maintenance.
It should be of the type that it can be used and re-
used without losing its properties.
It should have a few parts as possible, which are
easy to be manufactured, laid and maintained.
It should be of the type that it cannot be taken out
and as such is free from sabotage or theft.
It should be of universal type so that it can be used
on wooden, steel or concrete sleepers.
It should be cheap and have a long life.
Type of Elastic Fastenings
1. Pandrol Clip or Elastic Rail Clip
It is a Fit and forget type of fastening and very little
attention is required to main the same.
It exerts a toe load of 710 kg for a normal deflection of
11.4mm.
The toe load is quiet adequate to ensure that no relative
movement between rail and sleeper is possible.
These clips can be fixed on wooden, steel, cast iron and
concrete sleepers with the help of base plate and with
some other ancillary fittings.
There are maximum used in Indian Railways along with
concrete sleepers.
Drawbacks of Pandrol Clip or Elastic Rail Clip
No adjustment of gauge is possible
This has a point contact and causes indentation
on the foot of the rail.
It does-not provide safeguard for theft at it can
be taken out by ordinary hammer.
2. IRN 202 Clips
 This is designed to suit RCC sleeper.
 It is designed for a toe load of 1000kg and a deflection of 18.5mm.
 It consist of outer leg connected by means of two coils.
 It is held in position by a bolt and clamp arrangement.
 It holds the track gauge easily and effectively.
 It has the advantage that the rail can be changed without removing
the fastening simply by loosening the bolt and pussing the rail out.
Drawbacks:
 Corrosion
 It is not a fit and forget type because it requires frequent attention
like oiling and tightening of the nuts.
 It is costlier and heavier
3. Lock Spikes
The lock or round spike are used for wooden
sleepers.
4. Spring steel clip
These are used in pre-stressed concrete
sleepers.
In this assembly, the rail rest on a grooved
rubber pad and is held vertically by a pair of
spring clips at each rail seat. The clip is pressed
by a nut tightened on a 22mm bolt which is
inserted from the underside of the sleeper.
5. Elastic rail clip MK-III
6. HM fastening
M.C.I. Inserts
Malleable Cast iron inserts are fixed directly
into the concrete sleepers during
manufacture.
Types
 Stem Type M.C.I. Insert – for pretension concrete sleepers
 Gate Type M.C.I. Insert – Post tension concrete sleepers
Rubber Pad
It is provided between rails and sleepers to
perform
Absorbs the shocks and vibrations
Resist lateral movement of rails
Prevent abrasion of the bottom surface of the
rails.
Provides electrical insulation between the rails
in an electrified area.
Number of Fastenings
Type of Ordinary Nos. Elastic Fastening Nos.
sleeper Fastenings per sleeper
per sleeper
1. Wooden Dog spikes or 8 C.I. Bearing Plates 2
Screw spikes 8 Plate Screws 8
Keys for C.I. Pandrol clips 4
Bearing 4 Rubber pads 2
plates
2. Concrete No ordinary - Pandrol clips 4
Fastenings Nylon liners 4
Rubber pads 2
M.C.I. inserts 4
3. Steel Keys 4 Modified loose jaws 4
trough Loose jaws 4 Pandrol clips 4
Rubber pads 2
4. CST/9 Plates 2 Pandrol clips 4
Tie Bar 1 Rubber pads 2
Cotters 4
Track Junctions
Combinations of points and crossings
Transfer or cross rail vehicles from one track
to another
Turnout of Similar Flexure

It continuous to run in the same direction as the

main line curve even after branching off from it.
The degree of the turnout curve is higher than
that of the main line curve.
Turnout of Contrary
Flexure

It takes off towards the direction opposite to

that of the main line curve.
 Symmetrical split

 In this a straight track splits up in two different direction with

equal radii
 It is the contrary flexure in which the radii of the two curves are
the same.
 It consist of a pair of points, one acute angle crossing, four
curved lead rails and two check rails.
 Layout is symmetrical about the centre line
 It diverts vehicles towards left and right.
 Three-throw switch

 In this, two turnouts take off from the same line of the main line track.
 It can be contrary or similar flexure
 It is used in congested goods yards and at entry points to locomotive
yards where there is less space.
 It has two switches each having two tongue rails placed side by side.
 Key block is combined for both tongue rails.
 Switches can be operated in such a way that movement is possible in
three different directions.
 It is hazardous as the use of double switches may lead to derailment.
Double turnout or
tandem
In this, turnout are staggered and takeoff from
the main line at two different places.
This eliminates the defect of the three throw
switch, as the heals of the two switches are
kept at a certain distance from each other.
These are used in congested areas,
particularly when traffic is heavy.
Cross over between Two
Parallel Tracks with an
Intermediate Straight Length
 Diamond Crossing

It is provided when two tracks of either the

same gauge or of different gauges cross
each other.
It consists of two acute crossings (A & C)
and two obtuse crossing (B & D)
Single Slip and Double
Slip
Slips are provided to allow vehicles to change
track which is not possible in diamond
crossing
In single slip there are two sets of joints, the
vehicle from only one direction change track.
Example the train on track A can change to
track D, whereas the train on track C remains
of the same track, continuing on to track D.
In a case of double slips, there are four sets of
points and trains from both directions can
change tracks.
The trains on both tracks A and C can move
on to either track B or D.
Scissors Crossing

It is meant for transferring a Vehicle from one

track to another track.
It is provided where lack of space does not
permit the provision of two separate crossovers.
It consists of four pairs of switches, six acute
crossings, two obtuse crossings, check rails etc..
Gauntletted Track
This is a temporary diversion provided on a
double line track to allow one of the tracks to
shift and pass through the other track.
Both the tracks run together on the same
sleeper.
It proves to be useful connection when one
side of a bridge on a double line section is
required to be blocked for major repairs.
The specialty of this is that there are two
crossings at the ends and no switches.
This tracks are also used on sections where
trains have to operate on mixed gauges for a
short stretch.
 Gathering Line or ladder
track

It is a track where number of parallel tracks

gather or merge.
Triangle
Provided in terminal yards for changing
direction of an engine.
A triangle is provided instead of turntables, if
enough land is available.
It consists of one symmetrical split at R and
two turnouts at P and Q along with lead rails,
check rails etc.
To change the direction of an engine standing
at P, it is first taken to R, then to Q and then
back to P.
Double Junctions
It is required when two or more main line tracks
are running and other tracks are branching off
from these main line tracks in the same
direction.
It consists of ordinary turnout with one or more
diamond crossing depending upon the number
of parallel tracks.
This may occur either on straight or curved main
lines and the branch lines may also be either
single or double lines.
It is common in congested yards.
Points or switch
A pair of tongue and stock rails with the
necessary connections and fittings forms a switch.

Crossing
A crossing is a device introduced at the
junction where two rails cross each other to
permit the wheel flange of a railway vehicle to
pass from one track to another.
Direction of a turnout
 A turnout is designated as a right-hand or a left-hand turnout
depending on whether it diverts the traffic to the right or to
the left.
 The direction of a point is known as the facing direction of a
vehicle approaching the turnout or a point has to first face the
thin end of the switch.
 The direction is trailing direction if the vehicle has to
negotiate a switch in the trailing direction i.e., the vehicle
first negotiates the crossing and then finally traverses on the
switch from its thick end to its thin end.
 Therefore, when standing at the toe of a switch, if one looks
in the direction of the crossing, it is called the facing direction
and the opposite direction is called the trailing direction.
Switches
It contains the following:
 A pair of stock rails, AB and CD, made of medium-manganese steel.
 A pair of tongue rails, PQ and RS, also known as switch rails, made of
medium-manganese steel to withstand wear. The tongue rails are
machined to a very thin section to obtain a snug fit with the stock rail.
The tapered end of the tongue rail is called the toe and the thicker end
is called the heel.
 A pair of heel blocks which hold the heel of the tongue rails is held at
the standard clearance or distance from the stock rails.
 A number of slide chairs to support the tongue rail and enable its
movement towards or away from the stock rail.
 Two or more stretcher bars connecting both the tongue rails close to
the toe, for the purpose of holding them at a fixed distance from each
other.
 A gauge tie plate to fix gauges and ensure correct gauge at the points.
Types of switches
Stud switch
No separate tongue rail is provided and some
portion of the track is moved from one side to the
other side.
Not in use on Indian Railways.

Split switch.
It consist of a pair of stock rails and a pair of tongue
rails.
It is of two types – loose heel type and fixed heal
type.
Loose heel type
In this type of split switch, the switch or tongue rail
finishes at the heal of the switch to enable movement of
the free end of the tongue rail.
The fish plates holding the tongue rail may be straight or
slightly bent.
The tongue rail is fastened to the stock rail with the help
of a fishing fit block and four bolts.
All the fish bolts in the lead rail are tightened while those
in the tongue rail are kept loose or snug to allow free
movement of the tongue.
As the discontinuity of the track at the heal is a weakness
in the structure, the use of these switches is not preferred.
Fixed heal type
In this type of split switch, the tongue rail
does not end at the heel of the switch but
extends further and is rigidly connected.
The movement at the toe of the switch is
made possible on account of the flexibility of
the tongue rail.
Toe of switches
It is of the following types…
Undercut switch:
In this switch the foot of the stock rail is
planed to accommodate the tongue rail.
Overriding switch:
 In this case, the stock rail occupies the full section and the
tongue rail is planed to a 6-mm thick edge, which overrides
the foot of the stock rail.
 The switch rail is kept 6mm higher than the stock rail from the
heel to the point towards the toe where the planning starts.
 This is done to eliminate the possibility of splitting caused by
any false flange moving in the trailing direction.
 This design is considered to be an economical and superior
design due to the reasons given below:
 Since the stock rail is uncut, it is much stronger.
 Manufacturing work is confined only to the tongue rail, which is
very economical.
 Although the tongue rail has a thin edge of only 6mm, it is
supported by the stock rail for the entire weakened portion of its
length. As such, the combined strength of the rails between the
sleepers is greater than that of the tongue rail alone in the
undercut switch.
 These switches have been standardized on the Indian Railways.
Important Terms Pertaining to
Switches
Switch angle:
 This is the angle between the gauge face of the stock rail
and that of the tongue rail at the theoretical toe of the
switch in its closed position.
 It is a function of the heel divergence and the length of the
tongue rail.
Flangeway clearance:
 It is the distance between the adjoining faces of the running
rail and the check rail/wing rail at the nose of the crossing.
 It is meant for providing a free passage to wheel flanges.
 The minimum and maximum value of flangeway clearance
Gauge Flangeway clearance
for BG and MG tracks are:
Maximum value (mm) Minimum value (mm)
BG 48 44
MG 44 41
Length of tongue rail
Gauge and Length of tongue rail
type
1 in 8.5 1 in 12 1 in 12 1 in 16 1 in 20
straight straight curved curved curved
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
BG (90 R) 4725 6400 7730 9750 11150
MG (75 R) 4116* 5485* 6700 7420

* These dimensions hold good for NG tracks also

Crossings
It is a device introduced at the point where two
gauge faces cross each other to permit the
flanges of a railway vehicle to pass from one
track to another.
To achieve this objective, a gap is provided from
the throw to the nose of the crossing, over which
the flanged wheel glides or jumps.
In order to ensure that this flanged wheel
negotiates the gap properly and does not strike
the nose, the other wheel is guided with the help
of check rails.
Components of crossing
1. Two rails, the point rail and splice rail, which are machined to
form a nose.
 The point rail ends at the nose, where as the splice rail joins it a
little behind the nose.
 Theoretically, the points rail should end in a point and be made as
thin as possible, but such a knife edge of the point rail would break
off under the movement of traffic.
 The point rail, therefore, has its fine end slightly cut off to form a
blunt nose, with a thickness of 6mm.
 The toe of the blunt nose is called the actual nose of crossing and
the theoretical point where gauge faces from both sides intersect is
called the theoretical nose of crossing.
 The ‘V’ rail is planed to a depth of 6mm at the nose and runs out in
89mm to stop a wheel running in the facing direction from hitting
the nose.
2. Two wing rails consisting of a right-hand and a
left-hand wing rail that converge to form a throat
and diverge again on either side of the nose.
Wing rails are flared at the ends to facilitate the
entry and exit of the flanged wheel in the gap.
3. A pair of check rails to guide the wheel flanges
and provide a path for them, thereby preventing
them from moving sideways, which would
otherwise may result in the wheel hitting the
nose of the crossing as it moves in the facing
direction.
Types of Crossings
a) An acute angle crossing or ‘V’ crossing in which
the intersection of the two gauge faces from an
acute angle. For example, when a right rail
crosses s left rail, it makes an acute crossing.
b) An obtuse or diamond crossing in which the
two gauge faces meet at an obtuse angle.
When a right or left rail crosses a similar rail, it
makes an obtuse crossing.
c) A square crossing in which two tracks cross at
right angle. Such crossings are rarely used in
actual practice.
Built up crossing
In a built-up crossing, two wing rails and a V section
consisting of splice and point rails are assembled together
by means of bolts and distance blocks to form a crossing.
This type of crossing is commonly used on Indian Railways.
Such crossings have the advantage that their initial cost is
low and that repairs can be carried out simply by welding
or replacing each constituent separately.
A crossing becomes unserviceable when wear is more than
10mm.
A built up crossing, however, lacks rigidity.
The bolts required frequent checking and sometimes break
under fast and heavy traffic.
Cast steel crossing
This is a one-piece crossing with no bolts and,
therefore, requiring very little maintenance.
Comparatively, it is a more rigid crossing
since it consist of one complete mass.
The initial cost of such a crossing is, however,
quite high and its repair and maintenance
pose a number of problems.
Recently cast manganese steel crossings,
which have longer life, have also been
adopted.
Combined rail and cast
crossing
This is a combination of a built-up and cast
steel crossing and consists of a cast steel nose
finished to ordinary rail faces to form the two
legs of the crossing.
Though it allows the welding of worn out wing
rails, the nose is still liable to fracture
suddenly.
CMS crossing
Due to increase in traffic and the use of heavier axle
loads, the ordinary built-up crossings manufactured
from medium-manganese rails subjected to very
heavy wear and tear, specially in fast lines and
suburban sections with electric traction.
Past experience has shown that the life of such
crossings varies from 6 months to 2 years, depending
on their location and the service conditions.
CMS crossings possess higher strength, offer more
resistance to wear, and consequently have a longer
life.
Advantages of CMS
crossings
Less wear and tear
Longer life: The average life of a CMS crossing
is about four times more than that of an
ordinary built-up crossing.
CMS crossings are free from bolts as well as
other components that normally tend to get
loose as a result of the movement of traffic.
These days CMS crossings are preferred on Indian Railways.
Though their initial cost is high, their maintenance cost is
relatively less and they last longer.
However, special care must be taken in their laying and
maintenance.
Keeping this in view, CMS crossings have been standardized
on Indian Railways.
On account of the limited availability of CMS crossings in
the country, their use has, however, been restricted for the
time being to group A routes.
These should also be reserved for use on heavily worked
lines of all the groups in busy yards.
Spring or Movable
crossing
In a spring crossing, one wing rail is movable and is held
against the V of the crossing with a strong helical spring
while the other wing rail is fixed.
When a vehicle passes on the main track, the movable
wing rail is snug with the crossing and the vehicle does
not need to negotiate any gap at the crossing.
In case the vehicle has to pass over a turnout track, the
movable wing is forced out by the wheel flanges and the
vehicle has to negotiate a gap as in a normal turnout.
This type of crossing is useful when there is high-speed
traffic on the main track and slow-speed traffic on the
turnout track.
Raised check Rails for Obtuse
In order to provide a guided pathway in the
Crossings
throat portion of a 1 in 8.5 BG obtuse diamond
crossing, the check rails are raised by welding
as 25-mm-thick MS plate.
This arrangement is considered satisfactory
for BG as well as MG routes.
Position of sleepers at points and
crossings
Sleepers are normally perpendicular to the
track.
At points and crossings, a situation arises
where the sleepers have to cater to the main
line as well as to the turnout portion of the
track.
For this purpose, longer sleepers are used for
some length of the track as shown in Fig.
Number and Angle of
Crossing
A crossing is designated either by the angle
the gauge faces make with each other or,
more commonly, by the number of the
crossing, representing by N.
There are three methods of measuring the
number of crossing, and the value of N also
depends upont he method adopted.
All these methods are illustrated in Fig.
Centre line method
This method is used in Britain and the USA.
In this method, N is measured along the
centre line of the crossing.
Right angle method
This method is used on Indian Railways.
In this method, N is measured along the base
of a right-angled triangle.
This method is also called Coles method.

Isosceles triangle method

In this method, N is taken as one of the equal
sides of an isosceles triangle.
The right angle method used by Indian
Railways, in which N is the contingent of the
angle formed by two gauge faces, gives the
smallest angle for the same value of N.
To determine the number of a crossing (N) on
site, the point where the offset gauge face of
the turnout track is 1 m is marked.
The distance of this point (in meters) from the
theoretical nose of crossing gives N.
Turnouts
The simplest arrangement of points and
crossing can be found on a turnout taking off
from a straight track.
There are two standard methods prevalent for
designing a turnout.
These are the (a) Coles method and (b) IRS
method.
These methods are described in detail in the
following sections.
Curve lead (CL)
This is the distance from the tangent point (T)
to the theoretical nose of crossing (TNC)
measured along the length of the main track.

Switch lead (SL)

This is the distance from the tangent point (T)
to the heel of the switch measured along the
length of the main track.
Lead of crossing (L)
This is the distance measured along the length of the
main track as follows:
Lead of crossing (L) = Curve lead(CL) – Switch lead (SL)

Gauge (G)
This is the gauge of the track.
Heel divergence (D)
This is the distance between the main line and
the turnout side at the heel.

Angle of crossing (α)

This is the angle between the main line and
the tangent of the turnout line.
Radius of turnout (R)
This is the radius of the turnout.
It may be clarified that the radius of the
turnout is equal to the radius of the centre line
to the turnout (R1) plus half the gauge width.
R = R1 + 0.5G
As the radius of a curve is quite large, for
practical purposes, R may be taken to be
equal to R1.
Special fittings with
turnouts
Some of the special fittings required for use
with turnouts are enumerated below.

Distance blocks
Special types of distance blocks with fishing
fit surfaces are provided at the nose of the
crossing to prevent any vertical movement
between the wing rail and the nose of the
Flat bearing plates
crossing.

As turnouts do not have any cant, flat bearing

plates are provided under the sleepers.
Spherical washers
These are special type of washers and consist
of two pieces with a spherical point of contact
between them.
This permits the two surfaces to line at any
angle to each other.
These washers are used for connecting two
surfaces that are not parallel to one another.
Normally, tapered washers are necessary for
connecting such surfaces.
Spherical washers can adjust to the uneven
bearings of the head or nut of a bolt and so
are used on all bolts in the heel and the
Slide chairs
These are provided under tongue rails to
allow them to move laterally.
These are different for ordinary switches and
overriding switches.

Grade off chairs

These are special chairs provided behind the
heel of the switches to give a suitable ramp to
the tongue rail, which is raised by 6mm at the
heel.
Gauge tie plates
These are provided over the sleepers directly
under the toe of the switches, and under the
nose of the crossing to ensure proper gauge
at these locations.

Stretcher bars
These are provided to maintain the two
tongue rails at an exact distance.
Coles method
This is a method used for designing a turnout taking
off from a straight track.
The curvature beings from a point on the straight
main track ahead of the toe of the switch at the
theoretical toe of switch (TTS) and ends at the
theoretical nose of crossing (TNC).
The heel of the switch is located at the point where
the offset of the curve is equal to the heel divergence.
Theoretically, there would be no kinks in this layout,
had the tongue rail been curved as also the wind rail
up to the TNC.
Since tongue rails and wind rails are not curved
generally, there are the following three kinds in this
layout.
 The first kind is formed at the actual toe of the switch.
 The second kink is formed at the heel of the switch.
 The third kink is formed at the first distance block of the crossing.

The notations used in Fig are the following.

Curve lead (CL) = AE = TE’
Switch lead (SL) = TL
Lead of crossing (L) = LE’
Gauge of track (G) = AT = EE’
Angle of the crossing (α) = CEA = ECE’
Heel of divergence (d) = LM
Number of the crossing (N) = cot α
Radius of outer rail of turnout curve (R) = OE = OT
(O is the centre of the turnout curve)