MTH6132, Relativity

Lecture 5
Given 10th October 2018

Hans Bantilan
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Four-Vectors

We are always moving in time. To impress this upon you, I want to briefly reintroduce units again so
c = 3 × 108 m/s and we label our spacetime points by (ct, x, y, z). For those of us who live and die on the
Earth which has a radius of about 6.4 × 106 m, we’ll move in a space direction by at most 2π × 6.4 × 106
m which comes up to almost exactly 4 × 107 m, or 40 million meters. But just sitting on your couch for
1 second, you move in the time direction by 1 s × 3 × 108 m/s, or 300 million meters. Given that we
move in time, we would like a notion of velocity that takes this into account.
A four-vector ~v is a vector associated with a point p in spacetime that can be represented by four
0 0 0 0
components ~v 7→ (v t , v x , v y , v z ) in some frame F : (t, x, y, z), and its components ~v 7→ (v t , v x , v y , v z )
in any other frame F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) are related to (v t , v x , v y , v z ) by Lorentz transformations. These are
written below assuming F and F 0 are in standard configuration
0 0
vt = γv t + γβv x
0 0
vx = γβv t + γv x
0
vy = vy
0
vz = vz . (1)

The inner product h.i assigns a real number h~v , wi

~ to two four-vectors ~v , w
~ at a point p. In some
frame F : (t, x, y, z), it can be written as follows

~ = −v t wt + v x wx + v y wy + v z wz .
h~v , wi (2)

The norm ||.|| induced by this inner product assigns a real number ||~v || to a four-vector ~v at a point
p. In some frame F : (t, x, y, z), it can be written as follows

||~v ||2 = −(v t )2 + (v x )2 + (v y )2 + (v z )2 . (3)

Remark. Notice the similarity between the expression (3) for the norm and that for the spacetime
interval: both the norm and the spacetime interval are invariant under Lorentz transformations. It then
follows that the inner product (2) is also invariant under Lorentz transformations; this can be seen by
~ 2 = ||~v ||2 + ||w||
inspecting the identity ||~v + w|| ~ 2 + 2h~v , wi.
~
A four-vector ~v is timelike when ||~v ||2 < 0 (it is unit timelike when ||~v ||2 = −1), null when
||~v ||2 = 0, and spacelike when ||~v ||2 > 0 (it is unit spacelike when ||~v ||2 = 1).
The curves we have considered thus far have been straight lines between two events p and q. If these
points have labels p 7→ (tp , xp , yp , zp ) and q 7→ (tq , xq , yq , zq ) in some frame F : (t, x, y, z), then these
straight lines can be expressed as parametrized curves

t(λ) = (1 − λ)tp + λtq

x(λ) = (1 − λ)xp + λxq
y(λ) = (1 − λ)yp + λyq
z(λ) = (1 − λ)zp + λzq , (4)

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for some parameter λ ∈ [0, 1], where p is at λ = 0 and q is at λ = 1. We shall now consider more general
curves (t(λ), x(λ), y(λ), z(λ)).

A tangent vector ~u to a curve (t(λ), x(λ), y(λ), z(λ)) parametrized by some parameter λ is a four-
dt dx dy dz
vector ~u whose components in frame F : (t, x, y, z) are ~u 7→ ( dλ , dλ , dλ , dλ ).

When a tangent vector is unit timelike, it is known as a four-velocity. The four-velocity of a particle
in the particle’s own rest frame F : (τ, X, Y, Z) is ~u 7→ (uτ , uX , uY , uZ ) = (1, 0, 0, 0). This is because in
its rest frame, it is not moving in space so the spatial components of ~u are zero uX = 0, uY = 0, uZ = 0,
and ~u is a unit timelike ||~u||2 = −1 so its remaining time component must be uτ = 1. We also happen to
dτ
know that uτ = dλ , so we see that the parameter λ in the case of a four-velocity ~u can be identified with
the proper time τ of the particle. Recall that the proper time experienced by a particle is the time τ
measured in its rest frame F : (τ, X, Y, Z) at constant X, Y, Z e.g. at X = 0, Y = 0, Z = 0.

In summary: the four-velocity ~u to a worldline (t(τ ), x(τ ), y(τ ), z(τ )) parametrized by proper time τ
dt dx dy dz
is the unit timelike four-vector ~u whose components in some frame F : (t, x, y, z) are ~u 7→ ( dτ , dτ , dτ , dτ ).

Arc Length Between Spacelike Separated Events

The arc length σ of a curve (t(λ), x(λ), y(λ), z(λ)) between two events p and q that has tangent vector
dt dx dy dz
~u 7→ ( dλ , dλ , dλ , dλ ) that is spacelike along the entire curve is given by
s  
Z q Z q 2  2  2  2
p dt dx dy dz
σ= dλ ||~u(λ)||2 = dλ − + + + (5)
p p dλ dλ dλ dλ

and is invariant under Lorentz transformations and reparametrizations.

Parametrizing by arc length λ = σ is a special choice for such curves: the norm of a spacelike tangent
~
vector is unit ||u(λ)|| = 1 along the entire curve if and only if the curve is parametrized by arc length
dt dx dy dz
λ = σ. Such a curve (t(σ), x(σ), y(σ), z(σ)) has unit tangent vector of the form ~u 7→ ( dσ , dσ , dσ , dσ ) i.e.
choosing to parametrize the curve by arc length σ ensures that the tangent vector is unit ||~u(σ)||2 = 1
along the entire curve. You can prove this by differentiating (5) with respect to σ for such a curve going
from a start point p with arc length s̃ = 0 to an end point q with arc length s̃ = s, and using the
fundamental theorem of calculus:
Z σ
d p
1= dσ̃ ||~u(σ̃)||2 = ||~u(σ)||2 (6)
dσ 0

The arc length (5) between points p and q along straight lines of the form (4) is equal to the spacetime
interval between points p and q.

√ p
spq = −∆t2 + ∆x2 + ∆y 2 + ∆z 2 , (7)

where ∆t = tq − tp , ∆x = xq − xp , ∆y = yq − yp , ∆z = zq − zp .

Example. Consider a curve defined by

x(λ) = R cos λ
y(λ) = R sin λ,

between two points p at λ = 0 and q at λ = π/2.

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y
q

p x

According to (5), the arc length between p and q is

s 
Z q p Z q 2  2
2
dx dy
dλ ||~u|| = dλ +
p p dλ dλ
Z π/2 p
= R dλ cos2 λ + sin2 λ
0
π
= R, (8)
2
and given that this curve is nothing but a quarter of a circle of radius R, this result is precisely the
expected (2πR)/4.

Proper Time Elapsed Between Timelike Separated Events

The proper time τ elapsed along a curve (t(λ), x(λ), y(λ), z(λ)) between events p and q that has tangent
dt dx dy dz
vector ~u 7→ ( dλ , dλ , dλ , dλ ) that is timelike along the entire curve is given by
s 
Z q p Z q 2  2  2  2
2
dt dx dy dz
τ= dλ −||~u(λ)|| = dλ − − − , (9)
p p dλ dλ dλ dλ
and is invariant under Lorentz transformations and reparametrizations.
Parametrizing by proper time λ = τ is a special choice for such curves: the norm of a timelike tangent
~
vector is unit ||u(λ)|| = −1 along the entire curve if and only if the curve is parametrized by proper time
λ = τ . Such a curve (t(τ ), x(τ ), y(τ ), z(τ )) has unit tangent vector, thus making it a four-velocity, of
dt dx dy dz
the form ~u 7→ ( dτ , dτ , dτ , dτ ) i.e. choosing to parametrize the curve by proper time τ ensures that the
tangent vector is unit ||~u(τ )||2 = −1 along the entire curve. You can prove this by differentiating (9)
with respect to τ for such a curve going from a start point p with proper time τ̃ = 0 to an end point q
with proper time τ̃ = τ , and using the fundamental theorem of calculus:
Z τ p
d
1= dτ̃ ||~u(τ̃ )||2 = ||~u(τ )||2 (10)
dτ 0

The proper time (9) between points p and q along straight lines of the form (4) is equal to the
spacetime interval between points p and q
p p
−spq = ∆t2 − ∆x2 − ∆y 2 − ∆z 2 , (11)
where ∆t = tq − tp , ∆x = xq − xp , ∆y = yq − yp , ∆z = zq − zp .
Example. Consider a curve defined by
1
t(λ) = sinh(aλ)
a
1
x(λ) = cosh(aλ),
a
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between two points p at λ = 0 and q at λ = 1. This curve describes the worldline of a particle undergoing
uniform acceleration a in the +x direction.

t
q

p x

According to (9), the elapsed proper time between p and q is

s 
Z q p Z q 2  2
2
dt dx
dλ −||~u|| = dλ −
p p dλ dλ
Z 1 q
= dλ cosh2 (aλ) − sinh2 (aλ)
0
Z 1
= dλ
0
= 1, (12)

which can be compared to the time ∆t = tq − tp = sinh(a)/a > 1 for all a; this result may be used as the
first part (out of four parts) of a realistic trajectory that depicts the Twin Paradox.
Four-Momentum

The four-momentum of a particle with a four-velocity ~u is the timelike four-vector p~ = m~u for some non-
negative real number m, whose components in some frame F : (t, x, y, z) is denoted
p by p~ 7→ (E, px , py , pz ).
Here, E is the particle’s relativistic energy measured in frame F , p = (p ) + (py )2 + (pz )2 is its
x 2

relativistic momentum measured in frame F , and the particle’s mass m is defined as the negative
squared norm of the four-momentum ||p||2 = −m2 and thus has the same value in all frames.
The definition for four-momentum can be extended for particles following worldlines whose tangent
vectors are all null i.e. photons, by two defining relations 1) p~ 7→ (E, px , py , pz ), and 2) ||p||2 = 0. It
follows from (2), and the definition of mass as the negative squared norm of the four-momentum, that
m = 0 for a photon.

Norm of the Four-Momentum

The norm of the four-momentum can be written in two ways:

p||2 = ||m~u||2 = m2 ||~u||2 = −m2 ,

1. as ||~

p||2 = −E 2 + (px )2 + (py )2 + (pz )2 = −E 2 + p2 .

2. or as ||~

Equating 1. and 2. yields

m2 = E 2 − p2 . (13)
Reintroducing units with c = 3 × 10 m/s, remember that relativistic energy E is in units of kg m /s2 ,
8 2

compared to mass m which has units of kg and relativistic momentum p which has units of kg m/s.
Demanding that all terms in (13) has the same units, that of energy squared kg2 m4 /s4 , we obtain

(mc2 )2 = E 2 − (pc)2 . (14)

Remark. In the rest frame of a particle of mass m, its relativistic momentum is zero p = 0, so

E = mc2 . (15)

We thus see that (15) is a special case of (14) when the relativistic energy E is observed from the rest
frame of the particle.

Measuring Relativistic Energy

Let a particle have four-momentum p~ in some frame F : (t, x, y, z), and let an observer with four-velocity
~u be at rest in frame F . The relativistic energy of the particle E seen in frame F can be calculated using
1) the four-velocity ~u of this observer and 2) the four-momentum p~ of the particle

−h~
p, ~ui = E. (16)

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This is straightforward to see in the rest frame of the observer where ~u 7→ (ut , ux , uy , uz ) = (1, 0, 0, 0)
and p~ 7→ (E, px , py , pz ), so h~
p, ~ui = −(E)(1) + (px )(0) + (py )(0) + (pz )(0) = 0. Since the inner product is
invariant to Lorentz transformations, we conclude that -h~ p, ~ui = E gives the same result in all frames.
Example. F : (t, x, y, z) and F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) are in standard configuration with boost parameter β.
Consider a photon being emitted in frame F 0 towards the −x direction, so its four-momentum is seen
0 0
in F 0 to be p~ 7→ (E 0 , px , 0, 0) with px < 0. What is the relativistic energy E of that photon as seen in
frame F ?
p||2 = 0.
First notice that p~ is null for a photon, so ||~
0 0 0
In frame F 0 , this gives 0 = ||~
p||2 = −E 02 + (px )2 , and since px < 0, we get px = −E, so the four-
momentum of the photon in frame F 0 is p~ 7→ (E 0 , −E 0 , 0, 0).
Method 1: E seen in frame F can be evaluated using (16).
The energy E is seen by an observer with four-velocity ~u at rest in frame F and so has ~u 7→ (ut , ux , uy , uz ) =
(1, 0, 0, 0). Since we can evaluate the inner product (16) in any frame, let us do so in frame F 0 where the
0
four-momentum of the photon is p~ 7→ (E 0 , px , 0, 0) = (E 0 , −E 0 , 0, 0) and the four-velocity of the observer
0 0 0 0
at rest in F is ~u 7→ (ut , ux , uy , uz ) = (γ, −γβ, 0, 0). According to (16),
E = −h~
p, ~ui
= − (−(E 0 )(γ) + (−E 0 )(−γβ))
= γ(1 − β)E 0 .
s
1−β 0
= E. (17)
1+β

Method 2: E seen in frame F can also be evaluated using only Lorentz transformations.
In frame F , we can obtain E = pt directly by Lorentz transformation
0 0
E = pt = γpt + γβpx
= γ(E 0 ) + γβ(−E 0 )
= γ(1 − β)E 0
s
1−β 0
= E. (18)
1+β
Recall that the energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency. Using either (17) or (18), we have
thus obtained a Doppler shift to a lower frequency f of the photon seen in frame F , compared to the
frequency f 0 of the same photon seen in frame F 0
s
f E 1−β
0
= 0 = . (19)
f E 1+β

Four-Acceleration
The four-acceleration of a particle with a worldline (t(τ ), x(τ ), y(τ ), z(τ )) parametrized by proper time
τ , and a four-velocity ~u, is the four-vector ~a whose components in some frame F : (t, x, y, z) is denoted
t
dux duy duz
by ~a 7→ ( du
dτ , dτ , dτ , dτ ).
2 2 2
In a particle’s own rest frame F : (τ, X, Y, Z), its four-acceleration is ~a 7→ (0, ddτX2 , ddτY2 , ddτZ2 ).
In all frames, the inner product of the four-velocity ~u and four-acceleration ~a of a particle vanishes
h~u, ~ai = 0. (20)
τ X Y Z
This is straightforward to see in the rest frame of the particle where ~u 7→ (u , u , u , u ) = (1, 0, 0, 0)
and ~a 7→ (0, aX , aY , aZ ), so h~u, ~ai = −(1)(0) + (0)(aX ) + (0)(aY ) + (0)(aZ ) = 0. Since the inner product
is invariant to Lorentz transformations, we conclude that h~u, ~ai = 0 gives the same result in all frames.