Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Progress in solar dryers for drying various commodities

Mahesh Kumar n, Sunil Kumar Sansaniwal, Pankaj Khatak
Mechanical Engineering Department, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science & Technology, Hisar 125001, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Uncertain price rise and rapid depletion of fossil fuels accelerated the development of renewable energy
Received 10 July 2014 sources in the form of alternative power sources. Solar is an abundant, renewable and sustainable energy
Received in revised form source that attracted many eminent researchers across the world to work in the field of solar energy
11 August 2015
applications. In developing countries, solar drying is capable of fulfilling the increasing demand of
Accepted 26 October 2015
Available online 21 November 2015
healthy, low cost natural foods and need for sustainable income. Solar dryers used for agricultural
product drying can be proved to be most useful device from energy conservation point of view that not
Keywords: only save energy but also saves a lot of time, occupying less area, improves product quality and personnel
Solar drying life style. A solar crop drying system does not solely depends on solar energy for its functioning besides
Open sun drying
many recent advancements in drying process which combines other form of auxiliary heating source
Direct solar dryers
with sun energy are also in recent trends for reducing fuel consumption. In this paper, a review of various
Indirect solar dryers
Hybrid solar dryers types of solar dryers namely, direct solar dryers, indirect solar dryers, hybrid solar dryers and their
Agricultural and food products drying various drying applications are represented.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
2. Previous studies on direct solar dryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
3. Previous studies on indirect solar dryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
4. Previous studies on hybrid solar dryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
5. Summary and future directions of solar dryers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

1. Introduction shaped housing unit having a transparent sunlight cover. The main
purpose of this invention was to provide a new and improved
In developing countries, open sun drying is a popular, effective, method that assisted in overcoming the deficiencies adverted in
and economical method used for drying and preservation of agri- open sun drying (United States Patent). After decades, many
cultural, food, and many other products. But the external drying eminent researchers made several improvements in solar drying
parameters such as heat input, moisture contents, temperature, technology utilising natural and forced circulation, auxiliary
drying air flow rate etc. cannot be controlled and hence result into source heating (i.e., electricity and fossil fuels) to achieve the
larger drying period or undesirable drying rate. The other drawbacks desirable drying features [2].
In solar drying of agricultural products, the moisture is
of open sun drying method include degradation of product quality by
removed by the solar heated air having temperature range of 50 to
wind-blown, debris, rain, insects, and animals [1].
60°C. Solar drying under controlled conditions of temperature and
The first idea of solar dryer was developed to avoid open sun
moisture removing rate ensures perfect drying and desirable
drying problems by Everitt and Stanley in 1976. It was a box
product quality. The percentage of moisture content in different
agricultural products is different and varies product to product. For
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 91 1662 263564; fax: þ91 1662 276025. drying different moisture content products, the drying systems are
E-mail address: mkshandilya1@gmail.com (M. Kumar). usually classified as low and high temperature operated drying

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.158
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M. Kumar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360 347

systems. In low temperature operated drying system, the moisture

content of the product is brought into equilibrium condition by
drying air using proper ventilation. High temperature drying sys-
tems are used when fast drying rate is required for high moisture
content products. Range of moisture content of some of the agri-
cultural and food commodities are given in Table 1 [3, 4].
Different types of solar dryers are available in various size and
design depending on the requirements. Generally, solar dryers are
classified on the basis of air movement mode, solar contributions, Fig. 1. Classification of solar dryers.
air direction movements, type of product to be dried, and insula-
tion of the assembly [5]. Solar dryers are broadly classified in three Direct solar dryers have a drying chamber which is an insulated
categories as shown in Fig. 1. box covered by a transparent cover made of glass or plastic and
In forced convection solar dryers (or active solar dryers), the air having air holes to allow air to enter and exit the chamber [24,25].
required for product drying is forced through the solar collector to When the solar radiation impinges on the glass cover, the air heat
the dryer chamber using a fan or a blower. In natural convection up and circulates either naturally or by wind pressure using
solar dryers (or passive solar dryers), flow of the air required for external source (e.g., fan, blower, etc.) or combination of both. A
product drying is due to natural or buoyancy force action [2,6]. part of impinged solar radiation will get reflected back to the
Solar dryer gives desirable product quality with minimal atmosphere whereas the other part will get transmitted inside the
environmental impacts. It is an effective, cheap, and safe method dryer cabinet. This transmitted part is again reflected back from
of agricultural and food product drying. Earlier, such studies on the product surface and rest is absorbed by it which increases the
solar dryers have been reviewed by many eminent researchers product temperature and reduces its moisture content by eva-
which have been summarised in Table 2. poration [8].
In present communication, a brief overview of constructional Direct solar dryer has a simple and cheaper construction which
and working details of direct, indirect, and hybrid solar dryers protects the drying product from dust, rain, debris, dews, etc. But
used for drying of various commodities such as agricultural, food, direct solar dryers also have some drawbacks in their functioning
herbal, and medicinal products have been presented. like product overheating, undesirable product quality, and limited
drying capacity [26].
Lutz et al. [27] developed a multipurpose solar crop dryer
2. Previous studies on direct solar dryer comprised of a solar air heater and a tunnel dryer for drying var-
ious agricultural products (Fig. 3). As compared to the traditional
In a direct solar dryer, the moisture of the product to be dried is sun drying methods, the drying time and mass losses were
taken away by the direct impingement of solar radiation on the reduced significantly with the payback period of 1–3 years. Energy
product itself with or without the natural air circulation [2]. A required for the drying of 1000 kg grapes was reported to vary
schematic view of direct solar dryer is shown in Fig. 2. from 11.2 to 23.0 kWh depending on the weather conditions and it
cost to 1.2 to 2.0 US$ which was absolutely negligible as compared
Table 1 to the additional earning. However, dissemination of solar drying
Range of moisture content of some agricultural and food products [3,4]. system to a particular area depends on the availability of elec-
tricity and its requirement.
Commodity Initial moisture content ange of moist- Final moisture
ure content of some agricultural and content (%)
Bena and fuller [28] combined a direct natural convection solar
food products (%) dryer with a simple biomass burner to dry fruits and vegetables in
non-electrified location ( Fig. 4). The overall drying efficiency was
Wheat, barley, 20–25 14–16 reported to be 9% with a capacity of 20–22 kg fresh pineapple
rye
Apple 80 24
(Ananas comosus) arranged in a single layer of 0.01 m thick slices.
Oats, paddy, corn 25–45 12–14 Ahmad [29] designed and fabricated a cylindrical collector (5 m
Rice 24–75 7–11 length and 0.36 m diameter) having a black interior band covered
Corn 24–70 5–14 with transparent insulation. The collector was combined with a
Coffee 50 11
greenhouse dryer and obtained a higher temperature of about
Cauliflower 85 15
Cocoa 50 7 10 °C than ambient for farming product drying. The schematic
Carrots 8–70 5–18 view of solar dryer with cylindrical collector is shown in Fig. 5.
Potatoes 20–75 13–16 Chen et al. [30] studied the drying behaviour of lemon (Citrus
Tomatoes 20–96 5–10
limon) slices by using a closed type solar dryer which combines a
Green Peas 80 5
Pepper – 5 photovoltaic module as electrical energy source and a dehumidi-
Onion, garlic 80 4 fication system to remove the moisture from fresh lemon slices.
Chillies 80 5 However, the photovoltaic module aided in the total cost of drying
Black 80 4
but it increased the drying rate significantly. The results obtained
Maize 35 15
Cotton seed – 8 were compared with hot air drying at 60 °C. Ghazanfari et al. [24]
Okra 80 2 designed a forced air solar dryer for thin layer drying of pistachio
Cabbage 80 4–6 nuts (Pistacia vera) and reduced its moisture content from 21 to 6%
Oil seed 20–25 7–9 on wet basis. The drying constant of pistachio nuts was deter-
Ginger 71 13
Brinjal 95 6
mined by using Fick's and exponential model. The schematic view
Chips 24–95 7–11 of forced air solar dryer is shown in Fig. 6.
Bananas 80–90 10–15 Shreekumar et al. [31] developed an efficient solar dryer for
Grapes 70–80 15–20 bitter gourd (momordica charantia) drying and reduced its
Guavas 80 7
moisture contents from 95 to 5% in 6 h against 11 h for open sun
Apricot 85 18
drying. The life span of dryer was assumed to be 20 years with a
348 M. Kumar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360

Table 2
Summary of review papers on solar dryers.

Sr. no. Researchers Year Remarks

1. Ekechukwu and Norton [2] 1999Reviewed various design, construction, and operational principles for solar drying systems. Forced convection solar
dryers were stated more effective.
2. Pangavhane and Sawhney [7] 2002 Developments of solar dryers for grapes drying were studied.
3. Sharma et al. [8] 2009 Reviewed various design, construction, and operational principle of different solar energy drying systems with recent
developments.
4. Fudholi et al. [9] 2010 Solar dryers considering technical and economic aspects for agricultural and marine products were reviewed.
5. Sagar and Kumar [10] 2010 Recent advancements in drying and dehydration of fruit and vegetables were studied.
6. Bal et al. [11] 2011 Reviewed solar dryers with latent heat storage systems for agricultural product drying.
7. Belessiotis and Delyannis [12] 2011 Solar drying technologies with fundamental principles and parameters were studied.
8. Jangam [13] 2011 Reviewed developments and challenges related to the drying of food items.
9. El-Sebaii and Shalaby [14] 2012 Emphasised the use of direct, indirect, and hybrid solar dryer for agricultural product drying.
10. Gutti et al. [15] 2012 Solar dryer was suggested as an effective tool for agricultural product preservation.
11. Venkataraman et al. [16] 2012 Reviewed solar dryers with respect to the developing countries & also discussed design and development of different
solar dryers.
12. Bala and Debnath [17] 2012 Solar dryer developments for drying of fruits, spices, vegetables, medicinal plants, and fish were reviewed.
13. Paul and Singh [18] 2013 Solar dryers developed for chilli drying were discussed.
14. Toshniwal and Karale [5] 2013 Reviewed solar dryers which were stated to be an efficient, safer, faster, and economical method for product drying
15. Patel et al. [19] 2013 Reviewed development and performance of different solar dryers.
16. Mustayen et al. [20] 2014 The performance of solar dryers used for agricultural product drying in tropical and subtropical countries was discussed.
17. Chaudhari and Salve [21] 2014 Reviewed various solar drying technologies for agricultural and industrial product drying.
18. Shalaby et al. [22] 2014 Various solar drying systems using phase change material as an energy storage medium were reviewed.
19. Pirasteh et al. [23] 2014 Reviewed development of solar drying systems for industrial and agricultural product drying.

Fig. 2. Direct solar dryer [5].

Fig. 4. Solar dryer with biomass burner [28].

Fig. 3. Solar tunnel dryer [27].

payback period of 3.26 year. Ayyappan and Mayilsamy [32] pre-

sented a natural convection solar tunnel drier integrated with
sensible heat storage material for copra (Cocos nucifera) drying.
The moisture content was reduced from 52 to 7.2% on wet basis in
52 h and 78 h respectively with or without use of heat storage
material. The average drying efficiency was reported to be 18% in
both drying modes. Saxena et al. [33] presented an experimental
study to increase the crop drying efficiency by using a photovoltaic
cell. The dryer achieved a higher temperature of 76 °C and reduced
the moisture content from 50 to 60%. The schematic view of solar
dryer with photovoltaic cell is shown in Fig. 7.
Kamble et al. [34] evaluated the drying characteristics of goose
berry candy using a low cost portable solar dryer under natural con-
vection resulting reduction in drying time of 62% as compared to
conventional drying method. The moisture content was observed to
reduce from 36.33 to 8.33% on wet basis. The cost of end product was
estimated to be Rs. 114 kg  1 which leads to an annual profit of Rs.
57,588 for a single unit of solar dryer. Ogheneruona and Yusuf [35]
designed and fabricated a direct natural convection solar dryer for
Fig. 5. Solar dryer with cylindrical collector [29].
Tapioca (Manihot esculenta) drying and reported reduction in its
moisture content from 79 to 10% on wet basis at ambient conditions
(32 °C, 74% Relative humidity). Seveda and Jhajharia [25] designed a
solar dryer for large cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) drying and
observed reduction in moisture content from 75.6 to 10.1% at an
average temperature of 55.7 °C. In comparison to the open sun drying,
a drying time of 55% was saved. Almuhanna et al. [36] presented a
study to check the feasibility of a solar greenhouse as a solar dryer for
dates (Phoenix dactylifera) drying by utilising solar energy as useful
heat gain for rapid product drying. The overall thermal efficiency of
57.2% was reported for solar greenhouse. Seveda [37] evaluated the
performance of a solar tunnel dryer having solar collector area of
 M. Kumar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360
Fig. 6. Forced air solar dryer [24].
Fig. 7. Solar dryer with photovoltaic cell [33].
111.18 m2 for aonla pulp (Emblica orficinalis) drying using greenhouse
heating effect. The reduction in moisture content was observed from
424.93 to 10.08% on dry basis in 16 h. Sanusi et al. [38] investigated the
performance of direct and indirect solar dryers for tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum) drying. It was reported that the direct solar dryer
achieved the highest reduction in moisture content and also showed
highest temperature variation than indirect solar dryer. Tefera et al.
[39] evaluated the performance of wooden and pyramid shape direct
solar dryer for potato (S. tuberosum) drying which reduced overall
drying time by 2–3 h when compared with open sun drying. Pyramid
dryer was observed better in creating more conducive drying envir-
onment with better economic feasibility. Eke and Akachukwu [40]
developed a natural convection solar vegetable dryer to study the
drying performance of tomato (S. lycopersicum), okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus), and carrot (Daucus carota) each sliced in 15 mm thickness.
A saving of 50% in drying time was reported with an average solar
dryer temperature of 60 °C against open sun drying. Dissa et al. [41]
studied thin layer direct solar drying characteristics of amelie and
brooks mangoes with final moisture content of 24.83% and 66.32%
respectively. Drying rate and efficiency were observed to decrease
with drying time progression. Eke and Arinze [42] developed a pro-
totype direct mode natural convection mud type solar dryer for drying
maize. The moisture content was observed to reduce from 29 to 12%
on wet basis. The dryer achieved 55% saving in drying time against
open sun drying. The drying efficiency of dryer and open sun drying
method were found to be 45.6% and 22.7% respectively.
From the literature it has been observed that direct solar dryers
are the most commonly used devices for drying agricultural and
food products. The average drying efficiency of direct solar dryers is
observed to vary from 20 to 40% depending on the product types,
air flow rate, and drying location. The product quality obtained by
349
direct solar dryers is acceptable and can be improved by using
certain types of pre-treatment chemical processes.
3. Previous studies on indirect solar dryer
Indirect active solar dryers have a separate solar collector and a
drying unit. They are generally comprised of four components, viz.,
solar collector, drying unit, a fan, and ducting for air circulation [43].
Solar collector unit is helpful in achieving higher temperature
values with a controlled air flow rates [44]. However, it is also
observed that at higher temperature operation conditions, the
efficiency of solar collector is reduced [45]. Better product drying,
optimum temperature values, and air mass flow rate can be
obtained from a solar collector having optimum design. In general,
most of the solar collectors are made up of wood or metals with
appropriate coating of absorbing materials like black polythene for
better heat absorption needed for product drying [46]. A schematic
view of an indirect active solar dryer is shown in Fig. 8.
The concept of recirculation of drying air can also be employed
to improve the process effectiveness by utilising its heat which
otherwise wastes in the atmosphere ideally [47]. Efficiency of
indirect active solar dryer depends on the air flow rate across the
solar collector which can be controlled by using a fan or a blower.
The prime objective of a fan is to maintain a desired air flow rate in
the drying unit which results uniform evaporation of moisture from
the product [48].
Farkas et al. [49] developed a modular solar dryer having energy
saving feature. The effect of various drying parameters especially air
flow rate on solar air collector was studied along with the calcula-
tion efficiency. Yaldyz and Ertekyn [50] experimentally studied the
behaviour of various vegetables at different air velocity with respect
350 M. Kumar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360
to their drying time in a solar dryer. Drying time was observed to
reduce between 14.89 and 37.66% for increasing air velocity relative
to the natural sun drying. Madhlopa et al. [51] designed a solar air
heater having two solar absorption systems for dehydration of fresh
mangoes (Mangifera indica) in the drying chamber through natural
convection. The moisture content was observed to reduce from 85
to 13%. The schematic view of solar dryer with absorption system is
shown in Fig. 9.
Midilli [1] compared the drying of shell and unshelled pistachio
(P. vera) under both solar assisted convection and open sun drying
conditions. The moisture content of 29% was removed in solar
assisted convection dryer for a temperature range of 50 710 °C in
6 h. The samples in open sun drying were not sufficiently dried for
a temperature range of 2874 °C in the same time period and had
poor drying product quality. Reyes et al. [52] evaluated the ther-
mal performance of an indirect solar dryer by using semi-
empirical models and proposed some solar collector designs
based on the determination of minimum entropy generation
during the conversion of solar energy into thermal energy. The
schematic view of an indirect solar dryer is shown in Fig. 10.
Hawlader et al. [53] evaluated the performance of a solar
assisted heat pump dryer and a water heater with the help of
simulation programme. The coefficient of performance and solar
fraction were reported to be 6.0 and 0.62 respectively. Moummi
et al. [54] evaluated the thermal performance of the solar dryer
having turbulent air flow in the collector by incorporated with the
rectangular plate fins. The collector efficiency was reported to be
80% and 77% for finned plate with selective and nonselective
absorber respectively. The schematic view of an indirect solar
dryer with rectangular plate fins for air turbulent flow is shown in
Fig. 11.
Fig. 8. Indirect solar dryer [26].
Fig. 9. Solar dryer with absorption system [51].
Nahar [55] studied the drying process for different vegetables
in a tilted surface indirect solar dryer resulting 20% more drying
time as compared to the tilted surface direct solar dryer. The dryer
efficiency was reported be 17.95%. Queiroz et al. [56] studied sta-
tistical analysis of tomato (S. lycopersicum) drying on heat pump
and electric resistance dryers with parallel and cross airflow using
page model. For heat pump dryers, the coefficient of performance
was reported to vary from 2.56 to 2.68 with an energy economy of
40% against electric resistance dryers. Economic analysis of the
system revealed the lowest operating cost associated with heat
pump dryer when compared with other dryers. Akpinar et al. [57]
developed a mathematical model to study the thin layer drying of
apricots (Prunus armeniaca) in a solar energised rotary dryer with
best suitability of Midilli–Kucuk model under drying air tem-
perature ranging from 47.3 to 61.74 °C, air velocity ranging from
0.707 to 2.3 ms  1, and rotation speed of column ranging from 0 to
2.25 rpm. The schematic view of a solar energised rotary dryer
with moving mechanism is shown in Fig. 12.
Ali and Desmons [58] simulated an indirect solar drying of
potato (S. tuberosum) with two mathematical models. One of the
models represented the thermal performances of solar collector
with rectangular fin and the other represented the drying kinetics
of the air at collector exit to check the calorific losses through the
walls of the dryer. The schematic view of an indirect solar dryer
used is shown in Fig. 13.
Fig. 10. Solar assisted indirect solar dryer [52].
Fig. 11. Indirect solar dryer with rectangular plate fins [54].
Fig. 12. Indirect solar dryer with moving mechanism [57].
 M. Kumar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360
Fig. 13. Indirect solar dryer [58].
Fig. 14. Roof integrated indirect solar dryer [59].
Fadhel et al. [44] experimentally studied the drying behaviour
of banana (Musa acuminata) slices under forced convection indir-
ect solar dryer. Wang and Singh model was found suitable for
describing thin layer characteristics of banana slices. Janjai and
Tung [59] developed a roof integrated solar dryer for rosella flower
(Hibiscus sabdariffa) and lemon grass (C. limon) drying. The average
daily efficiency of collector was observed to be 35%. The internal
rates of return and payback period of the dryer were reported to
be 70.3% and 3.9 years respectively. The schematic view of roof
integrated indirect solar dryer is shown in Fig. 14.
Sacilik et al. [60] developed an indirect solar tunnel dryer for
dehydration of various agriculture products with capability of
reducing moisture content from 93.35 to 11.50% on wet basis. The
drying time was observed to decrease by 26.9% in comparison to
open sun drying. Purohit et al. [61] developed a framework to
study the financial feasibility of solar drying of agricultural pro-
ducts against open sun drying However, the results of the frame-
work were restricted by assumptions made in its formulations and
reported the dependency of financial feasibility on the capital cost
primarily decided by the collector area, product type, process
parameters, and the end quality of the product. Vlachos et al. [62]
studied the performance of a prototype tray dryer equipped with a
solar air collector, a heat storage cabinet and a solar chimney as
shown in Fig. 15. Drying was carried out at no load, full load, and
adverse weather conditions for which material was reported to
dehydrate completely at a satisfying rate with good systems
efficiency.
Kadam and Samuel [63] developed a flat plate forced con-
vective solar collector for drying cauliflower (Brassica oleracea)
with better hot air distribution through the trays than that of the
radiative process. The average mid-day thermal efficiency was
reported to be 61.5%. Zomorodian et al. [64] designed and eval-
uated an efficient time assisted semi-continuous solar dryer for
cereal drying. The maximum system efficiency of 21.24% was
reported. Azad [65] described a two mode (mixed þ indirect) solar
dryer for grapes (Vitis vinifera) drying and reported reduction in its
351
Fig. 15. Prototype tray dryer [62].
Fig. 16. Indirect solar dryer [66].
moisture content from 81.7 to 36.7% in five days. However, the
dried product quality in case of mixed mode was poor as com-
pared to indirect mode. Potdukhe and Thombre [66] observed an
improvement in drying and collector efficiency for chillies (Cap-
sicum annuam) and fenugreek leaves (Trigonella foenum-graecum)
by using thermic oil in an indirect solar dryer is shown in Fig. 16.
An increase in the drying air temperature up to 3 °C for 0.826 m
collector length was reported. The drying and collector efficiency
were found to be 21% and 34% respectively. However, the use of
thermic oil increased the total system cost by 10% but a significant
saving of 40% in the drying period was also observed.
Mohanraj and Chandrasekar [67] developed an indirect forced
convection solar drier integrated with different sensible heat sto-
rage material for chilli (C. annuam) drying in which moisture of
chilli was reduced to 9.1% wb at an air flow rate of 0.25 kg/s in
24 h. The average drying efficiency of 21% was obtained. The
schematic view of an indirect forced convection solar drier is
shown in Fig. 17.
Komilov et al. [47] designed a combined solar drying unit
comprised of an air heater and a heat accumulator (Fig. 18). The air
coming out of the drying cell was recirculated through the solar
collector by using air ducts which increased the overall drying
efficiency of the unit.
Akbulut and Durmus [68] studied the drying performance of
mulberries (Morus) using convective solar dryer under seven dif-
ferent mass flow rates varying from 0.0015 to 0.0361 kg/s. Decrease
in drying time with increase in mass flow rate was reported. The
moisture diffusivity of mulberry was observed to vary from
1.38  10  9 to 1.09  10  9 m2/s. Nonclercq et al. [69] designed a
prototype solar drying unit capable of drying more than 40 kg of the
fresh tomato (S. lycopersicum) in 10 h. The inside temperature of
the dryer was achieved up to 65 °C with the help of solar heated
water radiators. The unit was found capable in saving the cost from
40 Franc Communaute Financiere Africanine (FCFA) to 15 FCFA per
kg. Erbay and Icier [70] evaluated energy utilisation factor and
exergetic efficiencies for drying of olive leaves (Olea europaea). The
exergetic efficiency was observed to vary from 55.95 to 75.12% by
decreasing drying air temperature and increasing drying air velo-
city. Irtwange and Adebayo [71] developed a passive solar grain
352 M. Kumar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360

Fig. 17. Indirect forced convection solar dryer [67].

Fig. 18. Combined solar drying unit [47].

dryer having 4 mm thick glass for glazing and 0.5 mm black painted
corrugated thick zinc sheet for absorbing plate. Reduction in
moisture content was observed from 32.8 to 13.1% for passive solar
drying and 13.4% for sun drying. Gatea [72] presented the design
and performance evaluation of solar maize dryer comprised of V-
groove collector having 2.04 m2 area and tilt angles of 30°, 45°, and
60°. The performance of the solar drying system was observed to be
highly dependent on the solar radiation, collector tilt angle, and
ambient temperature. The schematic view of used indirect solar
dryer is shown in Fig. 19.
Fig. 19. Solar dryer with V-grooved collector [72].
Meisami-asl et al. [73] investigated the thin layer drying
behaviour of apple (malus domestica) slices having thickness of 2,
spells of glass and polycarbonate sheet with thermocol insulation.
4, and 6 mm at different drying air temperatures varying from 40
to 80 °C and velocity of 0.5 m/s. Midilli, Henderson, and Pabis The air temperature was increased from 11 to 25 °C from first spell
models were reported to be best suited for describing drying to second spell which improved the dryer efficiency from 9 to 12%
characteristics of apple slices. Singh [74] studied a forced con- for simple dryer, 23.7% for glass glazing, and 18.5% for poly-
vection indirect solar dryer for silk cocoon drying. The moisture carbonate sheet. Mirzaee et al. [75] presented the thin layer drying
content was reduced from 60 to 12% on wet basis at drying air behaviour of apricot (P. armeniaca) at different air temperatures of
temperature varying from 50 to 75 °C. In solar dryer, very low 40, 50, 60, 70 °C and air velocity of 1 to 2 m/s in an indirect solar
electrical energy consumption was reported in terms of higher Net drying system as shown in Fig. 20. For drying air velocity of 1 m/s,
Present Value (NPV) of $ 2167 against $ 513 in case of electric dryer the logarithmic model was best suited but for drying air velocity of
and hence, electrical energy of 0.75 kWh/kg was saved in contrast 2 m/s, Midilli et al. model was observed to give the best results.
of electrical oven drying of silk cocoon. Wang and Singh model The effective moisture diffusivity was observed to vary from
was observed best suited to the experimental data. Parikh and 1.78  10  10 to 5.11  10  10.
Aagrawal [46] designed a double self-cabinet indirect solar dryer Singh and Kumar [76] developed a thermal testing methodol-
for potato (S. tuberosum) chips and green chilly drying in two ogy for various solar dryers operating under natural and forced
 M. Kumar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360
convection conditions. No-load performance index (NLPI) was also
calculated for both modes and was higher for forced convection
mode. Banout et al. [77] developed a double pass indirect solar
drier for red chilli (C. annuam) drying and reduced its moisture
content to 10% on wet basis. Double pass of ambient air improved
the quality of dried product and its drying efficiency was reported
12.52% more than the cabinet drier. Maiti et al. [78] developed an
indirect natural convection solar dryer equipped with a reflector
for drying papad. The collector efficiency using reflector was
reported to increase from 40 to 58.5% without loading. Varun et al.
[79] developed an indirect solar dryer integrated with solar air
heater and evaluatated its performance during tomato (S. lyco-
persicum) drying under natural and forced convection modes. For
natural convection mode, air flow rates and average drying tem-
peratures obtained were 0.00653 kg/s and 45 °C respectively and
for forced convection mode it were 0.019 kg/s and 40 °C respec-
tively. Mu’azu et al. [80] developed a forced air convection dryer
for okra (A. esculentus) and tomato (S. lycopersicum) drying. The
average drying rate was observed to be 7.23  10  4 kg/s for dif-
ferent slice thicknesses. The drying time was observed to decrease
significantly against open sun drying. The schematic view of forced
convection solar dryer is shown in Fig. 21.
Khalil and Ramzan [81] developed a solar collector comprised
of V-corrugated steel absorber sheet and 6 mm thick glass glazing.
Its performance was evaluated for drying of grains at different air
flow rates. The performance was reported more at high air flow
rates. Basri et al. [82] tested the drying of dabai fruit (Canarium
odontophyllum) by using a hot air chamber. Page model was best
suited to describe the drying behaviour of this fruit. Azimi et al.
[83] experimentally studied the drying behaviour of eggplant
(Solanum melongena) by using an indirect solar dryer. The
experimental results were fitted in midilli and kucuck model to
study the drying characteristics of eggplant for both indirect and
open sun drying. The effectiveness factor and the collector effi-
ciency illustrated inverse relationship between them. Loha et al.
[84] developed a forced convective cabinet dryer for single layer
ginger drying at four different drying air temperatures of 45, 50,
55, and 60 °C with an air velocity fixed at 1.3 m/s. The moisture
content of ginger was observed to reduce from 87 to 6% on wet
basis. The accuracy of different drying models was determined by
using non-linear regression method. Olawale and Omole [85]
Fig. 20. Solar drying system [75].
Fig. 21. Forced air convection vegetable dryer [80].
353
investigated thin layer drying of sweet potato (S. tuberosum) slices
at three different temperatures varying from 50 to 80 °C, air flow
rate of 2.5 m/s, and 10% relative humidity. Page model was
reported to be best suited to describe the drying behaviour of
potato slices. Aissa et al. [86] studied the drying behaviour of
sponge cotton (Gossypium spp.) by using an indirect solar dryer
for different temperatures and air flow rates. The overall efficiency
was observed to vary from 1.85 to 18.6% for an average tempera-
ture of 53.68 °C. The schematic view of used indirect solar dryer is
shown in Fig. 22.
Alonge and Adeboye [87] designed direct and indirect passive
solar dryers for pepper (Capsicum annumm), okra (A. esculentus),
and vegetables drying. For direct passive dryer, improvement in
drying rate, drying time, rate of moisture removal, and dryer
temperature was observed as compared to indirect solar dryer.
Aggarwal [88] developed an indirect solar dryer fitted with a solar
cell for running dryer fan and bulbs for air heating during cloudy
and night time for drying hill agricultural crops. Considering the
cost associated with the dried products (such as dryer cost, labour,
maintenance, electricity, and depreciation charges), the cost per
unit capacity of the various dried products has been calculated and
reported in the range of $ 0.1 to $ 0.12 per kg depending on the
product type and optimisation of the process parameters. Sopian
et al. [89] developed four advanced solar assisted drying system
for marine and agricultural products drying, namely, double pass
solar collector with fins, drying system with solid desiccant wheel,
chemical heat pump system, and heat pump with photovoltaic
thermal collectors. Solar assisted chemical heat pump reduced the
moisture content from 85 to 13% on wet basis by utilising heat
generated from chemical reactions. Solar assisted heat pump with
photovoltaic thermal collector-evaporator was observed to give
thermal efficiency varying from 76 to 79%. The schematic view of
one of the solar assisted drying system developed by them is
shown in Fig. 23.
Ghatrehsamani and Zomorodian [48] designed an indirect solar
batch type dryer for drying walnut. The moisture content was
observed to reduce from 37 to 9% on dry basis for 2 layer depth.
The effect of drying air temperature, drying air flow rate, and bed
Fig. 22. Indirect solar dryer [86].
Fig. 23. Solar assisted drying system [89].
354 M. Kumar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360
depth on drying time was also evaluated. Purandare et al. [90]
discussed thermal analysis of an indirect passive solar dryer with
recirculation of air coming out of dryer to the solar collector to
achieve air temperature of 95 °C. Heat transferred to the circulat-
ing air using corrugations across the air flow directions was
observed to be highest. Sundari et al. [91] designed a forced con-
vection solar dryer having an evacuated tube collector. The
moisture content of bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) was
observed to reduce from 91 to 6.25% in 6 h compared to natural
sun drying. The schematic view of forced convection solar dryer
with evacuated tube collector is shown in Fig. 24.
Rajkotia et al. [92] proposed an optimum design of solar dryer
with the help of CFD analysis using ANSYS software by varying
different parameters such as the angle of solar plate, outlet pipe
diameter, and inlet area of dryer and reflector plate. Amedorme
et al. [93] designed a forced convection indirect solar dryer for
Moringa (Moringa oleifera) leaves drying and reduced its moisture
from 80 to 10% on wet basis. The drying efficiency of 25% was
observed at a minimum solar collector area of 0.62 m2. Rigit et al.
[94] developed a prototype of indirect solar dryer with a biomass
backup burner for pepper berry (C. annumm) drying. The moisture
content was reduced from 76.6 to 12% on wet basis in 11 h of day
time solar radiation and 6 h of night time with biomass burner
having overall efficiency of 53.5%. Tashtosh et al. [95] developed
mathematical model of an indirect natural convection solar dryer
for dairy product (jameed) drying. The average collector efficiency
of 37% was observed with a maximum air temperature of 41 °C.
Tchaya et al. [96] designed a forced convection indirect solar dryer
having licking, crossing, and mixed modes. Temperature change of
8 °C in crossing mode was observed as compared to licking mode.
The drying temperature obtained in drying chamber varied from
40 to 69 °C for each mode of airflow. Ringeisen et al. [97] con-
structed two identical solar crop dryers with one serving as the
control and other for testing the solar concentrator for tomato (S.
lycopersicum) drying. The moisture content of tomato was reduced
from 90 to 10%. Reduction in drying time of 21% was observed by
using solar concentrator. However, the quality of dried tomatoes
obtained had not significant difference with and without the
concentrator. Shalaby and Bek [98] designed an indirect solar
dryer capable of producing drying air temperature higher than
ambient temperature up to 7.5 °C after sunset.. The drying air flow
rate was observed to be 0.1204 kg/s with phase change material
and 0.0894 kg/s without phase change material. Fudholi et al. [99]
analysed a solar drying system for red chilli (C. annuam) drying.
The moisture content was observed to decrease from 80 to 10% on
wet basis. At mass flow rate of 0.07 kg/s, solar collector, drying
system, pick up and exergy efficiencies obtained were 28%, 13%,
45%, and 57% respectively. Fadhel et al. [100] studied drying
kinetics of red pepper in an open sun, natural convection solar
drier, and greenhouse solar drier. The drying time observed in
Fig. 24. Forced convection solar dryer with evacuated tube collector [91].
solar drier, greenhouse, and open sun drying were 73, 79, and
118 h respectively. Logarithmic model was best suited to describe
the drying behaviour of pepper for open sun, greenhouse, and
solar drier drying. Al-Juamily et al. [101] constructed a drying
system for drying of grapes, apricots and beans. The moisture
content of apricots, grapes, and bean was reduced from 80 to 13%,
80 to 18%, and 65 to 18% respectively. The drying rate was reported
to depend on the temperature of the air inside the cabinet. Togrul
and Pehlivan [102] studied thin layer drying of apricots using
indirect forced convection solar dryer. Logarithmic drying model
was found suitable to describe the solar drying curve of apricots.
Rajagopal et al. [103] developed an indirect forced convection solar
dryer incorporated with evacuated tube collector for drying copra.
The moisture content of copra was observed to reduce from 52.3 to
8%. The drying time in forced convection mode was observed less
than natural convection mode. Du et al. [104] designed an indirect
type paddle dryer comprised of through type collectors, thermal
storage, and auxiliary parts for drying of many materials such as
brown coal, sewage sludge, and biomass. Keawsuntia [105]
investigated an active solar dryer for drying chilli and reduced its
moisture content from 84 to 10% on wet basis. A drying time of
28.7% was observed to reduce against open sun drying with better
product quality.
Multipurpose indirect solar dryers are in recent trends and are
observed to be more effective with better control over drying
parameters. The collector efficiency obtained in indirect solar
dryers is observed to vary from 18 to 40% at different drying air
temperatures. The average drying efficiency achieved in indirect
solar dryers is observed to vary from 13 to 25% which is less as
compared to direct solar dryers. But the quality of dried product
achieved in indirect solar dryer is found to be higher than the
direct solar dryers.
Rodriguez et al. [119] redesigned a hybrid solar dryer for
habanero chilli drying by distributing 70% of the energy used in
pre-treatment of open solar dryers and 30% of energy in fluidized
bed dryers. The moisture content was observed to reduce from 90
to 13% in 6.8 h. Maia et al. [120] constructed a hybrid solar dryer by
simulating the air flow. Steady state temperatures and mass flow
rate were measured in order to obtain experimental data for the
validation of numerical model. Bagheri et al. [121] presented an
experimental study on a hybrid solar dryer used for the tomato (S.
lycopersicum) drying. Page model was reported to be accurate for
the prediction of product moisture content considering the con-
straints (i.e., drying thicknesses and air velocity). Pardhi and
Bhagoria [122] designed a mixed mode solar dryer for grapes (V.
vinifera) drying with drying rate of 0.38 kg/h and collector effi-
ciency of 67.5%. The reduction in moisture content was observed
from 81.42 to 18.6%. The drying performance observed was better
than the open sun drying mode. Okoroigwe et al. [123] designed a
combined solar and biomass cabinet dryer for yam chip (dioscorea
 M. Kumar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360 355

cayenensis) drying with a maximum tray temperature of 53 ˚C and Singh et al. [108] presented a multi-shelf design of a portable
0.0142 kg/h drying rate. The drying rate obtained in individual solar dryer for drying of fenugreek leaves that facilitated the
solar drying and biomass drying was 0.00732 kg/h and 0.0032 kg/ heating of air in between the trays for uniform drying with a semi-
h respectively. Dhanuskodi et al. [124] investigated a solar biomass continuous mode of loading. The observed thermal efficiencies for
hybrid system for cashew (anacardium occidentale) drying having semi-continuous mode on successive three days were 28.96%,
3.6 g/h moisture removal rate with 55% average collector effi- 27.6%, and 23.4% against batch mode having efficiencies of 28.55%,
ciency. It was also observed that solar dryer saved 66% of drying
16.2%, and 8.6% respectively. The schematic view of used modular
time against open sun drying. Onipede and Agbetoye [125]
design of solar dryer is shown in the Fig. 27.
designed a solar assisted hybrid dryer for cassava chip (manihot
Ferreira et al. [109] developed a hybrid dryer for banana (M.
esculenta) drying. The performance evaluation of the dryer was
acuminata) drying. Thermal characteristics of the dryer were
carried out at drying temperature varying from 50 to 70 ˚C, and
observed better than open and artificial dryer. The energy econ-
different air flow rates 0.033 m3/s, 0.038 m3/s, and 0.044 m3/s for
fresh cassava chips of rectangular and square shapes. Reyes et al. omy of the dryer was reported to be 38% with respect to the
[126] dehydrated mushrooms in a hybrid solar dryer using paraffin artificial dryer. The drying time obtained in hybrid solar dryer was
wax as a phase change material and reduced its moisture content observed lower than open and artificial drying for the same outlet
to 1.91 (on dry basis). Drying chamber outlet air was recirculated air temperatures. Prasad et al. [110] presented an experimental
to obtain the air temperature of 60 ˚C. Thermal efficiency and study for ginger (Zingiber officinale) drying and compared the
accumulator panel efficiency obtained were varying from 22 to results with solar biomass hybrid drying and open sun drying. The
62% and 10 to 21% respectively. Fudholi et al. [127] designed a solar drying rate of hybrid dryer was reported more than open sun
drying system for seaweed drying and reduced its moisture con- drying. The overall drying efficiency of drier was observed to be
tents from 90 to 10% on wet basis. The collector, drying system, 18% and 13% under summer and winter climatic conditions
and pickup efficiencies were reported as 35, 27, and 95% respec- respectively. Based on the annuities of expenditure, the increase in
tively. Moreover, the average energy efficiency reported was 30%
benefits using this dryer was found to be 104 US$ with the
with specific energy consumption of 2.62 kWh/kg. The page model
showed a better fit to the experimental data. Amer et al. [128]
designed a hybrid solar dryer for banana drying (M. acuminata)
and reduction in its moisture content was observed from 82 to 18%
on wet basis. The dryer was capable of drying at night using stored
heat energy collected during the time of sunshine with electric
heaters located at water tank. The solar dryer efficiency was raised
about 65% by recycling the dryer air. Srisittipokakun and kirdsiri
[129] developed a mixed mode solar dryer for drying pineapple in
non-electrified locations. The moisture content of pineapple was
observed to reduce from 83 to 15% on wet basis. The dryer reduced
the drying losses as compared to sun drying and bear less opera-
tional cost than the artificial drying. Fig. 25. Solar assisted integrated drying system [106].

4. Previous studies on hybrid solar dryer

In a hybrid solar dryer, solar energy with a conventional or

some auxiliary source of energy such as electricity, bio-mass, etc.
can be used in combined or single mode. It combines both the
actions, direct solar radiation heating as well as preheating of air
using an auxiliary energy source.
Soponronnarit et al. [106] compared the drying results for Fig. 26. Mixed and indirect mode of natural convection dryer [107].
banana (M. acuminata) for natural convection drying, LPG natural
convection drying, and solar forced convection drying with sup-
plementary heat from LPG considering the payback period of 3.6,
2, and more than 10 years respectively. The benefit to cost ratio of
all the three modes were reported to be 1.2, 2.9, and 0.6 respec-
tively. The average efficiency of LPG natural convection drying was
observed higher as compared to the rest of two drying modes. The
schematic view of used solar assisted integrated drying system is
shown in Fig. 25.
Simate et al. [107] presented an experimental study on a mixed
and indirect mode of natural convection dryer for drying maize.
The collector length for the mixed mode dryer was observed to be
shorter than the indirect mode due to additional drying from
direct radiation for the same capacity. The overall drying cost
calculated for mixed mode dryer was lower than the indirect
mode and reported be 12.76 and 16.05 US$ per ton respectively
although the dry grain producing capacity of the former was less.
The schematic view of mixed and indirect mode of natural con-
vection dryer is shown in Fig. 26. Fig. 27. Modular design of solar dryer [108].
356 M. Kumar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360
payback period of 1 year. The schematic view of hybrid solar dryer
is shown in Fig. 28.
Thanaraj et al. [111] studied copra (C. nucifera) drying having
different compositions by using solar hybrid drier and suggested
processing of high quality white copra in a solar hybrid dryer. The
thermal efficiency was reported to be 15.5%. Juraev and Akhatov
[112] developed a mixed mode forced convection solar drier that
can be used as a greenhouse in winter time and as a solar drier
during rest of the year. The overall drying cost of the dryer could
be considerably high due to the use of solar panel to run the air fan
for forced convection. The schematic view of mixed mode forced
convection solar drier is shown in Fig. 29.
Bolaji and Olalusi [113] evaluated the performance of a mixed
mode solar dryer for yam chips (Dioscorea cayenensis) drying. The
drying rate, collector efficiency, and percentage of moisture
removed (dry basis) obtained were 0.62 kg/h, 57.5% and 85.4%
respectively. Madhlopa and Ngwalo [114] designed a convective
solar dryer with a biomass backup heater having three modes of
operation (solar, biomass, and solar-biomass) for drying pineapple
(A. comosus). The solar mode yielded the highest thermal effi-
ciency whereas the biomass mode exhibited lowest efficiency.
However, the dryer performed most satisfactorily with a backup
heater with overall efficiency of 13 72%. Hossain et al. [45]
developed a hybrid solar dryer for tomato (S. lycopersicum) drying
having drying efficiency varying from 17 to 29% depending on
operating conditions. Plane reflector used in the dryer reported
10% increase in the collector efficiency. The schematic view of
hybrid solar dryer integrated with auxiliary heating and drying
unit is shown in Fig. 30.
Gunasekaran et al. [115] designed a solar dryer integrated with
biomass energy to study the drying behaviour of coleus stem
(Solenostemon scutellarioides) using three different ways. The final
moisture content of stems was reported to be 12.3% for hybrid
Fig. 28. Hybrid solar dryer [110].
Fig. 29. Mixed mode force convection solar drier [112].
dryer, 33% for solar dryer, and 19.6% for biomass. Khalifa et al. [116]
experimentally studied the performance of forced convection solar
drying system equipped with an auxiliary heater for beams and
peas drying considering air flow rates of 0.0383, 0.05104, 0.0638,
and 0.07655 m/s. The drying time was reduced from 56 h for
natural drying mode to 14 h for solar drying mode and 9 h for
mixed (solar and auxiliary) drying mode. The efficiency of the
mixed mode drying system was reported to increase from 25 to
40%. Mortezapour et al. [117] evaluated the performance glass to
glass and glass to tedlar PV/T solar collector. Glass to glass PV/T
solar collector reported higher outlet air temperature, cell tem-
perature, and thermal efficiency as compared to glass to tedlar
solar collector. However, back surface temperature and electrical
efficiency obtained in case of glass to tedlar PV/T solar collector
was reported higher. Tarigan and Tekasakul [118] designed a
mixed mode natural convection solar dryer integrated with a
biomass burner for agricultural product drying. The drying effi-
ciency of the solar component with and without heat storage was
observed to be 23% and 40% respectively. The combined unit had
an acceptable thermal efficiency and uniform product drying
across the tray. Basunia et al. [6] used a mixed mode natural
convection solar dryer to study thin layer drying characteristics of
rough rice (Oryza sativa linnaeus) at drying air temperature varying
from 22.3 to 34.9 °C, relative humidity varying from 34.5 to 57.9%,
and initial moisture content varying from 37.07 to 37.69% on dry
basis. The schematic view of mixed mode natural convection solar
dryer is shown in Fig. 31.
In todays world of advanced technology, hybrid solar dryers are
the best alternative device available for fast solar drying of pro-
ducts with required product quality. The average collector effi-
ciency in these dryers is observed to be 62.5%. The hybrid solar
dryer efficiency is observed to vary from 17 to 29% which can be
increased by employing certain techniques like plane reflector,
glazing effects, recirculation of drying air, etc. The drying efficiency
can also be improved by reducing the thermal losses and by
making homogeneous product drying.
Techno-economic study carried out by different researchers has
been summarised in Table 3.
Techno-economic analysis of solar dryer is an important study
to analyze the overall feasibility of a designed system. This analysis
depends on many factors such as physical characteristics of drying
product, drying climate conditions, design effectiveness, system
efficiency, operating and maintenance cost as well. From the lit-
erature so far, it has been observed that open sun drying or other
traditional drying methods are very cheap or having no cost but
the product drying quality obtained in such system is very poor
and hence unable to compete the market standards. On other
hand, solar dryers have been found an effective drying device with
simple operation and capable of producing quality product drying
with very less investment cost.
 M. Kumar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360 357

Fig. 30. Hybrid solar dryer integrated with auxiliary heating [45].

Fig. 31. Mixed mode natural convection solar dryer [6].

Table 3
Techno-economic study of various solar dryers.

S. no. Authors Year Remarks

1. Mustapha et al. [130] 2014

Concluded solar dryers as the best devices in terms of product quality, socio, economic, and environmental point of
view. Due to low cost and less payback period, solar dryers can contribute significantly to the economy particularly
rural areas in developing countries having no access to the electricity and facing deforestation.
2. Aravindh and Sreekumar [131] 2014 Presented the techno-economic analysis of a solar matrix collector designed for various drying applications based on
annualised cost, present worth of annual savings, and present worth of commutative savings.
3. Eswara and Ramakrishnarao [132] 2013 Concluded solar drying as an effective drying technique with low cost however, high initial investment cost in solar
gadgets, scalability, and lack of trust in technology are the major hurdles in wider use of solar energy in product
drying which can be mitigated by integration of food processing units with solar equipment developers through
government policies and other international agencies & expert bodies.
4. Nayak et al. [133] 2012 Studied the economic analysis of a PV based hybrid solar dryer and reported the total energy payback period of
5.6 years with dried product (Cauliflower) benefits of Rs. 362/kg however, increase in benefits with increase in
quantities of product taken for drying was also observed.
5. Purohit et al. [134] 2006 Compared the financial feasibility of solar drying against open sun drying by incorporating the operational and
financial factors associated with a solar dryer. The implementation of the study was restricted to some assumptions
made in various formulations.
6. Purohit and Kandpal [135] 2005 Presented techno-economic evaluation of solar dryers for different crops in terms of commercial fuel savings and
their breakeven prices. Effects of mitigation of CO2 emissions on the system financial performance have been
analysed.
7. Fudholi et al. [136] - Evaluated the techno-economic feasibility of a designed solar drying system in terms of its cost benefit analysis and
payback period. In cost benefit analysis capital cost, operating cost, and benefits associated with the system were
calculated and reported to be 32,050 RM, 15,421 RM, and 12,000 RM respectively with the payback period of 5.38
years.

Unit cost of drying of various products in a solar dryer of 100 kg 5. Summary and future directions of solar dryers
capacity has been demonstrated in Table 4 [134].
The important parameters and various features of a solar dryer Solar drying of various products (such as food, vegetables,
and the dried products are summarised in Table 5 [5,26]. agricultural items, herbs etc.) is one of the most important
358 M. Kumar et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55 (2016) 346–360

Table 4
Unit cost of drying of various products in a solar dryer of 100 kg capacity [134].

Product Moisture content Moisture content Drying time Annual cost Unit cost of drying Unit cost of energy Wholesale selling price
(Initial) (Final) (Days) (Rs.) (Rs./kg) used (Rs./MJ) (Rs./kg)

Onion 0.80 0.10 1 121,275 10.11 1.18 44.55

Grapes 0.80 0.15 4 32,150 14.29 1.58 150.00
Chilli 0.80 0.05 2 67,317 8.98 0.95 40.25
Ginger 0.80 0.10 7 21.342 19.92 1.90 55.00
Cabbage 0.80 0.04 2 67,603 5.01 0.53 2.00
Cardamom 0.72 0.06 14 7610 7.10 0.95 403.77
Potato 0.75 0.13 3 30,341 6.07 0.95 2.50
Tomato 0.85 0.10 2 89,765 6.65 0.53 3.00
Pepper 0.71 0.13 2 34,714 5.14 1.05 73.66

Table 5
Various important parameters and features of solar dryer [5,26].

Parameters Features

Physical features of dryer Type, size and shape, collector area, solar aperture, tray area and number of tray, and drying capacity
Thermal performance Drying efficiency, airflow rate, drying air temperature, relative humidity, and drying rate
Drying characteristics of the material Initial moisture content, final moisture content, permissible drying temperature, and drying quality obtained
Product qualities Nutritional attributes, over drying, rehydration capacity, appearance, flavour, and bulk density
Economics Cost of dryer, floor space requirement, drying cost, safety and reliability, payback, and skilled personnel requirements

potential applications of the solar energy. In developing countries,
such drying exercises are being carried out using conventional
drying methods like open sun drying, classical drying and others.
But these methods are trapped with some severe drawbacks in
terms of quality, accuracy, capacity, economy, and handling, this
cause loss of the products during their drying which is estimated
to be 30–40% of the total production in developing countries. The
best alternative to overcome the bottlenecks of traditional drying
methods, is the development of solar dryers. In this article, the
state of art technologies of solar dryers has been presented as
follows:
 The present status of solar dryers with respect to the developing
countries is reviewed.
 A comprehensive review on the design, development, and per-
formance evaluation of various types of solar dryers has been
presented.
 Various types of solar dryers such as natural convection and
forced convection dryers, cabinet dryers, mixed mode dryers,
tunnel dryers, direct and indirect type dryers, hybrid and inte-
gral dryers have been depicted.
 Techno-economic study of various types of solar dryers has
been demonstrated.
 Physical characteristics of various types of drying products have
been briefly described.
Among the various types of solar dryers, indirect mode forced
convection dryers have been reported superior in drying speed and
quality drying. Due to high drying rates and energy effectiveness,
they have been observed suitable for low solar insolation and high
humidity climate zones. Since solar air collector unit is the most
important part of indirect solar dryers and hence a significant
improvement in it could lead to better drying performance of the
system. Recently some investigations in this direction have been
made such as incorporation of double pass, recirculation of heated
air, v-corrugated and finned plate within the solar air collector unit.
Integration of solar drying system with phase change material (such
as paraffin, salt hydrates etc.) for latent or sensitive heat storage can
be an impressive idea to accelerate the drying performance of the
system during low solar insolation and night time drying. This
attempt could also lead to exclude the need of auxiliary heating
devices during adverse weather conditions and hence economy of
the process can be improved significantly. However, phase change
material should be investigated thoroughly in terms of their che-
mical stability and compatibility with the drying system to ensure
the constant temperature heating property. Furthermore, pre-
treatment of the product using chemicals before drying is also
assumed to improve the product drying efficiency. It is also sug-
gested to optimise each steps involved in solar drying for better
techno-economic feasibility. Computer technology has designed
many simulation tools to investigate the process characteristics of
any system before its fabrication. So before scaling up the drying
system, it is highly recommended to perform the simulation model
of the forecast system to analyze its short and long terms perfor-
mance which ultimately helps in the investigation of cost benefits
associated with the solar drying of various commodities.
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