DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SPICE

DRYERS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A SOLAR DRYING SYSTEM

FOR FOOD PRESERVATION

PAGE

ABSTRACT 3

DEDICATION 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS 6-8

LIST OF FIGURES 9-10

LIST OF TABLES 11

NOMENCLATURE (Optional) 12-13

1. INTRODUCTION 14

1-1 Literature Review 14-17

1-2 Problem Statement 17-19

1-3 Problem Statement Objectives 20

1-4 Problem justification and Outcomes 20

1-5 Problem Constraints 21

2. DESIGN APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY

2-1 Design approach 22-29

2.1.1 Drying Mechanism 23

2.1.2 Air Properties 27

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2.1.3 Classification of drying systems 29

2-2 Design Methodology 29-51

2.2.1 Types of solar dryers 30

2.2.2 Open sun drying 31

2.2.3 Direct type solar drying 33

2.2.4 Indirect type solar drying 36

2.2.5 Applications of solar dryers 48

2.2.6 Conclusions 52

3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

3-1 Design specifications and assumptions 52-54

3.1.1 Solar dryer components 53

3.1.2 Orientation of the dryer 55

3-2 Mathematical models and formulations 55-56

3.2.1 Operation of the dryer 56

3.2.2 Drying mechanism 57

3.2.3 Basic theory of solar dryer (Formulations) 57

3.2.4 Energy balance equation for the drying process 60

4. DESIGN PROCEDURE AND IMPLEMENTATION

4-1 Design Procedures 57-61

4.1.1 The experimental set-up 62

4.1.2 Collector (solar air heater) 63

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4.1. The drying cabinet and drying racks 6
3 4
4.1. Drying Mechanism 6
4 5
4-2 Design Implementation 66-69

4.2.1 Results and discussions 66-69

5. FEASIBIILITY STUDIES AND MARKET NEEDS 70

6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6-1 Conclusion 71

6-2 Recommendations 72

7. APPENDICES 73-77

REFERENCES 78-81

CAPSTONE DESIGN PROJECT 82-85

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 List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Moisture in the drying material.

Figure 2.2 Rate of moisture loss

Figure 2.3 Drying rate with time curve

Figure 2.4 Typical drying rate curve

Figure 2.5 Representation of drying process

Figure 2.6 Working principle of open sun drying

Figure 2.7 Direct solar drying (Natural convection type cabinet drier)

Figure 2.8 A modified natural-circulation solar-energy cabinet dryer

Figure 2.9 Reverse absorber cabinet drier

Figure 2.10 Indirect solar drier (Forced convection solar drier)

Figure 2.11 Green house type solar drier

Figure 2.12 Solar tunnel drier

Figure 2.13 Multiple-shelf portable solar drier

Figure 2.14 Staircase solar drier

Figure 2.15 Rotary column cylindrical drier

Figure 2.16 Solar assisted drying systems

Figure 2.17 Solar grain dryer with rotatable indirect air heater and a PV run fan

Figure 2.18 (a) A simple presentation of first model

Figure 2.18 (b) side view of first model

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Figure 2.19 (a) A simple representation of second model

Figure 2.19 (b) Side view of 2nd model

Figure 3.1 Sectional view of the mixed-mode solar dryer

Figure 3.2 Isometric drawing of the mixed-mode solar dryer

Figure 4.1 Section of the mixed-mode solar dryer

Figure 4.2 Typical solar collectors for air heating

Figure 4.3 Dimension of trays used in the drying chamber

Figure 4.4 Typical day results of the diurnal variation of temperatures in the solar dryer

Figure 4.5 Typical day results of the diurnal variation of relative humidity in the dryer

Figure 4.6 Drying curve for potato chips

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 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Typical solar energy dryer designs

Table 2.2 Comparisons of natural-circulation solar-energy dryers

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 Nomenclature

SYMBOLS DESCRIPTION UNITS

–2
I Rate of total radiation incident (Wm )
on the absorber‘s surface

2
Ac Collector area (m )

Qu Rate of useful energy collected by the air (W)

Qcond Rate of conduction losses from the absorber (W)

Qconv Rate of convective losses from the absorber (W)

QR Rate of long wave re-radiation from the absorber (W)

Qρ Rate of reflection losses from the absorber (W)

–2 –1
UL Overall heat transfer coefficient of the absorber (Wm K )

Tc Temperature of the collector‘s absorber (K)

Ta Ambient air temperature (K)

Qg Heat gained by the air (kW)

–1
𝒎𝒂 . Mass of air leaving the dryer per unit time (kgs )
–1 –1

Cpa Specific heat capacity of air (kJkg K )

FR Collector heat removal factor

ηc Thermal efficiency of the collector

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Lv Latent heat (kJ kg-1)
mw Mass of water evaporated from the food item (kg)
ma Mass of drying air (kg)
T1 Initial temperatures of the drying air (K)
T2
Final temperature of the drying air (K)
–1 –1
Cp Specific heat at constant pressure (kJ kg K )

mw Mass of water evaporated (kg)

mi Initial mass of the food item (kg)

Me Equilibrium moisture content (% dry basis)

Mi Initial moisture content (% dry basis)

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 Chapter 1
Introduction

Drying is one of the methods used to preserve food products for longer periods.
The heat from the sun coupled with the wind has been used to dry food for preservation
for several thousand years.

Solar thermal technology is a technology that is rapidly gaining acceptance as an

energy saving measure in agriculture application. It is preferred to other alternative
sources of energy such as wind and shale, because it is abundant, inexhaustible, and
non-polluting. Solar air heaters are simple devices to heat air by utilizing solar energy
and it is employed in many applications requiring low to moderate temperature below
80°C, such as crop drying and space heating.

Drying is the oldest preservation technique of agricultural products and it is an

energy intensive process. High prices and shortages of fossil fuels have increased the
emphasis on using alternative renewable energy resources. Drying of agricultural
products using renewable energy such as solar energy is environmental friendly and has
less environmental impact.

Different types of solar dryers have been designed, developed and tested in the
different regions of the tropics and subtropics. The major two categories of the dryers
are natural convection solar dryers and forced convection solar dryers. In the natural
convection solar dryers the airflow is established by buoyancy induced airflow while in
forced convection solar dryers the airflow is provided by using fan operated either by
electricity/solar module or fossil fuel. Now the solar dryer designed and developed for
and used in tropics and subtropics are discussed under two headings.

14
1.1 Literature Review

Crop drying is the most energy consuming process in all processes on the farm.
The purpose of drying is to remove moisture from the agricultural produce so that it can
be processed safely and stored for increased periods of time. Crops are also dried before
storage or, during storage, by forced circulation of air, to prevent spontaneous combustion
by inhibiting fermentation. It is estimated that 20% of the world‘s grain production is lost
after harvest because of inefficient handling and poor implementation of post-harvest
technology, says Hartman‘s (1991). Grains and seeds are normally harvested at a
moisture level between 18% and 40% depending on the nature of crop. These must be
dried to a level of 7% to 11% depending on application and market need. Once a cereal
crop is harvested, it may have to be stored for a period of time before it can be marketed
or used as feed. The length of time a cereal can be safely stored will depend on the
condition it was harvested and the type of storage facility being utilized. Grains stored at
low temperature and moisture contents can be kept in storage for longer period of time
before its quality will deteriorate. Some of the cereals which are normally stored include
maize, rice, beans.

Solar drying may be classified into direct and indirect solar dryer. In direct solar
dryers the air heater contains the grains and solar energy which passes through a
transparent cover and is absorbed by the grains. Essentially, the heat required for drying
is provided by radiation to the upper layers and subsequent conduction into the grain
bed. However, in indirect dryers, solar energy is collected in a separate solar collector
(air heater) and the heated air then passes through the grain bed, while in the mixed-
mode type of dryer, the heated air from a separate solar collector is passed through a grain
bed, and at the same time, the drying cabinet absorbs solar energy directly through
the transparent walls or the roof.

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 Energy is important for the existence and development of human kind and is a
key issue in international politics, the economy, military preparedness, and diplomacy.
To reduce the impact of conventional energy sources on the environment, much
attention should be paid to the development of new energy and renewable energy
resources. Solar energy, which is environment friendly, is renewable and can serve as a
sustainable energy source.

Hence, it will certainly become an important part of the future energy structure
with the increasingly drying up of the terrestrial fossil fuel. However, the lower energy
density and seasonal doing with geographical dependence are the major challenges in
identifying suitable applications using solar energy as the heat source. Consequently,
exploring high efficiency solar energy concentration technology is necessary and
realistic [24].

Solar energy is free, environmentally clean, and therefore is recognized as one of

the most promising alternative energy recourses options. In near future, the large-scale
introduction of solar energy systems, directly converting solar radiation into heat, can be
looked forward. However, solar energy is intermittent by its nature; there is no sun at
night. Its total available value is seasonal and is dependent on the meteorological
conditions of the location. Unreliability is the biggest retarding factor for extensive solar
energy utilization. Of course, reliability of solar energy can be increased by storing its
portion when it is in excess of the load and using the stored energy whenever needed.

Solar drying is a potential decentralized thermal application of solar energy

particularly in developing countries [21]. However, so far, there has been very little
field penetration of solar drying technology. In the initial phase of dissemination,
identification of suitable areas for using solar dryers would be extremely helpful
towards their market penetration.

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 Solar drying is often differentiated from ―sun drying‖ by the use of equipment to
collect the sun‘s radiation in order to harness the radiative energy for drying
applications. Sun drying is a common farming and agricultural process in many countries,
particularly where the outdoor temperature reaches 30 oC or higher. In many parts of
South East Asia, spice s and herbs are routinely dried. However, weather conditions often
preclude the use of sun drying because of spoilage due to rehydration during unexpected
rainy days. Furthermore, any direct exposure to the sun during high temperature days
might cause case hardening, where a hard shell develops on the outside of the
agricultural products, trapping moisture inside. Therefore, the employment of solar
dryer taps on the freely available sun energy while ensuring good product quality via
judicious control of the radiative heat. Solar energy has been used throughout the world
to dry products. Such is the diversity of solar dryers that
commonly solar-dried products include grains, fruits, meat, vegetables and fish. A
typical solar dryer improves upon the traditional open-air sun system in five important
ways [21]:

 It is faster. Materials can be dried in a shorter period of time. Solar dryers

enhance drying times in two ways. Firstly, the translucent, or transparent, glazing
over the collection area traps heat inside the dryer, raising the temperature of the
air. Secondly, the flexibility of enlarging the solar collection area allows for greater
collection of the sun‘s energy.
 It is more efficient. Since materials can be dried more quickly, less will be lost to
spoilage immediately after harvest. This is especially true of products that require
immediate drying such as freshly harvested grain with high moisture content. In
this way, a larger percentage of products will be available for human
consumption. Also, less of the harvest will be lost to marauding animals and
insects since the products are in safely enclosed compartments. It is hygienic.
Since materials are dried in a controlled environment, they are less likely to be
17
 contaminated by pests, and can be stored with less likelihood of the growth of toxic
fungi. It is healthier. Drying materials at optimum temperatures and in a shorter
amount of time enables them to retain more of their nutritional value such as
vitamin C. An added bonus is that products will look better, which enhances their
marketability and hence provides better financial returns for the farmers. It is cheap.
Using freely available solar energy instead of conventional fuels to dry products,
or using a cheap supplementary supply of solar heat, so reducing conventional
fuel demand can result in significant cost savings.

1.2 Problem Statement

Food scientists have found that by reducing the moisture content of food to between
10 and 20%, bacteria, yeast, mold and enzymes are prevented from spoiling it. The flavor
and most of the nutritional value is preserved and concentrated [16].Wherever
possible, it is traditional to harvest most grain crops during a dry period or season and
simple drying methods such as sun drying are adequate. However, maturity of the
crop does not always coincide with a suitably dry period. Furthermore, the introduction
of high-yielding varieties, irrigation, and improved farming practices have led to the
need for alternative drying practices to cope with the increased production and grain
harvested during the wet season as a result of multi-cropping.

Drying and preservation of agricultural products have been one of the oldest uses
of solar energy. The traditional method, still widely used throughout the world, is open
sun drying where diverse crops, such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, grains, tobacco, etc.
are spread on the ground and turned regularly until sufficiently dried so that they can be
stored safely. However, there exist many problems associated with open sun drying. It
has been seen that open sun drying has the following disadvantages. It requires both
large amount of space and long drying time. The crop is damaged because of the hostile
18
weather conditions; contamination of crops from the foreign materials, degradation by
overheating, and the crop is subject to insect infestation, the crop is susceptible to re-
absorption of moisture if it is left on the ground during periods of no sun, and there is no
control on the drying process. This could lead to slow drying rate, contamination and poor
quality of dried products, and loss in production.
Although the spreading of the crop on the ground or on a platform and drying it
directly by the sun is cheap and successfully employed for many products throughout
the world, where solar radiation and climatic conditions are favorable, because of the
above mentioned factors of open sun drying process and a better understanding of the
method of utilizing solar energy to advantage, have given rise to a scientific method
called solar drying. Solar drying of farm crops offers the following advantages by
permitting: early harvest which reduces the field loss of products from storm and natural
shattering.

The field conditions (dry and fewer weeds) are often better for harvesting earlier
in the season, planning the harvesting season to make better use of labor. Farm crops
can be harvested when natural drying conditions are unfavorable, long-time storage with
little deterioration. Extended storage periods are becoming increasingly important with
large amount of grain being stored and carried over through another storage year by the
farmer, government, and industry, and the farmer‘s taking advantage of higher price a
few months after harvest although in some years there may be no price advantage. By
removing moisture the possibility of the grain heating with subsequent reduction or
destruction of germination is decreased.

The farmer‘s selling a better quality product which is worth more to him and to
those who must use those products [2].Therefore, by providing a sheltered drying area
or chamber in which the crops to be dried and stored, a stream of air is heated by solar
energy to reduce its relative humidity which is then passed over the crops. This form of
19
solar drying could improve the quality of the crop to be dried, reduce spoilage by
contamination and local overheating, reduce spillage losses, speed up the drying
process, achieve better quality control, and reduction in drying time.

The disadvantages of open sun drying need an appropriate technology that can
help in improving the quality of the dried products and in reducing the wastage. This led
to the application of various types of drying devices like solar dryer, electric dryers, wood
fuel driers and oil-burned driers. However, the high cost of oil and electricity and their
scarcity in the rural areas of most third world countries have made some of these driers
very unattractive. Therefore interest has been focused mainly on the development of solar
driers [23].Solar dryers are usually classified according to the mode of air flow into
natural convection and forced convection dryers. Natural convection dryers do not require
a fan to pump the air through the dryer. The low air flow rate and the long drying
time, however, result in low drying capacity. Thus, this system is restricted to the
processing of small quantities of agricultural surplus for family consumption. Where
large quantities of fresh produce are to be processed for the commercial market, forced
convection dryers should be used [1].

One basic disadvantage of forced convection dryers lies in their requirement of

electrical power to run the fan. Since the rural or remote areas of many developing
countries are not connected to the national electric grids, the use of these dryers is
limited to electrified urban areas. Even in the urban areas with grid-connected
electricity, the service is unreliable. In view of the prevailing economic difficulties in
most of these countries, this situation is not expected to change in the foreseen able future.
The use of natural convection solar dryer could boost the dissemination of solar dryers in
the developing countries [1]. Therefore, experimental performance of solar
dryer has been evaluated in this project.

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1.3 Problem Statement Objectives

The objective of this study is to develop a mixed-mode solar dryer in which the
grains are dried simultaneously by both direct radiation through the transparent walls
and roof of the cabinet and by the heated air from the solar collector. The problems of
low and medium scale processor could be alleviated, if the solar dryer is designed and
constructed with the consideration of overcoming the limitations of direct and indirect
type of solar dryer. So therefore, this work will be based on the importance of a mixed
mode solar dryer which is reliable and economically, design and construct a mixed
mode solar dryer using locally available materials and to evaluate the performance of
this solar dryer.

1.4 Problem Justification and Outcomes

Food crops are usually for immediate consumption needs, resulting in wastage of
food surpluses during the short harvest periods and scarcity during post harvest periods.
Drying is one of the methods used to preserve food products for longer periods. It has
been established as the most efficient preservation technique for most tropical crops.

This project presents the design, construction and performance of a mixed-mode

solar dryer for food preservation. In the dryer, the heated air from a separate solar
collector is passed through a grain bed, and at the same time, the drying cabinet absorbs
solar energy directly through the transparent walls and roof. The results obtained during
the test period revealed that the temperatures inside the dryer and solar collector were
much higher than the ambient temperature during most hours of the day-light. The
temperature rise inside the drying cabinet was up to 74% for about three hours
immediately after 12.00h (noon). The dryer exhibited sufficient ability to dry food items
reasonably rapidly to a safe moisture level and simultaneously it ensures a superior
quality of the dried product.
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1.5 Problem Constraints

Drying processes play an important role in the preservation of agricultural

products. They are defined as a process of moisture removal due to simultaneous heat

and mass transfer. The purpose of this project is to present the developments and

potentials of solar drying technologies for drying grains, fruits, vegetables, spices,

medicinal plants.

The traditional method of drying, known as ‗sun drying‘, involves simply laying

the product in the sun on mats, roofs or drying floors. Major disadvantage of this

method is contamination of the products by dust, birds and insects – Some percentage

will usually be lost or damaged, it is labour intensive, nutrients loss, such as vitamin A

and the method totally depends on good weather conditions.

Because the energy requirements - sun and wind - are readily available in the ambient

environment, little capital is required. This type of drying is frequently the only

commercially used and viable methods in which to dry agricultural products in developing

countries. The safer alternative to open sun drying is solar dryer.

This is a more efficient method of drying that produces better quality products, but

it also requires initial investments. If drying conditions such as weather and food supply

are good, natural circulation solar energy, solar dryers appear to be increasingly

attractive as commercial proposition.

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 Chapter 2
DESIGN APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY

Solar drying refers to a technique that utilizes incident solar radiation to convert it
into thermal energy required for drying purposes. Most solar dryers use solar air heaters
and the heated air is then passed through the drying chamber (containing material) to be
dried. The air transfers its energy to the material causing evaporation of moisture of the
material.

2.1 Design approach

2.1.1 Drying Mechanism

In the process of drying, heat is necessary to evaporate moisture from the material
and a flow of air helps in carrying away the evaporated moisture. There are two basic
mechanisms involved in the drying process: the migration of moisture from the interior
of an individual material to the surface, and the evaporation of moisture from the
surface to the surrounding air.

The drying of a product is a complex heat and mass transfer process which depends
on external variables such as temperature, humidity and velocity of the air stream and
internal variables which depend on parameters like surface characteristics (rough or
smooth surface), chemical composition (sugars, starches, etc.), physical
structure(porosity, density, etc.), and size and shape of products. The rate of moisture
movement from the product inside to the air outside differs from one product to another
and depends very much on whether the material is hygroscopic or non-hygroscopic.
Non-hygroscopic materials can be dried to zero moisture level while the hygroscopic
materials like most of the food products will always have residual moisture content.
This moisture, in hygroscopic material, may be bound moisture which remained in the

23
material due to closed capillaries or due to surface forces and unbound moisture which
remained in the material due to the surface tension of water as shown in Figure 2.1 [14].

Figure 2.1 Moisture in the drying material.

When the hygroscopic material is exposed to air, it will absorb either moisture or
desorbs moisture depending on the relative humidity of the air. The equilibrium
moisture content (EMC = Me) will soon reach when the vapour pressure of water in the
material becomes equal to the partial pressure of water in the surrounding air [14]. The
equilibrium moisture content in drying is therefore important since this is the minimum
moisture to which the material can be dried under a given set of drying conditions. A
series of drying characteristic curves can be plotted. The best is if the average moisture
content M of the material is plotted versus time as shown in Figure 2. 2.

24
 Figure 2.2 Rate of moisture loss

Another curve can be plotted between drying rate i.e. dM/dt versus time t as
shown in Figure 2.3. But more information can be obtained if a curve is plotted between
drying rate dM/dt versus moisture content M as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.3 Drying rate with time curve

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 Figure 2.4 Typical drying rate curve

As is seen from Figure 2.4 for both non-hygroscopic and hygroscopic materials,
there is a constant drying rate terminating at the critical moisture content followed by
falling drying rate. The constant drying rate for both non-hygroscopic and hygroscopic
materials is the same while the period of falling rate is little different. For non-
hygroscopic materials, in the period of falling rate, the drying rate goes on decreasing
till the moisture content become zero. While in the hygroscopic materials, the period of
falling rate is similar until the unbound moisture content is completely removed, then
the drying rate further decreases and some bound moisture is removed and continues till
the vapour pressure of the material becomes equal to the vapour pressure of the drying
air. When this equilibrium reaches then the drying rate becomes zero [14].

The period of constant drying for most of the organic materials like fruits,
vegetables, timber, etc. is short and it is the falling rate period in which is of more interest
and which depends on the rate at which the moisture is removed. In the falling
rate regime moisture is migrated by diffusion and in the products with high moisture
26
content, the diffusion of moisture is comparatively slower due to turgid cells and filled
interstices. In most agricultural products, there is sugar and minerals of water in the liquid
phase which also migrates to the surfaces, increase the viscosity hence reduce the surface
vapour pressure and hence reduce the moisture evaporation rate [14].

Drying is done either in thin layer drying or deep layer drying. In thin layer
drying; which is done in case of most of fruits and vegetables, the product is spread in
thin layers with entire surface exposed to the air moving through the product and the
Newton‘s law of cooling is applicable in the falling rate region. Most of the grains are
dried in deep layer which can be considered as a series of thin layers and the
temperature and the humidity varies from layer to layer [14].

2.1.2 Air Properties

The properties of the air flowing around the product are major factors in
determining the rate of removal of moisture. The capacity of air to remove moisture is
principally dependent upon its initial temperature and humidity; the greater the
temperature and lower the humidity the greater the moisture removal capacity of the air.
The relationship between temperature, humidity and other thermodynamic properties is
represented by the psychometric chart. It is important to appreciate the difference
between the absolute humidity and relative humidity of air. The absolute humidity is the
moisture content of the air (mass of water per unit mass of air) whereas the relative
humidity is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the moisture content of the air at a
specified temperature to the moisture content of air if it were saturated at that temperature.

The changes in condition of air when it is heated using the solar energy and then
passed through a bed of moist product are shown in Figure 2.5. The heating of air from
temperature TA to TB is represented by the line AB. During heating the absolute
humidity remains constant at A whereas the relative humidity falls from  to . As
27
air moves through the material to be dried, it absorbs moisture. Under (hypothetical)
adiabatic drying; sensible heat in the air is converted to latent heat and the change in the
condition of air is represented along a line of constant enthalpy, BC. Both absolute
humidity and relative humidity increase from B and C and from  to C, respectively,
but air temperature decreases to, TC. The absorption of moisture by the air would be the
difference between the absolute humidities at C and B. ( C - A). If unheated air is
passed through the bed, the drying process would be represented by the line AD.
Assuming that the air at D to be at the same relative humidity,C , as the heated air at C,
then the absorbed moisture would be(( D - A), considerably less than that absorbed by
the heated air ((C - A).

Figure 2.5 Representation of drying process

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2.1.3 Classification of drying systems

All drying systems can be classified primarily according to their operating

temperature ranges into two main groups of high temperature dryers and low
temperature dryers. However; dryers are more commonly classified broadly according
to their heating sources into fossil fuel dryers (more commonly known as conventional
dryers) and solar-energy dryers. Strictly, all practically-realized designs of high
temperature dryers are fossil fuel powered, while the low temperature dryers are either
fossil fuel or solar-energy based systems [5].

1. High temperature dryers

High temperature dryers are necessary when very fast drying is desired. They are
usually employed when the products require a short exposure to the drying air. Their
operating temperatures are such that, if the drying air remains in contact with the
product until equilibrium moisture content is reached, serious over drying will occur.
Thus, the products are only dried to the required moisture contents and later cooled.
High temperature dryers are usually classified into batch dryers and continuous-flow
dryers. In batch dryers, the products are dried in a bin and subsequently moved to storage.
Thus, they are usually known as batch-in-bin dryers. Continuous-flow dryers are heated
columns through which the product flows under gravity and is exposed to heated air
while descending. Because of the temperature ranges prevalent in high temperature
dryers, most known designs are electricity or fossil-fuel powered. Only a very few
practically-realized designs of high temperature drying systems are solar- energy heated
[5].

2. Low temperature dryers

In low temperature drying systems, the moisture content of the product is usually
brought in equilibrium with the drying air by constant ventilation. Thus, they do tolerate

29
intermittent or variable heat input. Low temperature drying enables products to be dried
in bulk and is most suited also for long term storage systems. Thus, they are usually
known as bulk or storage dryers. Their ability to accommodate intermittent heat input
makes low temperature drying most appropriate for solar-energy applications. Thus, some
conventional dryers and most practically-realized designs of solar-energy dryers are of
the low temperature type [5].

2.2 Design Methodology

2.2.1 Types of solar driers

Solar-energy drying systems are classified primarily according to their heating

modes and the manner in which the solar heat is utilized. In broad terms; they can be
classified into two major groups, namely [5]:

 Active solar-energy drying systems (most types of which are often termed hybrid
solar dryers); and
 Passive solar-energy drying systems (conventionally termed natural-circulation
solar drying systems).

Three distinct sub-classes of either the active or passive solar drying systems can
be identified which vary mainly in the design arrangement of system components and
the mode of utilization of the solar heat, namely [5]:

 Direct (integral) type solar dryers;

 Indirect (distributed) type solar dryers.

Direct solar dryers have the material to be dried placed in an enclosure, with a
transparent cover on it. Heat is generated by absorption of solar radiation on the product
itself as well as on the internal surfaces of the drying chamber. In indirect solar dryers,
solar radiation is not directly incident on the material to be dried. Air is heated in a solar
30
collector and then ducted to the drying chamber to dry the product. Specialized dryers
are normally designed with a specific product in mind and may include hybrid systems
where other forms of energy are also used [21]. Although indirect dryers are less
compact when compared to direct solar dryers, they are generally more efficient. Hybrid
solar systems allow for faster rate of drying by using other sources of heat energy to
supplement solar heat.

The three modes of drying are: (i) open sun, (ii) direct and (iii) indirect in the
presence of solar energy. The working principle of these modes mainly depends upon
the method of solar-energy collection and its conversion to useful thermal energy.

2.2.2 Open sun drying (OSD)

Fig. 2.6 shows the working principle of open sun drying by using solar energy. The
short wave length solar energy falls on the uneven product surface. A part of this energy
is reflected back and the remaining part is absorbed by the surface. The absorbed radiation
is converted into thermal energy and the temperature of product stars increasing. This
results in long wavelength radiation loss from the surface of product to ambient air
through moist air. In addition to long wave length radiation loss there is convective heat
loss too due to the blowing wind through moist air over the material surface. Evaporation
of moisture takes place in the form of evaporative losses and so the material is dried.
Further apart of absorbed thermal energy is conducted into the interior of the product.
This causes a rise in temperature and formation of water vapor inside the material and
then diffuses towards the surface of the and finally losses thermal energy in the end then
diffuses towards the surface of the and finally losses the thermal energy in the form of
evaporation. In the initial stages, the moisture removal is rapid since the excess moisture
on the surface of the product presents a wet surface to the drying air. Subsequently, drying
depends upon the rate at which the moisture within the product
moves to the surface by a diffusion process depending upon the type of the product [22].

31
 Fig. 2.6 Working principle of open sun drying

In open sun drying, there is a considerable loss due to various reasons such as
rodents, birds, insects and micro-organisms. The unexpected rain or storm further
worsens the situation. Further, over drying, insufficient drying, contamination by
foreign material like dust dirt, insects, and micro-organism as well discoloring by UV
radiation are characteristic for open sun drying. In general, open sun drying does not
fulfill the international quality standards and therefore it cannot be sold in the
international market [21].

With the awareness of inadequacies involved in open sun drying, a more

scientific method of solar-energy utilization for drying has emerged termed as
controlled drying or solar drying. The main features of typical designs of the direct and
of indirect types solar -energy dryers are illustrated in Table 2.1.

32
Table 2.1 Typical solar energy dryer designs

2.2.3 Direct type solar drying (DSD)

Direct solar drying is also called natural convection cabinet dryer. Direct solar
dryers use only the natural movement of heated air. A part of incidence solar radiation
on the glass cover is reflected back to atmosphere and remaining is transmitted inside
cabin dryer. Further, a part of transmitted radiation is reflected back from the surface of
the product. The remaining part is absorbed by the surface of the material. Due to the
absorption of solar radiation, product temperature increase and the material starts emitting
long wave length radiation which is not allowed to escape to atmosphere due to
presence of glass cover unlike open sun drying. Thus the temperature above the product

33
inside chamber becomes higher. The glass cover server one more purpose of reducing
direct convective losses to the ambient which further become beneficial for rise in product
and chamber temperature respectively [21].

However, convective and evaporative losses occur inside the chamber from the
heated material. The moisture is taken away by the air entering into the chamber from
below and escaping through another opening provide at the top as shown in Fig. 2. A
direct solar dryer is one in which the material is directly exposed to the sun‘s rays. This
dryer comprises of a drying chamber that is covered by a transparent cover made of
glass or plastic. The drying chamber is usually a shallow, insulated box with air-holes in
it to allow air to enter and exit the box. The product samples are placed on a perforated
tray that allows the air to flow through it and the material. Fig. 2.7 shows a schematic of
a simple direct dryer [15]. Solar radiation passes through the transparent cover and is
converted to low-grade heat when it strikes an opaque wall. This low-grade heat is then
trapped inside the box by what is known as the ‗greenhouse effect.‘‘ Simply stated, the
short wavelength solar radiation can penetrate the transparent cover. Once converted to
low-grade heat, the energy radiates.

Reference [5] reported a modification of the typical design. This cabinet dryer (Fig.
2.8) was equipped with a wooden plenum to guide the air inlet and a long plywood
chimney to enhance natural-circulation. This dryer was reported to have accelerated the
drying rate about five times over open sun drying.

34
Fig. 2.7 Direct solar drying (Natural convection type cabinet drier)

Fig. 2.8 A modified natural-circulation solar-energy cabinet dryer

35
2.2.4 Indirect type solar drying (ISD)

This type is not directly exposed to solar radiation to minimize discolorations and
cracking. Reference [7] has proposed and analyzed reverse absorber cabinet dryer
(RACD), the schematic view of RACD is shown in Fig. 2.9. The drying chamber is used
for keeping the in wire mesh tray. A downward facing absorber is fixed below the
drying chamber at a sufficient distance from the bottom of the drying chamber. A
cylindrical reflector is placed under the absorber fitted with the glass cover on its
aperture to minimize convective heat losses from the absorber. The absorber can be
selectively coated. The inclination of the glass cover is taken as 45o from horizontal to
receive maximum radiation. The area of absorber and glass cover are taken equal to the
area of bottom of drying chamber. Solar radiation after passing through the glass cover
is reflected by cylindrical reflector toward an absorber. After absorber, a part of this is
lost to ambient through a glass cover and remaining is transferred to the flowing air above
it by convection. The flowing air is thus heated and passes through the placed in the
drying chamber. The exhaust air and moisture is removed through a vent provided at the
top of drying chamber [21].

Fig. 2.9 Reverse absorber cabinet drier

36
 Fig. 2.10 describes another principle of indirect solar drying which is generally
known as conventional dryer. In this case, a separate unit termed as solar air heater is
used for solar energy collection for heating of entering air into this unit. The air heater is
connected to a separate drying chamber where the product is kept. The heated air is
allowed to flow through wet material. Here, the heat from moisture evaporation is
provided by convective heat transfer between the hot air and the wet material. The
drying is basically by the difference in moisture concentration between the drying air
and the air in the vicinity of product surface. A better control over drying is achieved in
indirect type of solar drying systems and the product obtained is good quality.

Fig. 2.10 Indirect solar drier (Forced convection solar drier)

There are several types of driers developed to serve the various purposes of
drying products as per local need and available technology. The best potential and popular
ones are natural convection cabinet type, forced convection indirect type and green house
type. Apart from the above three, as seen from the literature, ‗‗Solar tunnel
drier‘‘ is also found to be popular. These conventional types are shown in Figs 2.11, 12.

37
Fig. 2.11 Green house type solar drier

Fig. 2.12 Solar tunnel drier

38
 Apart from the obvious advantages of passive solar-energy dryers over the active
types (for applications in rural farm locations in developing countries), the advantages
of the natural circulation solar-energy ''ventilated green house dryer'' over other passive
solar-energy dryer designs include its low cost and its simplicity in both on-the-site
construction and operation. Its major drawback is its susceptibility to damage under
very high wind speeds.

Table 2 gives a concise comparison of the integral and distributed natural-

circulation solar energy dryers [5]. A multi-shelf portable solar dryer [19] is developed.
It has four main parts, i.e., multi-tray rack, trays, movable glazing and shading plate (see
Fig. 2.13). The ambient air enters from the bottom and moves up through the material
loaded in different trays.

After passing through the trays, the air leaves from the top. The multirack is
inclined depending upon the latitude of the location. Four layers of black HDP sheet are
wrapped around the multi-rack such that heat losses are reduced to ambient air from
back and sides. There are seven perforated trays, which are arranged at seven different
levels one above the other. The product to be dried is loaded in these trays. To facilitate
loading and unloading, a new concept of movable glazing has been developed. It
consists of a movable frame (on castor wheels) and UV stabilized plastic sheet. After
loading the product, the movable glazing is fixed with the ulti-tray rack so as to avoid
any air leakage.

39
Table 2.2 Comparisons of natural-circulation solar-energy dryers

Type

Integral Distributed

Principal modes Radiation (ie. By direct absorption of solar Convection from pre-heated air in an air•
of heat transfer to radiation) and convection (ie. from heated heating solar-energy collector.

crop surrounding air).

Components Glazed drying chamber and chimney. Air-heating solar-energy collector, ducting,
drying chamber and chimney.
Initial cost Increasing cost--------------+

Construction, Simplicity in both construction (ie. On-the• Consists of comparatively elaborate

operation and site construction) and operation. Requires structures, thus requires more capital
maintenance little maintenance. investment in materials and large running
costs. More operational difficulties of loading
and occasional stirring of the crop (since
crops are usually dried in relatively deep
layers).
Efficiency Little information on comparison of Have a tendency to higher efficiency since
perf onnance with distributed-type dryers. individual components can be designed to
Likely to operate at lower efficiencies due to optimal performance.
its simplicity and less controllability of drying
operations.

HDP Sheet
Sun rays Transparent
Air Out

support
Perf'orared drying trays

Black HDP sheet (4 layers)

Fig. 2.13 Multiple-shelf portable solar drier

40
 A staircase type dryer [9] is developed which is in the shape of a metal staircase
with its base and sides covered with double walled galvanized metal sheets with a cavity
filled with no degradable thermal insulation (see Fig.2.14). The upper surface is covered
with transparent polycarbon sheet to allow the sun‘s rays to pass through and be
trapped. The upper polycarbon glazed surface is divided into three equal parts which
can swing open, to provide access to the three compartment inside the dryer. The base
of the dryer has four entry points. The partition walls between the compartments also
have four port holes for easy airflow. Air moves by natural convection as it enters through
the bottom and leaves from the top.

Fig. 2.14 Staircase solar drier

Another system called rotary column cylindrical dryer (Sarsilmaz et al., 2000) is
developed which contains essentially three parts—air blow region (fan), air heater
region (solar collector) and drying region (rotary chamber) (see Fig. 2.15). A fan with
variable speed of air flow rate is connected to the solar collector using a tent fabric. The
connection to the dryer or rotary chamber was again through another tent fabric. The
41
dryer is manufactured from wooden plates at the top and bottom and thin ply wood
plates at the sides to make cylindrical shape. A rectangular slot is opened on side wall
where it faces the solar air heater for the passage of hot air via tent fabric. On the opposite
side of this wall a door is provided for loading and unloading of the products. A column
is constructed at the center of the rotary chamber to mount the products and the column
rotates due to a 12 V dc motor and a pulley and belt system.

Fig. 2.15 Rotary column cylindrical drier

Other solar assisted drying systems are also developed. The use of V-grooved
absorbers improves the heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and the air.
The present dryer uses collector of the V-groove absorber type (see Fig. 2.16(a)). A
double pass collector is also developed which consists of a porous medium [16] in the
second pass to store the energy and supply during cloudy weather or in the evenings
(see Fig. 2.16(b)).

Some have been improved further by using other methods such as increased
convection, etc., which are briefly discussed below.

42
 Fig. 2.16 Solar assisted drying systems

Since the products need to be spread in a single layer for efficient drying, total trays
are available in the dryer for spreading the product is important. In an attempt to acquire
the area, the roof top of a farm house has been used as a collector. In extension to this
type of drier [10], a dual purpose of illuminating the room by providing a low temperature
roof integrated solar flat plate air heater is introduced. The heated air is used to dry
the product grains spread on perforated plates of aluminum and acrylic, inside the
room. The perforation size for ground nut and paddy is calculated. In yet another method,
a sun tracking system is used along with a dc driven solar fan [14] for a controlled heating
of the product, as shown in Fig. 2.17. For example, maize requires
being heated below 60 oC to avoid overheating and microbial attack. A biomass backup
heater is used to supplement the heat required for faster drying process [2].

Six different types of cabinet driers (all natural circulation type) are constructed
with same fabrication materials and absorber areas, but different height of air gaps, air
pass methods and configurations of absorber plates [11]. The air flow rate is maintained
constant in all the cases. Out of all, the single covered/glazed and the front pass type
43
with black painted aluminum sheet as absorber plate is found to be most efficient. Also
it is found that, the effect of the shape of the absorbing surface on the performance is
considerably less.

In order to make the driers cost effective and comparable to open sun drying, natural
convection type green house driers [11] are developed and tested. There are two types of
driers (see Figs. 2.18 and 2.19). The driers are tested without load–without chimney, with
load–without chimney and with load–with chimney. When the driers are loaded (pepper
in the present case), the efficiency reduces. It is found that the green house driers are
increase the air temperature by 5–9 oC and the chimney provides better natural circulation
of air.

Fig. 2.17 Solar grain dryer with rotatable indirect air heater and a PV run fan

44
Fig. 2.18 (a) A simple presentation of first model

Fig. 2.18 (b) Side view of first model

45
 Fig. 2.19 (a) A simple representation of second model

Fig. 2.19 (b) Side view of internal representation of second model

46
 Totally different methods of drying have been developed which continue to dry
the products even in the night times thereby reducing the drying time drastically. The
desiccant materials [20] are used which absorb the moisture from the products to be dried.
The cost of desiccant materials is high causing the final product cost to be high. Hence,
low cost desiccants [23] particularly suitable for tropical countries are identified as
bentonite-calcium chloride and kaolonite-calcium chloride. Yet another type is the one
with thermal storage (sensible) to take care of intermittent incoming solar radiation. The
length and width of the air heater, the gap between the absorber plate and glass cover
and thickness of the storage material are optimized in this type of drier [15]. The thermal
efficiency of the air heater is found to be sufficient for drying of various materials.

In all the types of driers stated above, the hot air enters the drying chamber and
leaves to the atmosphere. But the hot air can be recirculated to save the energy [13].The
drying of coconut and cocoa in a scaled down drier of a large scale drier is considered in
which the recirculation of hot air yields 31 and 29% of energy saving, respectively. The
recirculation of exhaust hot air is also applied to hay driers. Lack of uniform drying and
inability to accurately predict drying times are some of the existing problems. A new drier
is developed which uses forced heated-air circulation through hay stacks. A drying rate
difference of 7% is observed due to recirculation of hot air. By recirculating all of the
exhaust air, the previous driers either increased drying time or proved to be uneconomical,
so only30% of the hot air is recirculated in the present case. The favorable
conditions to recirculate the exhaust air are presented [15].

A drier called FASD (Foldable Agro Solar Dryer) is developed which is a

foldable type that can be stored and transported as desired. The performance of the drier
is tested to find that the inner temperature is about 8 oC higher than ambient and
humidity is lesser by 6% inside. Out of all types, the well known heat pump [15]

47
principle has been used to dry the products and this has been found to be excellent
alternative to the solar drying.

2.2.5 Applications of solar driers

The drying process has been experimentally studied and analyzed to simulate and
design a drier. As drying is a process of removing moisture to a safe level, the
equilibrium moisture content is defined as the moisture content in equilibrium with the
relative humidity of the environment. The equilibrium moisture content is divided into,
static and dynamic. While the static is used for food storage process, dynamic is used
for drying process. The drying process is experimentally obtained and presented as
moisture content on x-axis and rate of drying on y-axis. A deep bed of food grains is
assumed to be composed of thin layers normal to the hot air flow direction. The
equations for thin layer were written initially, using empirical, theoretical and semi
theoretical equations. The conditions of the grain and air change with position and time
during drying of a deep bed of grains. Logarithmic and partial differential equation
models to simulate the deep bed dry modeling are dealt in detail [15].

A computer program in C++ language is developed for modeling of deep bed

drying systems and considers eight different configurations of flow of hot air over
absorber plates of solar collectors. The usual parameters such as heat removal factor,
overall loss coefficient, top loss coefficient, etc., can be determined. The model prompts
for basic data [15] such as amount of grain to be dried, initial moisture content, number
of thin layers and weather data.

In a different direction, the first and second laws of thermodynamics [25] have
been used to develop the design methods for a particular application. Semi-empirical
formulae are developed to calculate the rise in air temperature as it passes through the
heater.NTU (number of transfer units) has been defined analogous to the heat
48
exchangers, as a part of design. Using entropy balance the maximum temperature
reached by solar collector is written and then Entropy Generation Number is developed
to find the entropy generated during thermal conversion of solar energy. Finally, the
drying temperature is established as a function of the maximum limit of temperature the
material might support.

The drying chamber of a drier consists of meshes on which product is spread for
drying. Also, the drying chamber [40] is a wooden cabinet. Hence, the heat loss to the
side walls of the drying chamber is considered. As the hot air passes through the mesh,
in forced convection driers, turbulence is created. A solar drier without either heat storage
or air recycling is considered with a solar collector containing offset plate fins.

Experiments are conducted to calculate heat losses (through Nusselt number).In

the above models, the variation of incoming solar radiation is not taken into account.
For modeling purpose, a constant artificial flux is adopted to study the drying
phenomenon [8]. A drier with three beds of wool is considered with a solar collector.

The drying process in the three zones of the bed is theoretically analyzed. The solar
collector is equipped with a flat plate absorber and offset plate fins absorber plate. Under
constant incident fluxes, at the same mass flow rate of air, the drying rate and time has
been studied to find that offset plate fins collector is better. The known facts that, the inlet
temperature of the air is variable (because of variable incoming solar radiation) and the
products shrink as drying process continues are taken into consideration for modeling
[17]. A most common cabinet type drier is considered for the study. A moving co-
ordinate is defined to take into account of the shrinkage effects. The experimental data
from previous workers is considered for validation of the mathematical model. The
carrot cubes are used as product to test the model. It is proposed that the estimation
of solar irradiance on the drier is essential to predict the
response of the drier [6].Considering a semi-cylindrical solar tunnel drier, the irradiance

49
is calculated by taking the geometric quantities, relative motion of sun and optical
properties into account.

The change of main variables such as moisture content along the drying tunnel is
considered unlike in previous works where uniform distribution is assumed [4].This is a
study of tunnel green house drier which is continuous type. The conditions for
improvement of efficiency are evaluated. A linear relationship between the tunnel
output temperature and incident solar radiation is obtained. The drier production is
presented by a performance parameter which is defined as the ratio between the energy
actually used in the evaporation and the total available energy for the drying process. A
non-dimensional variable is also defined which has all the meteorological information.
It is found that, the average moisture content value of the tunnel can be considered to be
constant [15].

The construction and working of solar tunnel drier is explained in detail. Three
fans run by a solar module are used to create forced convection. The drying procedure
and the instrumentation are also described. The major advantage of solar tunnel drier is
that the regulation of the drying temperature is possible. During high insulation periods,
more energy is received by the collector, which tends to increase the drying temperature
and is compensated by the increase of the air flow rate. The variation of voltage with
respect to radiation in a given day and variation of radiation with respect to time of the
day are presented. The comparative curves using the tunnel dryer and natural sun drying
are presented to show that, the tunnel drying time is less [15]. A substantial increase in
the average sugar content is observed. The economics of the drier is worked out to show
that, the payback period is 3 years.

The solar tunnel drier is modified to develop a green house tunnel drier whose
working principle and construction is explained in detail. Some additional features of
the tunnel drier are highlighted such as improvement in the drier efficiency, lowering of

50
the labor cost and ease in installing a conventional heater as an auxiliary heating system
for continuous production [4]. The drier is considered as a solar collector, and its
instantaneous efficiency is measured. Products were dried in various configurations.
The plots of time in a given day vs. moisture content are plotted. The working principle
of auxiliary heating system is also presented.

Throughout the literature, decrease in drying time has been the main concern.
Further, the natural convection type drier is not preferred as low buoyancy forces may
cause reverse effect leading to the spoilage of the product. In order to resolve these two
issues, an integral type natural convection drier coupled with a biomass stove is developed
[15].

The constructional details and operation of the drier are presented in detail.
Drying time was lowest for solar-biomass method. The uniformity of drying was
questionable as there was significant variation in moisture content when samples were
tested from trays at top, middle and bottom. Even within a tray, when temperature, relative
humidity and velocity of air were measured, variations were observed the drying
efficiency of the drier was evaluated and it is noted that, type of product and its final
moisture content level influences the drying efficiency.

The final moisture in a product generally requires more energy to extract than the
initial moisture and the preparation of the products prior to drying such as slicing,
boiling affects the drying efficiency. These factors make it difficult to make
comparisons with the drying efficiencies of other solar driers reported in the literature.

51
2.2.6 Conclusions

This chapter is focused on the available solar dryer‘s systems and new
technologies. The dependence of the drying on the characteristics of product remains
still as a problem, for comparison of drying efficiencies of various driers. Author
presented a comprehensive review of the various designs, details of construction and
operational principles of the wide variety of practically realized designs of solar-energy
drying systems. Two broad groups of solar energy dryers can be identified, viz., passive
or natural-circulation solar-energy dryers and active or forced-convection solar-energy
dryers (often called hybrid solar dryers). Three sub-groups of these, which differ mainly
on their structural arrangement, can also be identified, via integral or direct mode solar
dryers, distributed or indirect-modes. This classification illustrates clearly how these solar
dryer designs can be grouped systematically according to their operating temperature
ranges, heating sources and heating modes, operational modes or structural modes.
Though properly, designed forced-convection (active) solar dryers are agreed generally
to be more effective and more controllable than the natural-circulation (passive) types.
This chapter also presents some easy-to-fabricate and easy-to-operate dryers that can be
suitably employed at small-scale factories. Such low-cost drying technologies can be
readily introduced in rural areas to reduce spoilage, improve
product quality and overall processing hygiene.

52
 Chapter 3

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

3.1 Design specifications and assumptions

3.1.1 Introduction

Solar drying may be classified into direct and indirect solar dryer. In direct solar
dryers the air heater contains the grains and solar energy which passes through a
transparent cover and is absorbed by the grains. Essentially, the heat required for drying
is provided by radiation to the upper layers and subsequent conduction into the grain
bed. However, in indirect dryers, solar energy is collected in a separate solar collector
(air heater) and the heated air then passes through the grain bed, while in the mixed-
mode type of dryer, the heated air from a separate solar collector is passed through a grain
bed, and at the same time, the drying cabinet absorbs solar energy directly through the
transparent walls or the roof. The objective of this study is to design a mixed-mode solar
dryer in which the grains are dried simultaneously by both direct radiation through the
transparent walls and roof of the cabinet and by the heated air from the solar collector.
The materials used for the construction of the mixed-mode solar dryer are cheap
and easily obtainable in the local market. Figure3.1 shows the main components of the
dryer, consisting of the solar collector (air heater), the drying cabinet and drying trays.

3.1.2 Solar Dryer Components

The solar dryer consists of the solar collector (air heater), the drying cabinet and
drying trays:

53
 1. Collector (Air Heater):

The heat absorber (inner box) of the solar air heater was constructed using 2 mm
thick aluminum plate, painted black, is mounted in an outer box built from well-
seasoned woods. The space between the inner box and outer box is filled with foam
–1 –1
material of about 40 mm thickness and thermal conductivity of 0.043 Wm K . The

solar collector assembly consists of air flow channel enclosed by transparent cover
(glazing). An absorber mesh screen midway between the glass cover and the absorber
back plate provides effective air heating because solar radiation that passes through the
transparent cover is then absorbed by both the mesh and back-plate. The glazing is a
single layer of 4 mm thick transparent glass sheet; it has a surface area of 820 mm by
1020 mm and of transmittance above 0.7 for wave lengths in the rage 0.2 – 2.0 μm and
opaque to wave lengths greater than 4.5 μm. The effective area of the collector glazing
2 2
is 0.8 m . One end of the solar collector has an air inlet vent of area 0.0888 m , which is
covered by a galvanized wire mesh to prevent entrance of rodents, the other end opens
to the plenum chamber.

2. The Drying Cabinet:

The drying cabinet together with the structural frame of the dryer was built from
well-seasoned woods which could withstand termite and atmospheric attacks. An outlet
vent was provided toward the upper end at the back of the cabinet to facilitate and
control the convection flow of air through the dryer. Access door to the drying chamber
was also provided at the back of the cabinet. This consists of three removable wooden
panels made of 13 mm plywood, which overlapped each other to prevent air leakages
when closed. The roof and the two opposite side walls of the cabinet are covered with
transparent glass sheets of 4 mm thick, which provided additional heating.

54
 3. Drying Trays:
The drying trays are contained inside the drying chamber and were constructed
from a double layer of fine chicken wire mesh with a fairly open structure to allow drying
air to pass through the food items.

3.1.3 The orientation of the Solar Collector:

The flat-plate solar collector is always tilted and oriented in such a way that it
receives maximum solar radiation during the desired season of used. The best stationary
orientation is due south in the northern hemisphere and due north in southern hemisphere.
Therefore, solar collector in this work is oriented facing south and tilted at
o
45 to the horizontal. This inclination is also to allow easy run off of water and enhance
air circulation.

Fig. 3.1 Sectional view of the mixed-mode solar dryer

55
3.2 Mathematical models and formulations

3.2.1 Operation of the Dryer

Fig. 3.2 shows the isometric drawing of the mixed-mode solar dryer. The dryer is
a passive system in the sense that it has no moving parts. It is energized by the sun‘s
rays entering through the collector glazing. The trapping of the rays is enhanced by the
inside surfaces of the collector that were painted black and the trapped energy heats the
air inside the collector. The green house effect achieved within the collector drives the
air current through the drying chamber. If the vents are open, the hot air rises and
escapes through the upper vent in the drying chamber while cooler air at ambient
temperature enters through the lower vent in the collector. Therefore, an air current is
maintained, as cooler air at a temperature Ta enters through the lower vents and hot air at

a temperature Teleaves through the upper vent.

Fig.3.2 Isometric drawing of the mixed-mode solar dryer

56
 When the dryer contains no items to be dried, the incoming air at a temperature
‗Ta‘ has relative humidity ‗H a‘ and the out-going air at a temperature ‗T e‘, has a relative

humidity ‗H e‘. Because T e >Ta and the dryer contains no item, H a >He. Thus there is

tendency for the out-going hot air to pick more moisture within the dryer as a result of
the difference between Ha and He. Therefore, insulation received is principally used in

increasing the affinity of the air in the dryer to pick moisture.

3.2.2 Drying mechanism

In the process of drying, heat is necessary to evaporate moisture from the material
and a flow of air helps in carrying away the evaporated moisture. There are two basic
mechanisms involved in the drying process:
1) The migration of moisture from the interior of an individual material to the
surface, and
2) The evaporation of moisture from the surface to the surrounding air [40]. The
drying of a product is a complex heat and mass transfer process which depends on external
variables such as temperature, humidity and velocity of the air stream and internal
variables which depend on parameters like surface characteristics (rough or smooth
surface), chemical composition (sugars, starches, etc.), physical structure (porosity,
density, etc.), and size and shape of product.

3.2.3 Basic Theory (Formulations)

The energy balance on the absorber is obtained by equating the total heat gained
to the total heat loosed by the heat absorber of the solar collector. Therefore,
IAc = Qu + Qcond + Qconv + QR + Qρ, (1)
Where:

–2
I = rate of total radiation incident on the absorber‘s surface (Wm );

57
 2
Ac = collector area (m );

Qu = rate of useful energy collected by the air (W);

Qcond = rate of conduction losses from the absorber (W);

Qconv = rate of convective losses from the absorber (W);

QR = rate of long wave re-radiation from the absorber (W);

Qρ = rate of reflection losses from the absorber (W).
The three heat loss terms Q cond, Qconv and QR are usually combined into one-term (Q L),

i.e.,
Q =Q +Q +Q . (2)
L cond conv R

If τ is the transmittance of the top glazing and I T is the total solar radiation incident on
the top surface, therefore,

IAc = τ ITAc . (3)

The reflected energy from the absorber is given by the expression:

Qρ = ρτ ITAc, (4)

Where ρ is the reflection coefficient of the absorber. Substitution of Eqs. (2), (3) and (4)
in Eq. (1) yields:
τI A = Q + Q + ρτ I A , or
T c u L T c

Qu = τ ITAc (1 – ρ) – QL.

For an absorber (1 – ρ) = α and hence,

Qu = (ατ) ITAc– Q L, (5)

Where α is solar absorbance.

QL composed of different convection and radiation parts. It is presented in the following
form (Bansal et al. 1990):
QL = ULAc (Tc – Ta), (6)
58
Where:
–2 –1
UL = overall heat transfer coefficient of the absorber (Wm K );

Tc = temperature of the collector‘s absorber (K);

Ta = ambient air temperature (K).

From Equations (5) and (6) the useful energy gained by the collector is expressed as:
Qu = (ατ) ITAc– U LA c (Tc – Ta). (7)

Therefore, the energy per unit area (q u) of the collector is

qu= (ατ)IT – UL(Tc – Ta). (8)

If the heated air leaving the collector is at collector temperature, the heat gained by the
air Qg is:

Qg = ��.𝒂 Cpa (Tc – Ta), (9)

Where:
–1
��𝑎. = mass of air leaving the dryer per unit time (kgs );
–1 –1
Cpa= specific heat capacity of air (kJkg K ).

The collector heat removal factor, F R, is the quantity that relates the actual useful energy

gained of a collector, Eq. (7), to the useful gained by the air, Eq. (9). Therefore,

or
Q = A F [(ατ)I – U A (T – T )]. (11)
g c R T L c c a

The thermal efficiency of the collector is defined as (Itodo et al. 2002) is given in Eq.
(12):
59
3.2.4 Energy Balance Equation for the Drying Process
The total energy required for drying a given quantity of food items can be
estimated using the basic energy balance equation for the evaporation of water (Youcef-
Ali, et al. 2001; Bolaji 2005):
m L = m C (T – T ), (13)
w v a p 1 2

where:

Lv = latent heat (kJ kg-1)

mw= mass of water evaporated from the food item (kg);

ma= mass of drying air (kg);

T1 and T2 = initial and final temperatures of the drying air respectively (K);

–1 –1
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure (kJ kg K ).

The mass of water evaporated is calculated from Eq. 14:

Where:
mi= initial mass of the food item (kg);

Me = equilibrium moisture content (% dry basis);

Mi = initial moisture content (% dry basis).

During drying, water at the surface of the substance evaporates and water in the
inner part migrates to the surface to get evaporated. The ease of this migration depends
on the porosity of the substance and the surface area available. Other factors that may
enhance quick drying of food items are: high temperature, high wind speed and low
relative humidity. In drying grains for future planting, care must be taken not to kill the
embryo. In drying items like fish, meat, potato chips, plantain chips etc., excessive heating
must also be avoided, as it spoils the texture and quality of the item.
60
 Chapter 4

DESIGN PROCEDURE AND IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 Design Procedures

In many parts of the world there is a growing awareness that renewable energy
have an important role to play in extending technology to the farmer in developing
countries to increase their productivity [39]. Solar thermal technology is a technology
that is rapidly gaining acceptance as an energy saving measure in agriculture
application. It is preferred to other alternative sources of energy such as wind and shale,
because it is abundant, inexhaustible, and non-polluting [28].

Solar air heaters are simple devices to heat air by utilizing solar energy and
o
employed in many applications requiring low to moderate temperature below 80 C, such
as crop drying and space heating [36]. Drying processes play an important role in the
preservation of agricultural products.

They are defined as a process of moisture removal due to simultaneous heat and
mass transfer [33]. According to [34] two types of water are present in food items; the
chemically bound water and the physically held water. In drying, it is only the
physically held water that is removed. The most important reasons for the popularity of
dried products are longer shelf-life, product diversity as well as substantial volume
reduction. This could be expanded further with improvements in product quality and
process applications.

The application of dryers in developing countries can reduce post harvest losses
and significantly contribute to the availability of food in these countries. Estimations of
these losses are generally cited to be of the order of 40% but they can, under very
adverse conditions, be nearly as high as 80%. A significant percentage of these losses

61
are related to improper and/or untimely drying of foodstuffs such as cereal grains,
pulses, tubers, meat, fish, etc. [31].
Traditional drying, which is frequently done on the ground in the open air, is the
most widespread method used in developing countries because it is the simplest and
cheapest method of conserving foodstuffs. Some disadvantages of open air drying are:
exposure of the foodstuff to rain and dust; uncontrolled drying; exposure to direct sunlight
which is undesirable for some foodstuffs; infestation by insects; attack by animals; etc
[37].

In order to improve traditional drying, solar dryers which have the potential of
substantially reducing the above-mentioned disadvantages of open air drying; have
received considerable attention over the past 20 years [31]. Solar dryers of the forced
convection type can be effectively used. They however need electricity, which
unfortunately is non-existent in many rural areas, to operate the fans. Even when
electricity exists, the potential users of the dryers are unable to pay for it due to their
very low income. Forced convection dryers are for this reason not going to be readily
applicable on a wide scale in many developing countries. Natural convection dryers
circulate the drying air without the aid of a fan. They are therefore, the most applicable
to the rural areas in developing countries.

4.1.1 THE EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

The mixed-mode solar dryer with box-type absorber collector was constructed
using the materials that are easily obtainable from the local market. Figure 4.1 shows a
section of the solar dryer. The dryer has four main features namely: the box-type
absorber solar air collector, the drying chamber, the drying rack and two fines electric.

62
 Fig. 4.1 Section of the mixed-mode solar dryer

4.1.2 Collector (solar air heater)

The heat absorber (inner box) of the solar air heater was constructed using 1 mm
thick galvanized plate, painted black, the surface facing sunlight was painted with black
paint containing (5%)black chromium powder to increase its absorbing capability. The
solar collector was insulated with rock wool of about 5 cm thickness and thermal
conductivity of 0.04 Wm-1 K-1 on all sides. The solar collector assembly consists of air
flow channel enclosed by transparent cover (glazing). The glazing is a single layer of 4
mm thick transparent glass sheet. It has a surface area of 0.82 by 1.20 cm and of
transmittance above 0.86 (Figure 4.2).

63
 Fig. 4.2 Typical solar collector for air heating

4.1.3 The drying cabinet and drying racks

The designing of the drying chamber depends on many factors such as the
product to be dried, the required temperature and velocity of the air to dry food material,
the quantity of the dried product and the relative humidity of the air passing over the
food material. The drying chamber houses four drying racks, between a tray and another
tray is 10 cm as shown in Figure 1. Four trays of dimension (0.75 x 0.30 x 0.08 m) were
fabricated and stacked uniformly/evenly at distances (0.02 m) apart, for placing of
material to be dried. The tray was made from an aluminum wire mesh (0.003 x 0.003 m
in size) attached to it. Metal handles (0.076 m) were attached on each tray for ease of
handling and sliding the trays inside the chamber through the produce to be dried. The
drying chamber was also lined with foam insulation material 5 cm thick to prevent loss
of heat (Figure 4.3).

64
 Fig. 4.3 Dimension of trays used in the drying chamber

4.1.4 Drying mechanism

In the process of drying, heat is necessary to evaporate moisture from the material
and a flow of air helps in carrying away the evaporated moisture. There are two basic
mechanisms involved in the drying process:
1) The migration of moisture from the interior of an individual material to the
surface.
2) The evaporation of moisture from the surface to the surrounding air [40]. The
drying of a product is a complex heat and mass transfer process which depends on external
variables such as temperature, humidity and velocity of the air stream and internal
variables which depend on parameters like surface characteristics (rough or smooth
surface), chemical composition (sugars, starches, etc.), physical structure
(porosity, density, etc.), and size and shape of product.

65
4.2 Design Implementation

Two digital sensors have been positioned to measure the air temperature and
humidity at the inlet and outlet portion of the air heater. Other sensors have been placed
at trays 1, 2, 3 and 4 in order to measure the temperature and humidity of trays. Ambient
temperature was also recorded during the course of experiments with the help of digital
sensor. The experiment was conducted at the location of the faculty of engineering,
Jazan University and the orientation of the solar collector has been fixed towards the
south direction, inclined at an angle of 45°.
Successful tests were conducted between May 1 and May 3, 2014 and in this project
work, one of the test data was used to evaluate the drying curves, humidity and
temperature measurements in the dryer. During the tests period, the heated air was used
to dry potato.

4.2.1 Results and Discussion

This project presents the design, construction and performance of a mixed-mode

solar dryer for food preservation. In the dryer, the heated air from a separate solar
collector is passed through a grain bed, and at the same time, the drying cabinet absorbs
solar energy directly through the transparent walls and roof. The results obtained during
the test period revealed that the temperatures inside the dryer and solar collector were
much higher than the ambient temperature during most hours of the day-light. The
temperature rise inside the drying cabinet was up to 74% for about three hours
immediately after 12.00h (noon). The dryer exhibited sufficient ability to dry food items
reasonably rapidly to a safe moisture level and simultaneously it ensures a superior
quality of the dried product.

66
 1. Variation of the temperatures in the solar collector and the drying cabinet
compared to the ambient temperature

Fig. 5.1 shows a typical day results of the hourly variation of the temperatures in
the solar collector and the drying cabinet compared to the ambient temperature. The dryer
is hottest about mid-day when the sun is usually overhead. The temperatures inside
the dryer and the solar collector were much higher than the ambient temperature during
most hours of the daylight. The temperature rise inside drying cabinet was up to
24oC (74%) for about three hours immediately after 12.00h (noon). This indicates
prospect for better performance than open-air sun drying.

Fig. 4.4 A typical day results of the diurnal variation of

temperatures in the solar dryer

67
 2. Variation of the relative humidity of the ambient air and drying chamber

Fig. 5.2 shows the diurnal variation of the relative humidity of the ambient air and

drying chamber. Comparison of this figure with Fig. 3 shows that the drying processes

were enhanced by the heated air at very low humidity.

Fig. 4.5 A typical day results of the diurnal variation of

relative humidity in the dryer

68
 3. The drying curve for Potato chips in the mixed-mode solar dryer

Fig. 5.3 shows the drying curve for potato chips in the mixed-mode solar dryer. It
was observed that the drying rate increased due to increase in temperature between
10.00h and 14.00h but decreased thereafter, which shows the earlier and faster removal
of moisture from the dried item.

Fig. 4.6 Drying curve for potato chip

69
 Chapter 5

FEASIBIILITY STUDIES AND MARKET NEEDS

Feasibility Study for Food Solar dryer System

Cost Economics, of Food Solar dryer System enterprises are worked out for fruits
and vegetables. 1 Million For one unit of 10 dryers. It can transact 10 tons of fruits or
fruit bars in dehydrated form. This is an excellent income and profitable venture in rural
Saudi Arabia. The cost benefit analysis of our dryers indicates that a commercial
venture of a project with 10 solar dryers will give the payback period of 2 - 2½ years.

The profitability of the technology in terms of employment potential and income

generation is established and acceptability of the product in the market is evaluated from
the proven market demand. Our expectation about the feasibility of the technology for
rural employment has been realized .

The reasons for the success are :

1. The grass root level Non Government and voluntary organizations have devotion
for service to rural people and have the ability to capacity building and skill
development among rural women .
2. Food Solar drying process is the integration of food science and technology and
solar drying technology disciplines. So the practice followed in solar food
processing is based on these two techniques. To make the solar food processing
products, one needs rigorous training in this technology by well qualified persons,
close monitoring and supervision of the operations and following the food safety,
clean & hygienic practices, quality consciousness and assurance in day to day
production. The social entrepreneurs have proved very successful in this respect .

70
 Chapter 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion

From the test carried out, the following conclusions were made. The solar dryer

can raise the ambient air temperature to a considerable high value for increasing the

drying rate of agricultural crops. The product inside the dryer requires less attentions, like

attack of the product by rain or pest (both human and animals), compared with those

in the open sun drying. Although the dryer was used to dry Potato, it can be used to dry

other crops like yams, cassava, maize and plantain etc. There is ease in monitoring

when compared to the natural sun drying technique. The capital cost involved in

the construction of a solar dryer is much lower to that of a mechanical dryer.

Also from the test carried out, the simple and inexpensive mixed-mode solar

dryer was designed and constructed using locally sourced materials. The hourly

variation of the temperatures inside the cabinet and air-heater are much higher than the

ambient temperature during the most hours of the day-light. The temperature rise inside
o
the drying cabinet was up to 24 C (74%) for about three hours immediately after 12.00h

(noon). The dryer exhibited sufficient ability to dry food items reasonably rapidly to a

safe moisture level and simultaneously it ensures a superior quality of the dried product.

71
6.2 Recommendations

The performance of existing solar food dryers can still be improved upon especially

in the aspect of reducing the drying time, and probably storage of heat energy within the

system by increasing the size of the solar collector. Also, meteorological data should be

readily available to users of solar products to ensure maximum efficiency and

effectiveness of the system. Such information will probably guide a local farmer on

when to dry his agricultural produce and when not to dry them.

72
 APPENDICES

Table 1: A typical day results of the diurnal variation of temperatures in the solar dryer

Time Ambient Temperature Drying Chamber Temperature Collector Temperature

09:00 32 34 37
10:00 33 37 42
11:00 35 40 50
12:00 38 46 58
13:00 35 50 62
14:00 34 45 58
15:00 32 42 50
16:00 31 39 47
17:00 30 36 44
18:00 30 34 39

Table 2: A typical day results of the diurnal variation of relative humidity in the dryer

Time Ambient Air Humidity Drying Chamber Humidity

09:00 40 81
10:00 33 79
11:00 29 77
12:00 32 73
13:00 36 70
14:00 38 74
15:00 39 78
16:00 46 79
17:00 48 81
18:00 50 83

Table 3: Hourly Moisture Loss and Mass of the Potato

Mass of Moisture % Moisture Total Moisture

Time
Potato (g) Loss (g) Loss Loss (%)
9:00 560 - -- 58
10.00 547 13 2.3 55.7
11.00 528 19 3.4 52.3
12:00 503 25 4.5 47.8
13:00 474 29 5.2 42.6
14:00 436 28 6.8 35.8
15:00 399 37 6.6 29.2
16:00 365 34 6.0 23.2
17:00 338 27 4.8 18.4
18:00 318 20 3.6 14.8

73
Table 4: Hourly Moisture Content
Time Moisture Content
9:00 2.4
10.00 2
11.00 1.4
12:00 0.8
13:00 0.62
14:00 0.56
15:00 0.53
16:00 0.49
17:00 0.46
18:00 0.44

The Thermocouple

The Thermocouple is by far the most commonly used type of all the temperature
sensor types. Thermocouples are popular due to its simplicity, ease of use and their
speed of response to changes in temperature, due mainly to their small size.
Thermocouples also have the widest temperature range of all the temperature sensors
from below -200oC to well over 2000oC.
Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consist of two junctions
of dissimilar metals, such as copper and constantan that are welded or crimped together.
One junction is kept at a constant temperature called the reference (Cold) junction,
while the other the measuring (Hot) junction. When the two junctions are at different
temperatures, a voltage is developed across the junction which is used to measure the
temperature sensor as shown below.

74
Thermocouple Construction

The operating principal of a thermocouple is very simple and basic. When fused
together the junction of the two dissimilar metals such as copper and constantan
produces a ―thermo-electric‖ effect which gives a constant potential difference of only a
few millivolts (mV) between them. The voltage difference between the two junctions is
called the ―Seebeck effect‖ as a temperature gradient is generated along the conducting
wires producing an emf. Then the output voltage from a thermocouple is a function of
the temperature changes.
If both the junctions are at the same temperature the potential difference across
the two junctions is zero in other words, no voltage output as V1 = V2. However, when
the junctions are connected within a circuit and are both at different temperatures a
voltage output will be detected relative to the difference in temperature between the two
junctions, V1 - V2. This difference in voltage will increase with temperature until the
junction‘s peak voltage level is reached and this is determined by the characteristics of
the two dissimilar metals used.
Thermocouples can be made from a variety of different materials enabling
extreme temperatures of between -200 oC to over +2000 oC to be measured. With such a
large choice of materials and temperature range, internationally recognised standards
have been developed complete with thermocouple colour codes to allow the user to

75
choose the correct thermocouple sensor for a particular application. The British colour
code for standard thermocouples is given below.

Thermocouple Colour Codes

Thermocouple Sensor Colour Codes

Extension and Compensating Leads
Code British
Conductors (+/-) Sensitivity
Type BS 1843:1952

Nickel Chromium /
E -200 to 900oC
Constantan

J Iron / Constantan 0 to 750oC

Nickel Chromium /
K -200 to 1250oC
Nickel Aluminum

N Nicrosil / Nisil 0 to 1250oC

T Copper / Constantan -200 to 350oC

Copper / Copper Nickel

U Compensating for "S" 0 to 1450oC
and "R"

The three most common thermocouple materials used above for general
temperature measurement are Iron-Constantan (Type J), Copper-Constantan (Type T),
and Nickel-Chromium (Type K). The output voltage from a thermocouple is very small,
only a few millivolts (mV) for a 10oC change in temperature difference and because of
this small voltage output some form of amplification is generally required.

76
Calibration Curve of Sensor

77
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