2nd SEM B.Sc.

CHAPTER 1

OPERATING SYSTEM
An Operating system is a computer program, which acts as an intermediary
between the user of the computer & the computer hardware.

Abstract view [components] of O.S.:

User 1 User 2 User 3 User n

---- ----------

Compiler Assembler Word Song

Application program
Operating system
Hardware

User are developing & using the application program. This application program
running or execute hard with the use of operating system.

Resource Manager: & Extended machine:

This O.S. acts as resource manager. Because
O.S. accepts data ( resource ) from hardware & allocating in memory.
O.S. manager this resource.
This O.S. accept different types of I/O device files & software for that we call
operating system is Extended machine.
Type of O.S
1. Simple batch system:
Supplying the job to the CPU is real problem & setup the time for each job is
also a problem. For that O.S. make a concept of simple batch system. It
increases the high CPU utilization.
The above problem solved using below technique.
Use of tape drive the job is supplied continuously to the CPU it increase
CPU utilization.
Development of job sequence using queuing method job supplies one by
one.

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2. Spooling:
Spooling is a method to supplies the job to the O/P device continuously
without any miss for this tech we need following setup.

Disk

I/P Device CPU Printer

The above fig. Disk is a memory its having high capacity buffer. It receives
the data or job from card reader & supplies the data or job to printer directly from
the buffer.
It decreases the idle time of CPU & O/P device

Multiprogrammed Batch system: -

This increases the CPU utilization O.S. keeps multiple jobs in the memory at
a time it sends the job (prg) to CPU continuously Batch by Batch
Multiprogrammed Batch system allows to enter the multiple job at a time.
Drawback: - User can’t interact with job while executing.
Time sharing system: -
Time sharing system allows several users to use the system simultaneously.
In a time sharing system multiple jobs are executed simultaneously each action or
command tends to be short only a little CPU time is needed for each user.
Time sharing system each job sharing its CPU utilization.
Real time system: -
In real time system is also a type of time sharing but it shares its time for
fixed time constraints processing must be done within defined constraints
otherwise the system will fail.
Distributed system: -
In this distributed system the jobs are distributed to all the processor
[multiprocessing system only]. This tech. used in network operating system.

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Personal computer system: -

This O.S. is suitable for personal computer’s this personal computer system
is purely design for single user & hid needs.
The users are using printer, fax, music system and video units. This O.S. supports
the above I/P devices. This O.S. allows to use Internet, LAN etc.
Virus protection is another important requirement of personal computers.

Parallel system: - MEMORY

P1 P2 P3 I/O

User CPU (Multiple processor )

The combinations of many processors are act in CPU. The main advantage
of such system is to increase the overall efficiency of the system and the jobs are
completed in a minimum time.
System components: -[ Operating system structure ]:
Operating system act on different component each components act with different
structures.
They are:
1. Process Management,
2. Main memory management,
3. Secondary storage management,
4. I/O management (Device),
5. File management, and
6. Protection & Command interpreter system.
1. Process management: -
Process is a job it is ready to execute.
The O.S. manages the following:
Creation of process,
Suspension & resumption of process,
Allocation of CPU & execution of process,
Handling CPU wastage time.

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2. Main memory Management: -

The main memory is only a storage device. The O.S. manages the following steps:
Keeping track of the usage of memory,
Allocation & deallocation,
Allocating the process with some address.
3. Secondary – storage device: -
Main memory is limited & volatile. But secondary storage device is
permanent & huge no. of process or data is stored in this device.
O.S.will manages the following step:
Scheduling of disk,
Allocation & deallocation,
Fragmentation,
Manager free space. Etc.
4. I/O device Management: -
O.S. manages the following steps:
Interface of i/p & o/p device,
Receiving & sending the data,
Initiating i/p 7 o/p operation etc.,
Manages all i/p & o/p device activity.
5. File management system: -
It is the one of the visible component in O.S.
The O.S. system manages the file for the following activity:
Locating the file, save the file,
Creating the file,
Deleting the file,
Modify the file,
Backup or recovery of the file, etc.
6. Protection system: -
Protection is very important to protect file, data & software, etc.
It maintains the following items:
Input – out protection,
Memory protection,
CPU protection,
Process protection.

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Command interpreter system: -

The command interpreter acts as an interface between the user & the system.
When the user gives the command the interpreter checks for the validity of the
command. It is proper it should be executed immediately.

Operating system services: -

This provides certain service to programmer & user to make the programming
easier & operate computer easily. Different services are:

Program execution: - Resource

allocation
Input & O/P Accounting
operations
File system Protection. etc.
manipulation
Communications
Error detection

System calls: -
System calls provides the system service using system program. This
provides the interface between a process & the operating system.
Information or parameters may be passed to system calls using different methods.
The various system calls are:
1. System calls for the process management
End, abort a process, load & execute a process, create & terminate the
process.
2. System calls for the file management: -
Create or delete a file.
Open, read, write & close a file.
3. System calls for the device management:-
Request device, release device,
Logically attach or detach devices.
Get or set a device attributes.

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2nd SEM B.Sc.

4. System calls for the communication management:

Create, delete communication connection,
Attach or detach remote devices,
Send or receive messages.
5. System calls for information maintenance.
Get or set time or date,
Get or set system data,
Get or set process, file or device attributes.

System programs: -
The O.S. also contants a set of program called system program. The main aim of
these programs is to simplify user interaction with the system.
System program are divided into different categories:
File manipulation,
Status information,
File modification, programming language support,
Communication, application program,
Command interpreter.

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2nd SEM B.Sc.
CHAPTER -2

PROCESS MANAGEMENT

PROCESS: A Process is a unit of work in a modern computer system. It is

basically a program in the state of execution.

States of a Process:
The process (program) may be executed in various steps. This step of
process activity is called as states of a process.
The process state diagram explains the process states.

Accepted
New Interrupt
Exit
Ready

Running
I/O complete I/O Wait
Wait
Remainder

New state: In this state passive program has to be converted as dynamic activity
called process in this state process is created.

Ready state: In this states the process is waiting to be assigned.

Running: In this state it executes a sequence of instructions & may go the wait
(remainder) state. [Only one process running at a time].

Waiting: The process is waiting for the occurrence of some event such as the
completion of an I/O operation.

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Process control block [P.C.B.]:

In this block we get the information about a process. The information identifies
the current state of the process.
The O.S. uses the P.C.B. to keep track of the status of the process.

The information’s as follows: Process number

1. Current state of the process Process state
(Ready/Run/Wait) Program counter
2. Process identification Register
3. Process priority. Memory limits
4. Pointers to allocated resources. List of open files
5. I/O status information.
6. Program counter (PC) indicates the address of
next
Instruction to be executed.

Process 2
Execution Process 1
Scheduling of process:

In a multiprogramming Save register

Idel
Environment this processor
Program 1 to program 2 …... Reload register
The process 1 coming back Idel
if there is a multiple activity. Execution

Save register

Reload register

Execution

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Scheduling queues:
In a multiprogramming environment, Whenever a process is created it is
Immediately put into ready queue.

Ready Queue CPU

I-O I – O Queue I – O request

Time slice
completed

Sub Sub Create a

process process sub - process
ends executes

Wait for
Interrupt
interrupt

CPU executes the sequence of events. Which goes through a cycle, which includes
a CPU execution & I – O wait.
Once the process is allocated the CPU & is executing. One of the several
events could occur.
Process could given an I –O request & placed in I/O queue.
Process could create a new sub process & wait for its termination.
Process could be removed by using interrupt signals.

Schedulers: -
The choice or selection of the process and its corresponding queue is done
by that part of the O.S. called Scheduler.
Schedulers are of different types.
1. Long Scheduler.
2. Short term scheduler.

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Long term scheduler selects job from the job pool and load it into the
memory for execution. Short term scheduler selects the process that is already in
the ready queue for execution.

Suspended or swapped process queue

Short term
Lowest Ready queue
Scheduler CPU
Time
Scheduler I/O waiting queue
I/O

Context switch: -
In a multiprogramming environment it is necessary to move from one
process to another. Switching the CPU to another process required saving the
state of the old process & loading the saved state for the new process. This is
called as Context switch.

Scheduling Criteria:
In each scheduling algorithm has its own set of properties. The algorithms
are selected in a particular situation depending upon its criteria some of the
criteria are:
a) CPU utilization:
Utilization of CPU means keep the CPU busy & executing the users
programs & perform.
b) Throughput: -
It is the number of jobs completed per unit time for long processes this
rate may be less whereas for the short processes it is more.
c) Turnaround time: -
It is the interval from the time of submission of job to its completion.
This is the sum of waiting time, execution time an idle time.
d) Response time: -
The submission of the request until the first response is produced.
Or
The amount of time to be taken to first response.

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2nd SEM B.Sc.

e) Waiting time: -
The amount of time spent waiting for the allocation of various resources.
It is the difference between turnaround time & actual execution of the
job.

First come first served scheduling:

This is very simplest algorithm it served the job depending upon there
arrival.
When the process enters the ready queue, its PCB is linked on the tail (end) of the
queue.
Advantage: - This average weighting time is more.
Ex:
Process Execution time (in
ms)
P1 32
P2 2
P3 5

The waiting time of P1 = 0 ms

------- do ------------P2 = 32 ms
--------do------------P3 = 34 ms

66 ms

The Avg. waiting time = 66 / 3 = 22 ms.

Shortest job First [SJF] scheduling: -

In this algorithm the CPU executes the process depending upon execution time of
the process. It selects the minimum execution time process first. Suppose 2 or
more process having same execution time use FCFS for that process.
In this algorithm the average waiting time is less.
For above table total waiting time = 2 + 7 = 9/3.
The average waiting time = 3 ms.
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2nd SEM B.Sc.

Priority scheduling: -
In this algorithm the process may be executes depending the highest priority
of the process. The priority is defined in 2 ways. They are internally & externally.
Internally defined priorities use some measurable quantities to compute the
priority of the process.Externally defined priorities are the concept of importance
of process.The major problem of this scheduling is indefinite starvation or
blocking.
Round Robin [RR] scheduling:
In this scheduling the processes are executed using time slice.
RR technique is mainly designed for time sharing systems. In this technique of
scheduling a small unit of time called a time quantum or time slice is defined.
Each process executed with equal interval of time.

Multilevel queue scheduling:

Depending upon the characteristics of the jobs multilevel queue make it as a
batch & produced for execution.

System process
Interactive process
Interactive editing process Five different queue
Batch process
User process

Lowest priority
The ready queue is partitions as commonly a fixed priority preemptive algorithm.

Multiple processors scheduling: -

Multiple processor are used in a single system it increase the throughout,
reliability & the computing power of the system. One of the main advantage of
multiprocessor environment is the higher reliability of the system. If the one of the
processor is fails the remaining processors can share the load & continue the
work.

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2nd SEM B.Sc.
CHAPTER-3
STORAGE MANAGEMENT

Logical address: - To access the data the CPU calculates & generates the memory
address, such memory is Logical address.
Physical address: - The data is stored in memory the actual location where the
data is present is referred to as physical address.
Contiguous allocation memory management
Occupying a set continuous locations to stores the process.
1. Single contiguous allocation,
2. Partitioned allocation,
3. Re – locatable partitioned allocation.

Basic functions of memory management

1. Knowing the allocation status of each memory location: - Where it is free or
allocated.
2. Determining a proper policy for allocation: - It determines which process should get
how much memory & where.
3. Memory allocation: - The process is allocated in proper determining allocation.
4. Memory de – allocation: - Once the process is over it de – allocate the data address.
Single contiguous allocation:

This is very simple technique to allocating a process it requires very simple

hardware. The memory is divide into 2 portions. One for O.S and other portion
is completely available to the user process.
OS
0k

Hardware support: - User 100 k

Pgrm.
“Bound register” are used to allocating the memory.
Free 500 k
Advantage: - area
1. It requires very little hardware. 1024 k
2. It is very simple design & implement.
3. It requires very little memory.

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2nd SEM B.Sc.
Partitioned allocation: -
In Multiprogrammed environment the multiple jobs are stored in memory.
The easiest method is by dividing the physical memory into several
partitions & allocating each partition to a separate jobs address space.
This size of the partitions can be fixed is called static partition.
The size of the partitions can be depending on the process size is called
Dynamic partition.

Static partition: - This is one of the simplest schemes for memory allocation.
Here the physical memory is divided into a number of partitions of fixed size.
The O.S maintains a tables indicating which parts of the memory are available
& free this table called static partition status table.

Dynamic partition: -Here also the memory is partitioned in to different allocation

depending on the process.

Two tables may be used to implement this tech.

1. Allocated partition table [APT ]
2. Free area table [FAT]

Storage Allocation strategies:-

The jobs are stored in partitioned memory using different strategies. They are:-
1. First Fit:- The process is allocated in the partitioned memory to the available
memory.
2. Next Fit: - This is the modification of first fit. It searches smaller blocks that
tend to be at the begging at the free area table.
3. Best Fit : - In this scheme, the free area table is sorted by size then it fit the
process perfectly.
4. Work Fit : - This is the complement of best fit. It allocates large memory
area.

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2nd SEM B.Sc.

Re locatable partitioned allocation: -

In the partitioned approach a job may allocated the space in the memory. The
executed process data is fragmented and combing all the areas into one contiguous area.
This process is called as Compaction or Burning.

Non – contiguous allocation: -

Page memory Management: - The jobs address space in divided into pieces
of equal size called pages & physical memory is divided into block of the
same size. Using this mapping facility the pages are placed in the blocks
such that the pages are logically contiguous.
These pages are use certain tables to manage, that table is page map table. The
page map table [PMT] contains a list of memory blocks.
Memory Management function: -
a) Keeping track of track memory status: -
Using page map table.
Memory block table.
b) Allocation policy: - Handled by the job scheduler.
Dynamic address translation: - It is separating the address into 2 parts. Page
number and byte no’s within that page. Replacing the page number by the
memory block number using PMT generates the physical address. In this case
PMT identify the memory block and transformed to high speed associative
memory. So this is much faster.

Page Map Table

Address ( b )

Page number displacement

p d
+

b+ p

Loc d

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2nd SEM B.Sc.
Advantage of paged memory allocation: -
a) Eliminates fragmentation, which results in better memory & processor utilization.
b) Compaction overhead eliminated.
Virtual memory Management: -
In this method where only a portion of jobs address space is actually loaded
into physical memory.
Virtual memory Management scheme it uses the memory more than 100%. It
receives the dates continuously depending upon stored address.
Different virtual memory managements are:
a) Demand paging b) Segmentation c) Segmentation & paging.

Demand paging: - The first page is loaded into physical memory other pages of
the job are loaded as and when demanded. Hence it is referred to as demand
paged memory management. The O.S loads this page from the secondary storage
& adjust the page map table entries accordingly.
Segmentation: -Segmentation gives dynamic relocations. Memory wasted due to
fragmentation can be reduced by dividing the address space into logical modules
that may be placed in non – contiguous area of memory. This is called as
segmentation.

Page replacement
When the page is replaced or removed when the job is completed. It is having 3 different tech.
1. First – in first out: -[FIFO]: This algorithm is used to replace the first in
pages or replace the resident page that spent the longest time memory
[oldest page].
2. Least recently used: -[LRU]: This performs better than FIFO. Because it
replaces the least & recently completed pages.
3. Tuple coupling: - The bigger size pages are break into small pages like P1
& P2 then it uses the LRU technique to replace the page.

SWAPPING: -Removing of suspended process from memory to disk [swap – out] &
their subsequent return [swap – in ] is called Swapping.
It improves CPU utilization in PMT if no suitable partition is found it places new
scheduler.

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2nd SEM B.Sc.
CHAPTER- 4
FILE SYSTEM
File system is consists of collection of files & a directory structure which helps to
organizes the files. This is a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records this files are
access through files management system.
File Attributes: -
The files are differentiating into different type depending upon the extension
of the file.
Vinay.pas, file.dat, vin.c, file.dat, xx.exe, file.obj,… etc.
And each file is having its own attributes they are: -
NAME: - A file is referred by a symbolic name.
TYPE: - This information is needed for those systems that support different file type.
LOCATION: - This indicates the location of the file.
SIZE: - This indicates the current size of the file. ( In bytes, words or blocks ).
PROTECTION: - Access – control information controls who can do the
operation of reading, writing & execution.
TIME, DATE & USER IDENTIFICATION: - This attributes the creation & lost
modification time & date for the file.

File operations: -[ 5 mark question ]: -

The following steps are the operations that can be performed on a file.
Creating a file:- Two steps are necessary to create a file.
1. Space in the system must be found for a file,
2. An entry for the new file must be made in the directory.
Writing a file: - First search the particular file and the file pointer keeps track of
location where the next write is to take place. The file pointer is to be updated.
Reading a file: - To read a file directory, entry is searched for the location of the
file. Once the word takes place the file pointer is updated for next operation.
Repositioning a file: - The directory is searched for the named files & the
current file pointer is set to a given repositioning value.
Delete a file: - To delete a file directory, first the directory is searched. Then
the particular location is freed, & directory entry is erased.

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2nd SEM B.Sc.

Access Methods: - [ 3 to 7 marks ] :

File stores information, when it is used, this information must be accesses & read
into computer memory. The following are different access methods.
1. Sequential Access,
2. Direct Access, and
3. Other Access methods.

Sequential Access: - The simple access method is sequential access.

Information in the file is processed in order one record after other. This method
is very useful for file pointer because file pointer updates its value one after the
other at the time of read & writes operation.
Direct Access: - Magnetic disks, floppy disks supports direct access. Here a
particular file block or record can be accessed directly. Here there are no
concepts of sequential ordering insertion & deletions of records are easy.
Other Access Method: -This method is built on top of a direct access method.
These methods generally involve the construction of an index for the file. This
maintains the index table to access a file.

DIRECTORY STRUCTURE: -
The directory can be defined as a symbol table or collection of entries. Each
entry contains the file name and its location in the file system.

Operations on the directory: -

1. Search for a file: -A directory structure can be searched to find an entry for
a particular file.
2. Create a file:- New files can be created & added to the directory.
3. Delete a file: - If the file is no longer needed such file can be removed from
the directory.
4. List a directory: - All the files in the directory can be listed along with its
entry contents.
5. Rename a file: - Because the name of a file represents its contents to its
users, the name must be changeable when its contents are changed.

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2nd SEM B.Sc.

Directory Structures: - [ 5 marks ]:

1. Single – level directory,
2. Two – level directory, and
3. Tree structured directory.

Single – level directory: -

The simplest directory structure is a single – level directory. All the files
are contained in a single directory it is very easy to implement but very
difficulty when the number of user are creating & naming a file.

Two – level directory structure: -

To solve the above said problem, it is better to go in for 2 level directory
structure. The master directory is contains the user directory, address & access
control information.
Tree structured directory: -
It is more powerful & flexible approach.

Master directory
User directory

User sub directory

Files

The use of tree structured directory minimizes the difficulty in assigning unique
names and this system is very useful to stores the files individual in separate
directory.
File protection: - In a multi – user system, the file protection is very important.
Many different protection mechanisms have been proposed.
Naming: - The user can give the name to the file, so that users cannot easily
guess. But this type of protection can easily be broken down.
Passwords: -Another approach is to be use a password with each file or
access the system in controlled by password.
Access control: - Another approach is making access dependent on the
identity of the user. In this, various users may needs different types of
access to a file.

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2nd SEM B.Sc.

FILE SYSTEM STRUCTURE: -[ 3 TO 5 MARKS ]:

User program

Sequential Indexed Sequential Random

Logical I/O

Basic I/O supervisor

Basic File System

DISK device drives Tape device driver

Explain this in your own steps, minimum 4 to 5 lines.

FILE ALLOCATION METHODS: -

The files are allocated in a memory in different method.

1. Contiguous allocation: - For each file a single contiguous set of block is
allocated to a file, at the time of file creation. The file allocation table needs
just a single entry for each file. It showing the starting block and length of
the file. This very simplest allocation method.
2.
3. Chained allocation: - Here the allocation is on individual block. Each block
contains a pointer to the next block in the chain.
The file allocation table needs just a single entry for each file to show the
starting block & length of the file. The starting block contains the next block
address, like it is linked to one other.

4. Indexed allocation: - Here the file allocation table contains a separate one
level index for each file. This index allocation block contains the address of
all the files address.

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INPUT / OUTPUT ALGORITHM

Disk scheduling algorithm

1. PRIORITY
This is based on priority. The control of scheduled is outside the control of
disk management software.
Usually starter jobs are given higher priority than longer jobs. The longer jobs
have to wait excessively for longer times.

1. LAST IN FIRST OUT: This algorithm is used place of scheduling the jobs a
disk the order of recently placed files. However if the kept busy because of
larger workload. In lasts in first out policies its work on the basis of stack.

2. SHORTEST SERVICE TIME FIRST:

In the algorithm is to select the disks input / output request that
requires the least movement of the disk are from its current position
Because it select the jobs it is very near to present job
However this choice should provide better performance than FIFO.

3. SCAN:
In scan scheduling the arm is required to move in one direction only
Satisfying all out standing requests enroll, until it reaches the last track in that
direction.

This scan moves the head in only one direction; these are many different type of
C = SCAN
N = SCAN
F = SCAN

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Deadlock Characterization
Deadlock can arise if four conditions hold simultaneously. (All four must hold)
o Mutual exclusion: only one process at a time can use a resource.
o Hold and wait: a process holding at least one resource is waiting to acquire
additional resources held by other processes.
o No preemption: a resource can be released only voluntarily by the process holding it,
after that process has completed its task.
o Circular wait: there exists a set {P0, P1, ..., Pn } of waiting processes such that P0 is
waiting for a resource that is held by P1, P1 is waiting for a resource that is held by P2,
..., Pn-1 is waiting for a resource that is held by Pn, and Pn is waiting for a resource
that is held by P0.
Resource Allocation Graph
o A set of vertices V and a set of edges E.
o V is partitioned into two types:
P = {P1, P2, ..., Pn} , the set consisting of all the processes in the system.
R = {R1, R2, ..., Rm}, the set consisting of all resource types in the system.
o request edge – directed edge Pi --> Rj
o assignment edge – directed edge Rj --> Pi
o Example Resource Allocation graph with no cycles:
 o Example Resource Allocation Graph with cycles :

o Basic Facts:
If graph contains no cycles => no deadlock.
If graph contains a cycle =>
if there is only one instance per resource type, then deadlock.
if there are several instances per resource type, then we have the
possibility of deadlock.
Methods for Handling Deadlocks

Deadlock Detection and

Deadlock Prevention Deadlock Avoidance
Recovery
Easy Complex Complex
Adversely affects Depends on frequency of
Utilization improved at a cost
Utilization detection
Maintain a wait-for graph
Involves violating at least
RAG Algorithm and
one of the
Bankers Algorithm(Multiple periodically invoke a "cycle-
necessary conditions for
instances) search"
deadlock
algorithm
Applications that have
Critical systems Database Applications
deterministic needs
Deadlock Prevention
Restrain the ways that processes can make resource requests:
o Mutual Exclusion – not required for sharable resources; must hold for nonsharable
resources.
o Hold and Wait – must guarantee that whenever a process requests a resource, it does
not hold any other resources.
Require process to request and be allocated all its resources before it begins
execution, or allow process to request resources only when the process has
none.
Low resource utilization; starvation possible.
o No Preemption –
If a process that is holding some resources requests another resource that
cannot be immediately allocated to it, then all resources currently being held
are released.
Preempted resources are added to the list of resources for which the process is
waiting.
Process will be restarted only when it can regain its old resources, as well as
the new ones that it is requesting.
o Circular Wait – impose a total ordering of all resource types, and require that each
process requests resources in an increasing order of enumeration.
Deadlock Avoidance
Requires that the system has some additional a priori information available.
o Simplest and most useful model requires that each process declare the maximum
number of resources of each type that it may need.
o The deadlock-avoidance algorithm dynamically examines the resource-allocation
state to ensure that there can never be a circular-wait condition.
o Resource-allocation state is defined by the number of available and allocated
resources, and the maximum demands of the processes.

Safe State:

o When a process requests an available resource, system must decide if immediate

allocation leaves the system in a safe state.
o System is in safe state if there exists a safe sequence of all processes.
o Sequence <P1, P2, ..., Pn> is safe if for each Pi, the resources that Pi can still request
can be satisfied by currently available resources + resources held by all the Pj, with j <
i.
If Pi's resource needs are not immediately available, then Pi can wait until all
Pj have finished.
When all Pj have finished, Pi can obtain needed resources, execute, return
allocated resources, and terminate.
When Pi terminates, Pi+1 can obtain its needed resources, and so on.
o If no such sequence exists then the system is said to be unsafe.

Basic Facts:
 o If a system is in safe state => no deadlocks.
o If a system is in unsafe state => possibility of deadlock.
o Avoidance =>ensure that a system will never enter an unsafe state.

Bankers Algorithm

o Multiple instances.
o Each process must a priori claim maximum use.
o When a process requests a resource it may have to wait.
o When a process gets all its resources it must return them in a finite amount of time.
o Data Structures for the Banker’s Algorithm:
Let n = number of processes, and m = number of resource types.
Available : Vector of length m. If Available[j]= k, there are k instances of
resource type Rj available.
Max : n x m matrix. If Max[i,j]= k, then process Pi may request at most k
instances of resource type Rj.
Allocation : n x m matrix. If Allocation[i,j]= k, then Pi is currently allocated k
instances of Rj.
Need : n x m matrix. If Need i,j]= k, then Pi may need k more ainstances of Rj
to complete its task.

Need[i,j] = Max[i,j] - Allocation[ i,j]

o Notation:
Given X and Y are vectors of length n, we say that X<=Y (less than or equal) if
and only if X[i] <= Y[i] for all i=1,2,..., n.
For example, if X = (1, 7, 3, 2) and Y = (0, 3, 2, 1), then Y <= X. Y < X if Y
<= X and Y <> X
We treat each row in the matrices Allocation and Need as vectors and refer to
them as Allocationi and Needi, respectively. Therefore, the vector Allocationi
specifies the resources currently allocated to process Pi; the vector Needi
specifies the additional resources that process Pi may still request to complete
its task.
o Safety Algorithm:
Step1: Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively.
Initialize:

Work := Available
Finish[i] := false for i = 1, 2, ..., n.

Step2: Find an i such that both: (a unfinished process Pi whose future need for
resources can be accommodated)

(a) Finish[i] = false

(b) Needi <= Work
 If no such i exists,go to Step 4 else note Pi to be next in the safe sequence

Step3:
Work := Work + Allocationi
Finish[i] := true
go to step 2.
Step4: If Finish[i] = true for all i, then the system is in a safe state. print the
safe sequence out
else declare state unsafe
o Resource-Request Algorithm for process Pi
Requesti = request vector for process Pi . If Requesti[j]= k, then process Pi wants k
instances of resource type Rj .
Step1: If Requesti <= Needi, go to step 2. Otherwise, raise error condition,
since process has exceeded its maximum claim.
Step2: If Requesti <= Available, go to step 3. Otherwise, Pi must wait, since
resources are not available.
Step3: Pretend to allocate requested resources to Pi by modifying the state as
follows:
Available:= Available - Requesti;
Allocationi := Allocationi + Requesti;
Needi := Needi - Requesti;
If safe --> the resources are allocated to Pi.
If unsafe --> Pi must wait, and the old resource-allocation state is
restored.