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Contents

A1.0 INTRODUCTION TO OPENHOLE LOG INTERPRETATION ...................................1

A.1 USES OF LOGS.......................................................................................................................1

A.2 BASIC PETROLEUM GEOLOGY..............................................................................................2

A.3 BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION CONCEPTS...........................................................................4

A.4 RESISTIVITY AS A BASIS FOR INTERPRETATION—THE ARCHIE EQUATION.......................5

A.5 DEFINITIONS ...........................................................................................................................7

a) Formation Porosity (φ)...........................................................................................................8
b) Formation Resistivity (R)........................................................................................................8
c) Formation Factor (F)..............................................................................................................8
d) Water Saturation: Sw ...........................................................................................................8
e) Hydrocarbons Saturation (Shy )...............................................................................................9
f) Clean Formations ..................................................................................................................9
g) Shaly Formations..................................................................................................................9
h) Key Formulas ....................................................................................................................11
i) Key Symbols........................................................................................................................11

A.6 LOG SCALES AND PRESENTATIONS ..................................................................................12

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

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A1.0 Introduction to Openhole Log
Interpretation
A.1 USES OF LOGS
A set of logs run on a well will usually mean
different things to different people. Let us ex-
amine the questions asked—and/or answers
sought by a variety of people.
The Geophysicist:
• Are the tops where you predicted?
• Are the potential zones porous as you have
assumed from seismic data?
• What does a synthetic seismic section
show?
The Geologist:
• What depths are the formation tops?
• Is the environment suitable for accumula-
tion of hydrocarbons?
• Is there evidence of hydrocarbons in this
well?
• What type of hydrocarbons?
• Are hydrocarbons present in commercial
quantities?
• How good a well is it?
• What are the reserves?
• Could the formation be commercial in an
offset well?
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The Drilling Engineer:
• What is the hole volume for cementing?
• Are there any keyseats or severe doglegs
in the well?
• Where can you get a good packer seat for
testing?
• Where is the best place to set a whipstock?
The Reservoir Engineer:
• How thick is the pay zone?
• How homogeneous is the section?
• What is the volume of hydrocarbons per
cubic meter?
• Will the well pay-out?
• How long will it take?
The Production Engineer:
• Where should the well be completed (in
what zone(s))?
• What kind of production rate can be ex-
pected?
• Will there be any water production?
• How should the well be completed?
• Is the potential pay zone hydraulically iso-
lated?
• Will the well require any stimulation?
• What kind of stimulation would be best?
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Introduction to Openhole Logging
Log evaluation can be many things to many
people. As the answers are sought each indi-
vidual will possibly use the available data in a
different manner. The common approach will
be in reading the logs and understanding the
various reactions produced by formation char-
acteristics on our logging devices. The factors
influencing log reading and the information
they provide are what we wish to introduce to
you in this course.
A.2 BASIC PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
In order to better understand log responses,
we should first review the types of rocks that
are found in the boreholes.
Common sedimentary rocks are
sandstone, siltstone, shale, limestone,
dolomite and anhydrite
In general, sedimentary rocks are deposited
as either clastic sequences containing sand-
stone, siltstones and shales or carbonate se-
quences of limestone, dolomite, anhydrite and
shale. (Figure A1).
Clastic Deposition
Clastic rocks are formed from rock frag-
ments and weathered particles of preexisting
rocks. These sediments are transported by
wind and water and are usually deposited in
rivers, lakes and oceans as relatively flat-lying
beds. Current and wave action later sorts the
sediments such that in high-energy environ-
ments coarse-grained sands are deposited and
in low energy environments fine-grained silts
and clays are deposited. The nature of the
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deposition is such that crossbedding structures,
channel patterns and gradational rock types are
common. In areas of freshwater deposition
coal beds may occur, indicating non-marine
conditions.
After deposition and with deeper burial of
the sequence, compaction occurs and the clas-
tic grains can become cemented together to
form sedimentary rock.
Carbonate Deposition
Carbonate deposition occurs in marine con-
ditions by the precipitation of limestone from
organisms as fine particles, shells or massive
growths. Limestones are deposited either as
flat-lying beds on the ocean floor or as
mounds or pinnacle reefs.
Barrier reef chains that grow in this manner
may form restricted ocean basins landward, in
which dolomite and anhydrite are precipitated
by the evaporation of seawater.
When limestones form near shore, there
may be mixing of limestone and eroded clastic
material. In deeper ocean basins, limestone
and shale mixtures are common.
After deposition, later burial may cause
dolomitization of the limestone in which the
actual composition of the rock is changed to
dolomite.
Because of their brittle nature compared with
other sediments, limestones tend to fracture
with deformation, which increases permeabil-
ity and helps in the dolomitization process.
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Figure A1: Clastic Deposition vs. Carbonate Deposition

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In many parts of the world multiple se-
quences of clastic rocks overlie older carbonate
sequences. Between each of the clastic and car-
bonate groups, erosional inconformities are
common and the nature of deposition within
each group is unique.
A.3 BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION
CONCEPTS
Any given rock formation has numerous
unique physical properties associated with it.
Only those that can be measured and are useful
will be considered in this course. They are
d. RW = water resistivity: the electrical re-
sistance of the water filling the pore
space in the rock. This value varies
with water salinity and temperature.
e. k = permeability: the ability of the rock
to pass fluids through it.
Consider the following unit cubes (Figure
A2):
Cube A
If the porosity (φ) is filled with water then, by
definition, the water saturation SW = 100%.

a. φ = porosity: the void space between Cube B

grains that is generally filled with liq- If the porosity φ is 70% filled with water and
uids or gases. 30% hydrocarbons, then, the water saturation
b. Sw = water saturation: the percentage
of the pore space filled with water (as 70
opposed to hydrocarbons or air). SW = % = 70%
c. R = resistivity: the resistance to elec- 70 + 30
trical current flow presented by a unit
volume of rock. and hydrocarbons saturation

Cube “A”: Cube “B”:

porosity = waterfilled φ porosity = hydrocarbons and
SW = 100% water in φ
SW = 70%

Figure A2

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Shy = 1 - Sw = 30% The usefulness of resistivity logging rests on

Therefore the percentage volume of water
saturation
= φ × Sw
For example: if φ = 20% and Sw = 70%, then
14% of the bulk volume is water and 70% of
the pore space is water filled.
A.4 RESISTIVITY AS A BASIS FOR
INTERPRETATION—THE ARCHIE
EQUATION
In the previous section we introduced a num-
ber of parameters used to evaluate rock forma-
tions. If we could build on the effects of
resistivity in conjunction with the other pa-
rameters to develop a mathematical relation-
ship, we would have an extremely useful tool
for our work with potential hydrocarbon zones.
the facts that
- water is a conductor (low resistivity)
- hydrocarbons and rocks are insulators
(high resistivity)
Consider the following unit cubes (Figure A3):
Cube C
The resistivity Rt of the cube will vary with
water resistivity Rw (i.e. as Rw increases, Rt in-
creases and vice versa).
Therefore: Rt α Rw. (1)
Cube D
Replace 25% of the cube with rock (hence φ
= 75%) but maintain a constant Rw. Resistivity
Rt increases with decreasing porosity φ (i.e. as
φ decreases, Rt increases).

The remainder of this section is devoted to

developing such a formula.

Cube “C” Cube “D” Cube “E”

- Constant Current - Constant Current - Constant Current
- Porosity = 100% - Porosity = 75% - Porosity = 75%
- Sw = 100% - Sw = 100% - Sw = 70%

Figure A3

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Rw
Therefore: Rt α 1/φ. (2) Ro α (5)
φ
Cube E Now, let φ = 1, then Ro α Rw .
Replace 30% of remaining porosity φ with
hydrocarbons. Resistivity Rt increases with
Now, let F = constant of proportionality
decreasing water saturation Sw (i.e. as Sw de- defined as the formation factor.
creases, Rt increases).
Therefore: Ro = FRw
Therefore: Rt α 1/Sw. (3)
Ro
By combining the above observations (1, 2 or F = (6)
and 3), we can say Rw

1 1 Returning to Equation 5 and introducing po-

Rt α Rw × × rosity as a variable, it is clear that
φ Sw
1
or Fα
φ
Rw
Rt α (4) This is intuitively obvious as the relationship
between Ro and Rw is related to that particular
φ Sw
unit cube of rock and its porosity characteris-
tics.
To solve for the constants of proportionality
let us first limit the equation as follows: Through empirical measurements, it was
determined that
Let Sw = 100% (i.e. there is no hydrocar-
bon present and the porosity is 100% a
water filled). F= (7)
φ m

Then, define Ro = Rt (ie: Ro is the wet resis-

tivity of the formation for the condition Sw = where
100%): a = constant
m = cementation factor

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The cementation factor m relates to the po-

rosity type and how it will transmit electrical aRw
current to the actual rock (also called tortuos- or S n
= (9)
w
ity).
φ Rt
m

Using the above equations

Equation 9 forms the Archie relationship that
Recall Ro = FRw (Equation 6) is the basis for all conventional log interpreta-
tion techniques. Enhancements and refine-
aRw ments may be applied for the more
Rt = Ro = when Sw = 100% complicated rock types.
φ m

The remainder of this course is dedicated to

if Sw ≠ 100%, then measuring, evaluating and using porosity and
resistivity to calculate water saturation and
hence hydrocarbons reserves using the con-
aRw 1 cepts of this equation.
Rt α ×
φ m
Sw
A.5 DEFINITIONS
1
a) Formation Porosity (φ)
or Rt α Ro ×
Defined as the fraction of total volume occu-
Sw pied by pores or voids, where

Ro pore volume
or Sw α (8) φ= × 100%
Rt total volume

When the pore space is intergranular it is

Through laboratory measurements, it was known as primary porosity. When the poros-
found that this relationship (8) is dependent on ity is due to void space created after deposition,
the saturation exponent n as (e.g., vugs or fractures in carbonates), the po-
rosity is known as secondary porosity. When
Ro shale is present, the pore space occupied by the
Sw
n
= water in the shale is included with the pore
Rt space in the rock to give total porosity (φ T ). If
only the rock pore space is considered in a
FR w shaly formation, the pore space is called effec-
or S n
= tive porosity (φe ).
w

Rt

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b) Formation Resistivity (R) For Porosity

Defined as the resistance offered by a for- In a 1942 paper Gus Archie proposed that
mation to the flow of electrical current. It is the relationship between formation factor and
expressed in ohm-meter2/meter. porosity could be described by the formula

We use several terms to describe formation a

resistivity under various circumstances of fluid F=
content. φm

Rt : Describes the resistivity of a for- where

mation undisturbed by the drilling a = empirical constant.
process. m = cementation factor.

Some recommended F and φ relationships

Ro: Describes a special form of Rt . It are
is the resistivity of a clean forma-
tion when all pore space is filled 0.62
with connate water (Rw). F= (for sands)
φ 2.15

Rw: Is the symbol for the resistivity of

formation (connate) water. 0.81
F= (for sands)
φ 2

c) Formation Factor (F)

1
For Resistivity F= (for carbonates)
An important relationship exists between the φ 2

resistivity of a fully water saturated formation

and the resistivity of the contained water. The Chart Por-1 (figure A4) in the Log Inter-
ratio of these two values is called formation pretation Chart book is based on several dif-
resistivity factor (or more commonly, forma- ferent F-φ relationships.
tion factor) where:

Ro d) Water Saturation (Sw)

F= Defined as the fraction of pore volume filled
Rw with water where

F is a constant for the formation under con- water filled pore volume
sideration. The value of F for any particular sw = × 100%
formation depends on: total pore volume
- formation porosity
- pore distribution
- pore size
- pore structure.

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e) Hydrocarbons Saturation (Sh y) g) Shaly Formations

Defined as the fraction of pore volume filled This describes formations where some of the
with hydrocarbons where: formation void space (porosity) is filled with
shale.

hydrocarbon-filled pore volume Shale distribution is considered to be:

Shy = × 100% - Laminated: The formation is built up
total pore volume of thin laminae of sand and shale.
- Dispersed: The shale particles are dis-
or Shy = 1 – Sw. persed in the pore space.
- Structural: The shale replaces matrix.

f) Clean Formations
The term clean formation refers to those that
are shale free.

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Formation Resistivity Factor versus Porosity

50 2.5 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000

40

30
25

20

15
1
FR =
φ2 1
10 m FR =
φ, porosity (p.u.)

9 φm
8
7 Vugs or
spherical pores 2.8
6
5 0.62
FR = 2.5
φ2.15
4 Fractures

3 2.2

1.8
2.0
2
0.81
FR = 1.6
φ2
1.4
1
2.5 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10,000

FR, formation resistivity factor

This chart gives a variety of formation resistivity factor-to-porosity conversions. The proper choice is best
determined by laboratory measurement or experience in the area. In the absence of this knowledge,
recommended relationships are the following:

0.62 0.81
For Soft Formations: Humble Formula: Fr = or Fr =
φ2.15 φ2
0.62
For Hard Formations: Fr = with appropriate cementation factor, m.
φm

EXAMPLE: φ is 6% in a carbonate in which a cementation factor, m of 2 is appropriate

Therefore, from chart, Fr = 280.

Chart Por-1

Figure A4

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h) Key Formulas
FRw Formation Factor:
Ro
Archie’s formula: Sw =
n

a. From deep resistivity F =

Rt
Rw
where n is usually taken as 2 Rxo
b. From shallow resistivity F =
Rmf

a
c. From porosity F =
φm

i) Key Symbols
BHT - bottom hole temperature in degrees Sxo - water saturation, as above, in
Celsius flushed zone
di - average diameter of invaded zone S hc - hydrocarbons saturation as percent
(Di) of pore space occupied by water
h - bed thickness in meters K - coefficient in the sp formula
RIDPH - resistivity from the deep phasor in- SSP - static spontaneous potential - the
duction maximum possible for a particular
RIMPH - resistivity from the medium Phasor Rmf / Rw
induction PSP - pseudostatic spontaneous poten-
RSFL - resistivity from the Spherically Fo- tial—the SP found in a thick shaly
cused Log sand
Rm - resistivity of the mud k - permeability in millidarcies
pore volume
Rmf - resistivity of the mud filtrate
φ - porosity = ×100%.
Rmc - resistivity of the mudcake total volume
Rw - resistivity of the formation water φS - sonic porosity
Rwa - apparent resistivity of the formation φD - density porosity
water φN - neutron porosity
Rt - resistivity of the formation φN + φ D
(uncontaminated zone) φT - total porosity ≅
Ro - resistivity of the formation when
2
100% water filled φe - effective porosity
Rxo - resistivity of the flushed zone
φ2 - secondary porosity
(close to borehole)
Vsh - volume of shale
Rsh - resistivity of the shales
Pe - photoelectric index
F - formation resistivity factor
φ - porosity in percent
Sw - water saturation, percent of pore A complete list of symbols and subscripts is
space occupied by water in uncon- included in Section J (Miscellaneous).
taminated zone

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Introduction to Openhole Logging
A.6 LOG SCALES AND PRESENTATIONS
a) Well logs provide a continuous graph of for-
mation parameters versus depth.
Normal depth scales are
- 1:240—1 m of log per 240 m of
measured hole depth. Each line
is 1 m, with heavy lines every 5
m, and heavier lines every 25 m
for ease of reading. Depths are
indicated every 25 m (Figures
A5 and A6).
- 1:600—1 m of log per 600 m of
measured hole depth. Each line
is 5 m, with heavy lines every 25
m. Depths are indicated every 25
m (Figure A7).
- Other scales are available. These
include 1:1200, 1:120, 1:48 and
1:5.
- Log grids may be either loga-
rithmic (resistivity logs—Figure
A6) or linear (porosity logs—Fig-
ure A5).
b) If a caliper device is present or the log being
generated is a type of sonic log, event markers
are placed on each side of the depth track inte-
grating the quantity of hole volume or transit
time recorded.
1. Integrated hole volume—requires caliper
device (Figure A5)
- placed on the left side of the
depth track
3
- small marks indicate 0.1 m
whereas large marks represent
3
1.0 m .
2. Integrated cement volume—Requires
caliper device plus future casing size
- placed on the right side of the
depth track when space per-
mits— and if sonic not present
3
- small marks indicate 0.1 m
while large marks represent
3
1.0 m .
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3. Integrated transit time—Requires sonic
tool (Figure A5)
- placed on the right side of the
depth track
- small marks indicate 1 msec
whereas large marks represent 10
msec of time.
If the log is recorded using logging-while-
drilling methods, event markers on both sides
of the depth track (Figure A6) represent the
conversion from time-based sampling to a
depth-based presentation. The markers there-
fore indicate the number of data samples per
unit depth. In other words, the larger the con-
centration of markers over a depth interval, the
greater the number of data samples used to
make the log.
c) Logs also have headings and inserts.
- Log headings provide such information as
well depth, casing depth, mud params,
maximum temperature and other com-
ments pertinent to the evaluation of log
data (Figures A8 and A9).
- Inserts provide such information as curve
scaling, coding, date/time of acquisition,
data curve first-reading points and con-
stants pertinent to the logging run fol-
lowing the insert. Curve coding on the
log data indicates the deepest reading pri-
mary measurement (long dashed) to the
shallowest reading primary measurement
(solid) when two or more measurements
are combined (Figure A10).
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Figure A5: Linear Grid 1/240 Scale

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Logarithmic Grid 1/240 Scale

Data Sample Event Markers for LWD Curves

Figure A6

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Figure A7: Linear Grid 1/600 Scale

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Figure A8: Log Heading (page 1)

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Figure A9: Log Heading (page 2) and Log Tail

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Figure A10: Log Insert

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