Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from

a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a
temperature above what it would be without this
atmosphere.[1][2]

Radiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) in a planet's

atmosphere radiate energy in all directions. Part of this
radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it. [3] The
intensity of the downward radiation – that is, the strength of
the greenhouse effect – will depend on the atmosphere's
temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the
atmosphere contains.

Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life,
and initially was a precursor to life moving out of the ocean
onto land. Human activities, however, mainly the burning of
fossil fuels and clearcutting of forests, have accelerated the
greenhouse effect and caused global warming. [4]
The ability of a planet's atmosphere to capture and
recycle energy emitted by its surface is the defining
characteristic of the greenhouse effect (numbers
applicable in the Earth case).

The planet Venus experienced runaway greenhouse effect, resulting in an atmosphere which is 96% carbon dioxide, with surface
atmospheric pressure roughly the same as found 900 m (3,000 ft) underwater on Earth. Venus may have had water oceans, but
they would have boiled off as the mean surface temperature rose to 735 K (462 °C; 863 °F) [5][6] [7]

The term "greenhouse effect" continues to see use in scientific circles and the media despite being a slight misnomer, as [8] an
atmosphere reduces radiative heat loss while [2] a greenhouse blocks convective heat loss. The result however, is the same. [9][10]

Contents
History
Description
Mechanism
Greenhouse gases
Role in climate change
Real greenhouses
Related effects
Anti-greenhouse effect
Runaway greenhouse effect
Bodies other than Earth
See also
References
Further reading
External links
History
The existence of the greenhouse effect was argued for by Joseph Fourier in 1824. The argument and the evidence were further
strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838 and reasoned from experimental observations by Eunice Newton Foote in
1856.[11] John Tyndall expanded her work in 1859 by measuring radiative properties of a wider spectrum of greenhouse
gases.[12] The effect was more fully quantified by Svante Arrhenius in 1896, who made the first quantitative prediction of global
warming due to a hypothetical doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide.[13] However, the term "greenhouse" was not used to refer
to this effect by any of these scientists; the term was first used in this way by Nils Gustaf Ekholm in 1901.[14][15]

Description
Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of ultraviolet,
visible, and near-infrared radiation. About 26% of the
incoming solar energy is reflected to space by the atmosphere
and clouds, and 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and
clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the
surface of Earth. Because the Earth's surface is colder than
the Sun, it radiates at wavelengths that are much longer than
the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal
radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and warms it. The
atmosphere also gains heat by sensible and latent heat fluxes
from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both
upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is
absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher The solar radiation spectrum for direct light at both the
equilibrium temperature than if the atmosphere did not top of Earth's atmosphere and at sea level
radiate.

An ideal thermally conductive blackbody at the same distance from the Sun as Earth would have a temperature of about 5.3 °C
(41.5 °F). However, because Earth reflects about 30%[16][17] of the incoming sunlight, this idealized planet's effective
temperature (the temperature of a blackbody that would emit the same amount of radiation) would be about −18 °C (0 °F).[18][19]
The surface temperature of this hypothetical planet is 33 °C (59 °F) below Earth's actual surface temperature of approximately
14 °C (57 °F).[20] The greenhouse effect is the contribution of greenhouse gases to this difference.

Mechanism
The basic mechanism can be qualified in a number of ways, none of which affect the fundamental process. The atmosphere near
the surface is largely opaque to thermal radiation (with important exceptions for "window" bands), and most heat loss from the
surface is by sensible heat and latent heat transport. Radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the
atmosphere, largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas. It is more realistic to
think of the greenhouse effect as applying to a layer in the mid-troposphere, which is effectively coupled to the surface by a lapse
rate. The simple picture also assumes a steady state, but in the real world, the diurnal cycle as well as the seasonal cycle and
weather disturbances complicate matters. Solar heating applies only during daytime. During the night, the atmosphere cools
somewhat, but not greatly, because its emissivity is low. Diurnal temperature changes decrease with height in the atmosphere.

Within the region where radiative effects are important, the description given by the idealized greenhouse model becomes
realistic. Earth's surface, warmed to a temperature around 255 K, radiates long-wavelength, infrared heat in the range of 4–
100 μm.[21] At these wavelengths, greenhouse gases that were largely transparent to incoming solar radiation are more
 absorbent.[21] Each layer of atmosphere with greenhouses gases absorbs some of the heat being radiated upwards from lower
layers. It reradiates in all directions, both upwards and downwards; in equilibrium (by definition) the same amount as it has
absorbed. This results in more warmth below. Increasing the concentration of the gases increases the amount of absorption and
reradiation, and thereby further warms the layers and ultimately the surface below.[19]

Greenhouse gases—including most diatomic gases with two different atoms (such as carbon monoxide, CO) and all gases with
three or more atoms—are able to absorb and emit infrared radiation. Though more than 99% of the dry atmosphere is IR
transparent (because the main constituents—N2, O2, and Ar—are not able to directly absorb or emit infrared radiation),
intermolecular collisions cause the energy absorbed and emitted by the greenhouse gases to be shared with the other, non-IR-
active, gases.

Greenhouse gases
By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth the four major gases are:[22][23]

pheric gases only absorb some wavelengths of energy but are transparent to others. The absorption patterns of water
(blue peaks) and carbon dioxide (pink peaks) overlap in some wavelengths. Carbon dioxide is not as strong a
house gas as water vapor, but it absorbs energy in longer wavelengths (12–15 micrometers) that water vapor does
artially closing the "window" through which heat radiated by the surface would normally escape to space. (Illustration
, Robert Rohde)[24]

water vapor, 36–70%

carbon dioxide, 9–26%
methane, 4–9%
ozone, 3–7%
It is not possible to assign a specific percentage to each gas because the absorption and emission bands of the gases overlap
(hence the ranges given above). Clouds also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus affect the radiative properties of the
atmosphere.[23]

Role in climate change

Strengthening of the greenhouse effect through human activities is known as the enhanced (or anthropogenic) greenhouse
effect.[25] This increase in radiative forcing from human activity is attributable mainly to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide
levels.[26] According to the latest Assessment Report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, "atmospheric
concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years. Their effects,
together with those of other anthropogenic drivers, have been detected throughout the climate system and are extremely likely to
have been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century".[27]

CO2 is produced by fossil fuel burning and other activities such as cement production and tropical deforestation.[28]
Measurements of CO2 from the Mauna Loa observatory show that concentrations have increased from about 313 parts per million
(ppm)[29] in 1960 to about 389 ppm in 2010. It reached the 400 ppm milestone on May 9, 2013.[30] The current observed amount
of CO2 exceeds the geological record maxima (~300 ppm)
from ice core data.[31] The effect of combustion-produced
carbon dioxide on the global climate, a special case of the
greenhouse effect first described in 1896 by Svante
Arrhenius, has also been called the Callendar effect.

Over the past 800,000 years,[32] ice core data shows that
carbon dioxide has varied from values as low as 180 ppm to
the pre-industrial level of 270 ppm.[33] Paleoclimatologists
consider variations in carbon dioxide concentration to be a
fundamental factor influencing climate variations over this
time scale.[34][35]

Real greenhouses
The "greenhouse effect" of the atmosphere is named by
analogy to greenhouses which become warmer in sunlight.
The Keeling Curve of atmospheric CO2 concentrations
However, a greenhouse is not primarily warmed by the measured at Mauna Loa Observatory.
"greenhouse effect".[36] "Greenhouse effect" is actually a
misnomer since heating in the usual greenhouse is due to the
reduction of convection,[10] while the "greenhouse effect"
works by preventing absorbed heat from leaving the structure
through radiative transfer.

A greenhouse is built of any material that passes sunlight:

usually glass or plastic. The sun warms the ground and
contents inside just like the outside, and these then warm the
air. Outside, the warm air near the surface rises and mixes
with cooler air aloft, keeping the temperature lower than
inside, where the air continues to heat up because it is
confined within the greenhouse. This can be demonstrated by
opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse: the
temperature will drop considerably. It was demonstrated A modern Greenhouse in RHS Wisley
experimentally (R. W. Wood, 1909) that a (not heated)
"greenhouse" with a cover of rock salt (which is transparent
to infrared) heats up an enclosure similarly to one with a glass cover.[9] Thus greenhouses work primarily by preventing
convective cooling.[8]

Heated greenhouses are yet another matter: as they have an internal source of heating, it is desirable to minimise the amount of
heat leaking out by radiative cooling. This can be done through the use of adequate glazing.[37]

Related effects

Anti-greenhouse effect
The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar and symmetrical to the greenhouse effect: in the greenhouse effect, the
atmosphere lets radiation in while not letting thermal radiation out, thus warming the body surface; in the anti-greenhouse effect,
the atmosphere keeps radiation out while letting thermal radiation out, which lowers the equilibrium surface temperature. Such an
effect has been proposed for Saturn's moon Titan.[38]

Runaway greenhouse effect

A runaway greenhouse effect occurs if positive feedbacks lead to the evaporation of all greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.[39]
A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor has long ago been hypothesized to have occurred on
Venus,[40] this idea is still largely accepted .

Bodies other than Earth

The greenhouse effect on Venus is particularly large because its dense atmosphere consists mainly of carbon dioxide.[41] "Venus
experienced a runaway greenhouse in the past, and we expect that Earth will in about 2 billion years as solar luminosity
increases".[42]

Titan has an anti-greenhouse effect, in that its atmosphere absorbs solar radiation but is relatively transparent to outgoing infrared
radiation.

Pluto is also colder than would be expected because evaporation of nitrogen cools it.[43]

See also
Earth's energy budget
Top contributors to greenhouse gas emissions
Climate tipping point

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Further reading
Businger, Joost Alois; Fleagle, Robert Guthrie (1980). An introduction to atmospheric physics (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=qgWHwX0IpdAC). International Geophysics (2nd ed.). Academic. ISBN 978-0-12-260355-6.
Henderson-Sellers, Ann; McGuffie, Kendal (2005). A climate modelling primer (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=9Hc9Ga8UruEC) (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-85750-2.

External links
Rutgers University: Earth Radiation Budget (http://marine.rutgers.edu/mrs/education/class/yuri/erb.html)

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