Auto 101notes

Frederick University Cyprus
AUTO 101 – Introduction to road vehicles
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Engines
3. Transmission Systems
4. Brake Systems
5. Steering Mechanisms and Tyres
6. Suspension Systems
7. Body Equipment and Safety systems
8. Manufacture, Dimensions, markets, environment, Legislation
1
1. Introduction
Definition of a road vehicle
A road vehicle contains a number of assemblies and sub-assemblies. It uses a

powertrain for propulsion, a braking system to stop, a steering to manoeuvre it, tyres
to roll and so on. As times goes by more systems are integrated into a road vehicle
which bring about comfort and safety not only to the occupants but to the pedestrians.
Vehicle Category Descriptions
Mopeds engine displacement up to 49cc (cubic capacity)
Motorcycles engine displacement over 50cc.
3 or 4 wheeled light vehicles Motor tricycles / quadricycles, 3 or 4 wheeled vehicles

with an unladen weight not exceeding Maximum Authorised Mass (MAM) 550kg
Cars Motor vehicles with a Maximum Authorised Mass (MAM) not exceeding
3500kg having not more than 8 passenger
Medium Sized Vehicles Lorries between Maximum Authorised Mass (MAM) 3500kg
and 7500kg
Large Vehicles over Maximum Authorised Mass (MAM) 7500kg
Minibuses Vehicles with between 9 and 16 passenger seats
Buses Any bus with more than 16 passenger seats
2
Vehicle Overview
Engine and Associated Systems

Engine (type Petrol/Diesel/Electric/Hydrogen) Strokes (4/2), Rotary Engine
Lubricating System
Cooling system (air/water)
Induction systems (Electronic/non electronic (carburetor/mechanically driven)
Exhaust systems (catalyst, feedback)
Ignition Systems (electronic/non-electronic)
Transmission
Driven wheels (front wheels/rear wheels/all wheels)
Gearbox type (Automatic/Manual shifting)
Clutch (manual shift gearbox)
Final drive
Half shafts/Axle shaft
Brakes
Braking system type
Vacuum-hydraulic Brakes
Drums/discs
ABS
TC (Traction contion)
ASC (anti spin/slip/skid control)
Suspension
Front suspension (McPherson strut)
Rear Suspension (De-dion Axle, Multilink Independed)
Wheels (Sizes, tyre types)
Steering
Rack and Pinion
Hydraulic assisted
Electronically assisted
Body equipment (General)

Electrics (Batteries, charging system, starting system, climate system,
Entertainment system, etc.)
Integration
Aesthetic
Aerodynamics
Legislation
3
Technical Info of a Road Vehicle
Car Type: Brand, Model
Engine configuration: In line 5 Cylinder, 2.0 liter 20 valve, double overhead camshsft
Engine displacement: 1984cc.
Bore x Stroke: 81/77mm
Max output (hp/rpm): 143/5500
Max torque (nm/rpm): 176/6500
Fuel system: Microprocessor-controlled adaptive system and diagnostic unit (LH-
Jetronic)
Exhaust system: Catalytic converter with sensor
Fuel Tank
Volume (l/gallon) 73/16
Transmission
(4sp Automatic or 5 speed manual)
Steering system
Turning circle 10.2m
Tyre size: 185/65/r15
Performance:
Top speed: 200km/h (124 mph)
Acceleration 0-100km/h: 10s
Weights
Kerb weight: 1455 kg.
Towing weight: 1600kg MAX 1250kg Recomended
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VIN (vehicle Identification Number)
Since 1954, American automobile manufacturers have used a vehicle identification

number (V.I.N.) to describe and identify motor vehicles. The early VINs came in a
wide array of configurations and variations, depending on the individual
manufacturer.
Beginning with model year (MY) 1981, the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration required that all over-the-road-vehicles sold must contain a 17-
character VIN. This standard established a fixed VIN format.
The Department of Transportation issued the Federal Motor Vehicle Theft Prevention
Standard to reduce the number of motor vehicle thefts by assisting law enforcement
authorities in tracing and recovering parts from stolen motor vehicles. This standard
became effective beginning with model year (MY) 1987 and required that designated
high-theft car lines 12 or14 (two-door/four door models) of its major component parts
be marked with the vehicle identification number (VIN). In Europe VIN number is
found on dashboards, printed on the frame of vehicle and on an aluminium plate in the
engine bay.
Example of a VIN number:
XLB 345 21 1 B C 545573
Manufacturer code
Vehicle type
Engine type
Transmission type
Model year
Market code
Chassis number
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2. Engines
The petrol and diesel engine which is the source of power with which we are
immediately concerned, is a form of internal combustion “heat engine”. The function
of which is to convert potential heat energy contained in the fuel into mechanical
work.
Efficiency is varied between the two engines and it was found that petrol engines are
less efficient (20-32%) than diesel engines (37-40%). On the whole however what it
must be noted is that internal combustion (IC) engines have a low efficiency as
machineries mainly due to vast amount of losses in heat from the cooling and braking
system.
The most practical form of working vessel is a straight cylinder closed at the one end
which is provided with a closely fitting moveable plug or “piston” on which the work
is done by pressure of the fuel. This design has been found to be the most practical
and satisfactory due to mechanical and manufacturing reasons.
The first type of engines is the reciprocating engines. They are well established into
the market and are characterised by the direct acting engine mechanism with
connecting rod and crankshaft. This is so well established that it is estimated not to be
replaced in the near future.
Thus in most applications the reciprocating motion of the piston must be converted to
rotation of the crankshaft by a suitable mechanism. The most important mechanism is
the well established crankshaft and connecting rod. It is universal in most internal
combustion engines owning to its simplicity and high mechanical efficiency.
So the most fundamental parts which are common to all reciprocating engines are the
cylinder, piston, connecting rod and crankshaft shown in the figure below.
Cylinder
Piston
Connecting Rod
Crankshaft
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Diagram of a conventional engine
In the figure in the previous page the crank is of a single web or overhung on the left
engine (illustrated by a single circle). This type was used in many steam engines and
certain motor cycle engines but the double web type with a bearing on each side of the
crank, is practically universal for internal combustion engines. This is illustrated on
the figure in the previous page (right engine) with the two circles.
The description of these parts will be given here:
Cylinder
The ideal form consists of a plain cylindrical barrel in which the piston slides, the
movement of the piston or Stroke being in some cases somewhat longer that the bore
(diameter of the piston), but tending to equality or even less. This is known as the
stroke: bore ratio.
Stroke
Bore
Engine displacement = Volume of cylinder X number of cylinders

= π d2 h / 4 X number of cylinders
= π Bore2 Stroke / 4 X number of cylinders
= Vswept X number of cylinders
The upper end of a combustion or clearance space (usually found in the cylinder head
for petrol engines) in which ignition and combustion of the mixture takes place. In
practice it is necessary to depart from the ideal hemispherical shape in order to
accommodate the valves, sparking plug, etc., and to control the process of
combustion.
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Piston
The usual form of piston for internal combustion engines is an inverted bucket shape,
machined to a close (but free sliding) fit in the cylinder barrel. Gas tightness is
secured by means of flexible “piston rings” fitting closely in grooves turned in the
upper part of the piston.
The pressure of the gasses is transmitted to the upper end of the connecting rod
through the “gudgeon pin” on which the “small end” of the connecting rod is free to
swing.
A four stroke engine piston
Connecting Rod
The connecting rod transmits the piston load to the crankshaft causing it to turn, thus
converting the reciprocating movement of the piston into a rotating motion of the
crankshaft. The lower end or “big end” of the connecting rod turns on the crankshaft
pin.
8
Small End
Bid End
Connected to
connected to
piston
crankshaft
Connecting Rod
Crankshaft
In the great majority of IC engines this is of a double web type as previously

mentioned. The crankshaft is made of a shaft which is bolted onto the engine block
through the webs and the connection rods are attached to the pins. The shaft turns two
or more main bearings (at the webs) depending on the number and arrangement of
cylinders.
Pin
Web
The crankshaft
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Flywheel
At the one end of the crankshaft (the one attached to a transmission system) a heavy
flywheel is attached. This flywheel absorbs the variations in impulse transmitted to
the shaft by the gas and inertia loads and also drives the pistons over dead points and
idle strokes. In motor vehicles the flywheel usually forms one member of the clutch
(for manual transmission systems) through which the power is transmitted to the road
wheels. The flywheel has a tooth ring which is used to crank (start) the engine
Tooth ring
Connection with
crankshaft
Balancing marks
The Flywheel
Method of Working
It is now necessary to describe the sequence of operations by which the combustible

mixture is introduced, ignited, burned and finally discharged after it has completed its
work.
There are two important methods or cycles in practical uses namely the four strokes or
“Otto cycle” and the two strokes or “Clerk” cycle. The cycles take their names from
the number of single piston sequence of operations which is repeated continuously so
long as the engine works. However there is another method of working which is the
rotary or “Wankel” type.
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Four Stroke Cycle
The figure below shows in a diagrammatic manner a four stroke engine cylinder
provided with two valves of the poppet type. The cylinder is shown horizontal for
convenience. The inlet valve (IV) communicates through a throttle valve with the
carburettor or vaporiser, from which a combustible mixture of fuel and air is drawn.
The exhaust valve (EV) communicates with the silencer through which the burnt
gases are discharged to the atmosphere. These valves opened and closed at suitable
intervals by mechanisms, which will be described in another course.
The four strokes of the complete cycle are shown at (a), (b), (c) and (d). Below the
diagrams of the cylinder are shown the corresponding portions of what is known as
the indicator diagram, that is to say a diagram which shows the variation in pressure
of the gases in the cylinder throughout the cycle. In practice such diagrams can be
automatically recorded when the engine is running.
The four strokes are as follows:
(a) Induction stroke
The exhaust valve is closed and the intake valve is opened. The momentum imparted
to flywheel during the previous cycles causes the connecting rod to draw the piston
outwards, setting up a partial vacuum which sucks in a new charge of combustible
mixture. The pressure will be below atmospheric pressure by an amount which
depends upon the speed of the engine and the throttle opening.
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(b) Compression or working stroke
Here both valves are closed and the pistons returns still being driven by the
momentum of the flywheel. It compresses the charge into the combustion head of the
cylinder. The pressure rises to an amount which depends on the compression ratio that
is the ratio of the full volume of the cylinder when the piston is at the outer end of its
stroke to the volume of clearance space when the piston is at the inner or upper end.
In ordinary petrol engines the ratio is between 6 and 9, for direct diesel engines 12-13
and for indirect diesel engines up to 22. The pressure at the end of the compression is
about 620.5 to 827.4 KN/m2 with full throttle open.
Compression ratio = (Vswept volume + Vclearence volume)/ Vclearence volume
(c) Combustion or working stroke
Both valves are still closed and just before the end of the compression stroke ignition
of the charge takes place by means of an electric spark. A rapid rise of temperature
and pressure occurs inside the cylinder. Combustion is completed while the piston is
practically at rest, and is followed by the expansion of the hot gases as the piston
moves outwards. The pressure of the gasses drives the piston forward and turns the
crankshaft thus propelling the car against the external resistances and restoring to the
flywheel the momentum lost during the idle strokes. The pressure falls as the volume
increases.
(d) Exhaust stroke
The inlet valve is remained closed but the exhaust valve is opened. The piston returns
again driven by the momentum of the flywheel, and discharges the spent gases
through the exhaust valve. The pressure will be slightly above atmospheric pressure
by an amount depending an the resistance to flow offered by the exhaust valve and
silencer.
Two stroke Engine
Due to the fact that four strokes were required for one power stroke engineers
searched for a cycle which would reduce the proportion of idle strokes. This resulted
in the invention of a two stroke engine.
Two stroke engines are characterised from both the specific output and the potential
for smoothness of torque at any given speed which are restricted in the four stroke
engines. The objective was to complete both induction and exhaust within the period
that the piston was swinging over Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) and thus detract very
little from either the exhaust or compression stroke.
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Inlet and exhaust valves are eliminated together with their actuating gear leading to an
extreme simplicity in design and there lower cost than a four stroke engine. This leads
however to one of its principle disadvantage which is the increased fuel consumption
as some of the charge inevitably is lost through the exhaust port during the overlap
period. Although both efficiency and specific power output can be improved by
measures such as injection of the fuel after the exhaust ports are closed, incorporating
popper type exhaust valves into the head, scavenging the exhaust gases more
effectively by supercharging, or even incorporating extra cylinders for scavenging by
providing extra air, all involve increasing the complexity to a four-stroke unit.
Even all the advantages (mechanical simplicity, low cost, greater mechanical, smooth
torque owing to the shortness of the intervals between combustion impulses, and
consequently the small flywheel and therefore light weight) were valid, they would
still have to be set against the apparently inescapable disadvantages. These are:
greater noise due to the sudden uncovering of the ports by the pistons, high specific
fuel consumption, excessive hydrocarbon content of the exhaust gas, and some more,
including difficultly of starting an irregular firing at idling load with some types of
two-stroke engine.
Together, these disadvantages have, in fact, led to the abandonment of this type of
engine for cars. Moreover, although in diesel engines, injection after the inlet ports
have closed obviates the fuel consumption problem, two-stroke diesels are still widely
regarded as too noisy for commercial vehicles. Noise is of course a major
disadvantage for an engine that may have to be offered for use in busses as well as
trucks.
Three-port two-stroke engine
The figure illustrated in the next page shows in a simple diagram the Day three-port
two stroke engine. The exhaust port is shown at E, this being uncovered by the piston
after completion of about 80% of its stroke. The transfer port T, though which the
charge is pumped from the crankcase, opens slightly later than the exhaust port, as
shown in 1, to reduce the risk of hot exhaust gas passing into the crankcase and
igniting the new charge. It follows than the transfer port is closed by the rising piston
slightly before the exhaust port, so that the final pressure in the cylinder, and therefore
the total quantity of charge (consisting of a mixture of burnt gases, air and fuel
vapour) is determined not by the pump delivery pressure but only by the extent to
which the throttling and pulse effects of the exhaust pipe, silencer, etc., raise the
cylinder pressure above that of the atmosphere. The piston head is specially shaped to
deflect the entering gases to the top of the cylinder. This is known as cross-flow
scavenge.
The piston rises and compresses the charge, after which it is ignited and expands in
the usual way. The indicator diagram takes the form shown at (a) in figure, which
differs from that as the exhaust ports are uncovered and the elimination of the “bottom
loop” showing the exhaust and suction strokes. This bottom loop is replaced, of
course, by the indicator diagram, shown at (b), obtained from the crank case or
scavenge pump cylinder. There is no possibility of eliminating this pump work from
either the four-stroke or the two-stroke cycle in one case it is done in alternate
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revolutions in the main working cylinder, and in the other in every revolution in the
scavenge pump cylinder.
Operation of a 3 port 2 stroke engine
It is necessary now to describe how the charge is drawn into the crankcase from the
carburettor. As the piston rises a partial vacuum is formed in the crankcase, the
pressure becoming steadily lower until, near the top of its stroke, the rising piston
uncovers the induction port I, which communicates with the carburettor as shown in
2. Air rashes in to fill the vacuum and carries with it the petrol from the jet necessary
to form a combustible mixture. It will be realised that the suction impulse on the jet is
a violent one of short duration – the vary worst from the point of view of obtaining a
correct and homogeneous mixture - while the timing interval during which the
induction port is opened is also unduly short from the point of view of the inspiration
of the full charge of air. In the figure above (c) shows a typical timing diagram of the
various port openings and closings expressed in degrees of crank angle.
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NSU Wankel Rotary Engine
Although the Wankel engine represented a major advance in the search for a rotary
mechanism it was not based on any new principle or thermodynamic cycle. The four
events of the four stroke engine take place in one rotation of the driving member. The
general profile of the straight working chamber is of epitrochoid form, a group of
curves of the cycloid family. The general design of a single rotor type with a
threelobed rotor is shown in the figure below.
Rotary engine
The rotor provides three equal working spaces and clearly an exhaust release will
occur each time an apex seal overruns the leading edge of the exhaust port E, which is
three times per revolution of the rotor and this exhaust will continue until the
following seal reaches the trailing edge of the port. Induction will have commenced in
the same space about 60o of rotor movement earlier.
There as thus three complete 4 stroke cycles per revolution of the rotor in different
working spaces, but all fired by the same sparking plug as maximum compression is
reached.
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Most of the developing problems have been associated with reducing the wear rate of
the apex seals and bore and improving the efficiency of combustion.
Disadvantages of the Wankel engine include the fact that at low speeds the rate of
leakage past its seals is five times that past the piston rings in an equivalent piston
engine. For this reason torque falls off steeply at low speeds. However a twin rotor
engine can replace a reciprocating engine with tremendous differences in torque and
with lower weight.
Diesel versions were also seen in the market by Rolls-Royce.
Diesel Injection Engines
Here quickly we must stress out that both 2-stroke and 4-stroke engine can use diesel
as fuel as well as the Rotary engine. However the main differences are the self
igniting fuel and thus the elimination of the spark plug necessity and the high
compression ratio.
High compression pressure ignites the fuel mixture which is injected in a small
volume at a high velocity so as to be atomised. The efficiency of a diesel is
approximately 5% higher than that of a petrol engine.
Turbocharging and Supercharging
Basically the power output of an engine depends on the amount of energy in the form
of a fuel which its cylinders can be charged, but the quantity of fuel that can be
burned in the cylinder is limited by the mass of air that can introduced.
In a naturally aspirated (NA) atmospheric pressure forces air in but because of viscous
drag in the induction system and throttling by components such as venturis, bends in
pipes and valve throats, the pressure of air in the cylinder is less than atmospheric.
In order to increase the density of air supercharging and turbocharing or any other
type of cooling the charge can be used, thus increasing the power output per unit of
size and weight of the engine.
Supercharging can used to modify the torque characteristic, generally to help to

increase the torque over broad speed range as the throttle is closed, so that fewer gear
changes are needed.
However the most widely method used is the turbocharging. It is a compressor driven
by a turbine powered by exhaust gas energy. The energy would off-course otherwise
be wasted. Similarly, a supercharger is a compressor but mechanically driven and
therefore consuming energy taken from the crankshaft. Both can be referred to as
pressure charging and 10% increase in output is claimed.
16
Even though turbochargers were found in 1925, it was only since about the 1950s that
compact, high efficiency, reliable units have been available at costs low enough for
automotive applications.
Turbocharger
The major disadvantage of turbochargers is what is termed as turbocharger lag. This

arises because of the need to accelerate and decelerate the rotor at extremely high
speeds to satisfy the demand of torque. It can take several seconds to respond to such
changes. Modern designs are able to provide much shorter response times.
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3. Transmission Systems
Why a transmission system is required?
A transmission system is required a number of reason that are going to be analysed

step by step. First of all an engine requires a starting system and to do so provision
must be made for disconnecting the engine from the drive line during starting
operation. Connecting it again to drive line, for propelling the vehicle, must be
effected as smoothly as possible both for the sake of passengers and to prevent
damage to vehicle mechanisms.
In passing down the drive line, the torque of the engines is modified stage by stage
until it becomes the propulsive force, or tractive force, at the interface between the
tyres and the road. If rapid acceleration is required, either when starting from rest or
in any other circumstances – for overtaking for example – that tractive effort must be
increased. This is done partly by increasing the torque output of the engine but since
this alone may not be enough the gear ratios will generally have to be changed too.
In this context, gear changing can be linked to altering the leverage between the
engine and the road wheels, so that the relatively small torque available can be
translated into a large tractive force. A large leverage may be required for climbing
hills or traversing very soft or rough ground.
Since a large leverage implies a correspondingly reduced movement at the output end,
this implies a big reduction of rotational speed between the engine and the road
wheels. Consequently the leverage must be reduced as the speed of vehicle increases,
otherwise the engine speed would become too high and maximum potential speed of
the vehicle would be unattainable. Mover over torque falls off as speed increases so
for this reason some simple mean of varying the leverage – speed changing – is
necessary.
Consider a car having road wheels 0.66m diameter and cruising at 100 km/h. Under
these conditions the engine speed would have about 3500 Rev/min and the road
wheels would be rotating at about 800 rev/min. Consequently the overall ratio of the
gearing between the engine and the road wheels would have to be about 4.5:1. In
practice this ratio would differ to some extent, depending on the weight of the car and
the size of the engine. For example until recently a car with a large engine might have
an overall ratio of 3:1, a medium weight commercial vehicle 5.5:1 and a heavy truck
10:1 or even higher. Now the demand for fuel economy is tending to encourage
gearboxes and overall gear ratios as high as 6:1 could become common on, for
instance, cars with five-speed gearboxes.
While the basic principles of transmission remain the same for virtually all classes of
vehicles, the actual arrangements vary – for instance some have four-wheel drive and
other either front- or rear- wheel drive. Where the engine is installed at the front and
the axis of crankshaft is parallel to, or coincident with, the longitudinal axis of the
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vehicle, ultimately the drive must be turned through 90o in order that it maybe
transmitted to the wheels. Such turn however is not necessary if the engine is mounted
transversely (i.e. front wheel drive car).
Another requirement for the transmission systems arises from the fact that when the
vehicle is cornering the outer wheels must roll faster than the inner ones which will be
traversing circles of smaller radii, yet their mean speed and therefore both the
rotational speed of the engine and the translational speed of the vehicle may be
required to remain constant.
Then again, to reduce the transmission of vibrations to the chassis frame, the engine is
universally mounted on it, while the driving wheels attached to the frame by road
springs also have a degree of freedom of movement relative to it. Both these
movements must be accommodated by the transmission.
Clutch, gearbox, and live axle transmission – general arrangement (Rear and front
wheel drive)
This system is shown diagrammatically in the figure below and is a general set-up for
rear wheel drive vehicles (RWD). The engine is at the front with its crankshaft
parallel to the axis of the vehicle. From the engine the drive is transmitted through a
clutch and a short shaft (c) to the gearbox. In car this shaft is almost invariably
integral with the primary gear in the gearbox but for most commercial vehicles it is a
separate component. From the gearbox a “propeller shaft” or “cardan shaft” takes the
drive to a live back axle. This shaft is fitting with two universal joints (UV joints). A
live axle is the one through which the drive is transmitted to the wheels while a dead
axle is the one that does not transmit any drive (i.e. the rear axle at front wheel cars).
The gearing (g) contains the differential within the axle divides the drive equally to
the two wheels and turns it 90o.
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General set-up of a rear wheel drive vehicle
The bell housing found on the gearbox usually covers the clutch and the shaft (c) or
some of it which is secured to the engine crankcase. This has the advantages of
cleanliness and neatness of appearance and a chief disadvantage associated with the
inaccessibility of the clutch for repairs.
The rear engine and live axle arrangement has the advantage for buses and coaches
primary because it allows the floor to be set at a low level and to be flat through out
the length of the chassis.
Front wheel drive is shown in the figure below. The engine is mounted longitudinally
forward of the front wheels and the gearbox to the rear of them. The final drive is
being interposed between the two. Consequently its output shafts are two and are
directly mounted to the front wheels. Since these wheels are also turning the car and
there is a relative movement due to the suspension system universal joints are used.
Such set ups are common in Audis.
Front wheel drive set-up with longitudinal engine mounting
However most front wheel drive vehicles use a transverse mounting of the engine as
shown in the figure below. Disadvantages of such engine set up include that of final
drive torque is reach by the engine mountings. So front wheel drive cars with high
torque outputs, need heavy duty engine mountings. Also shock and harshness is easily
transmitted to the steering in front wheel drive cars whereas rear wheel drive cars
provide a more smooth feeling. This is why luxury cars are rarely found with a front
wheel drive systems.
Front wheel drive set-up with transverse engine mounting
The rear engine layout for cars (engine behind the rear axle) has fallen from favour.
This is because of the associated instability due to poor weight distribution coupled
with a rear suspension that is almost inevitably unfavourable owning to the small
space available for it on each side of the engine. Off-course Porsche still uses this
setup and provides electronic systems to keep the car stable.
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A Porsche 911 with rear engine layout
Mid-engine installation is popular for sport cars because it tends to give a reasonably
uniform weight distribution between all four wheels. Major disadvantages are noise
inside the vehicle, difficulty of access for maintenance, complexity of transferring the
coolant between the radiator and engine (the same occurs for air-condition
compressor and condenser) and finally a two-seater set up as the space available for
passengers at the rear is taken by the engine.
Four-wheel-drive Transmission sytems
Typically in a four-wheel-drive (4WD) transmission layout (figure below), a transfer

box is interposed between the gearbox and back axle unit. The function of this
transfer box is to transfer the drive from the main gearbox to both front and rear
wheel. In this box a pinion A, is driven by the gearbox output shaft. The pinion
through an intermediate gear B drives a third gear C. From the differential gears one
shaft is taken forward to the front axle and the other rearwards to the back axle. Both
axles have their own differentials and final drive gears but the front has universal
joints D to allow the front wheels to be steered.
General arrangement of a four-wheel driven chassis
The differential C is necessary to distribute the drive equally between the front and
rear axles and to allow for the fact that when the vehicle is driven in a circle the mean
speeds of the front wheels is different from that of the rear wheels and therefore the
speeds of the two propeller shafts must differ too. Other factors include different
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rolling radii of the tyres owning to, for example manufacturing tolerances, different
degrees of wear and perhaps different tyre pressures.
Four-wheel-drive offers two main advantages. First there is the increased traction
obtainable from the driven wheels, which is especially useful on soft or slippery
ground. Secondly if the front wheels drop in a ditch they tend to climb out, whereas
with rear-wheel drive they tend to be forced downwards, except when the vehicle is
driven in reverse, in which case, of course the disadvantage of the lower traction of
two-wheel drive remains.
The principal disadvantages are increased weight, bulk and cost.
Clutches
A clutch is a releasable coupling connecting the adjacent ends of two coaxial shafts. It
is said to be engaged or in when the shafts are coupled and disengaged or out when
are released. The simplest friction type clutch comprises two discs, the more
substantial of which is usually the engine flywheel and the other generally termed the
presser or pressure plate, is lighter. The flywheel is bolted on the end of the
crankshaft, while the other plate slides axially on the output shaft, except in as a
spring or springs tending to press it against the flywheel. Such a clutch is engaged by
its spring or springs and disengaged by a pedal-actuated linkage under control of the
driver.
If a clutch is stripped of all complications such as friction linings and actuation

mechanism then the result is something shown in the figure below. The two plates are
keyed on the ends of the two shafts and are carried by two bearings. Because the
engine torque has to be transmitted from the engine flywheel to the pressure plate by
friction between the two faces, a specially formulated material having a high
coefficient of friction and good wearing properties is required.
A simple arrangement of a clutch system
However a much better arrangement is to introduce a third disc which is positioned

between the driving discs. This disc is much lighter and is lined on both sides (faces)
with a high friction material. It is termed as friction disc or centre plate.
In a car, you need a clutch because the engine spins all the time and the car wheels
don't. In order for a car to stop without killing the engine, the wheels need to be
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disconnected from the engine somehow. The clutch allows us to smoothly engage a
spinning engine to a non-spinning transmission by controlling the slippage between
them. To understand how a clutch works, it helps to know a little bit about friction.
In the figure below, you can see that the flywheel is connected to the engine, and the
clutch plate is connected to the transmission.
Pressure disc
Arrangement of a clutch on a vehicle
When your foot is off the pedal, the springs push the pressure plate against the
pressure disc, which in turn presses against the flywheel. This locks the engine to the
transmission input shaft, causing them to spin at the same speed.
Diaphragm
Spring
The pressure plate assembly
When the clutch pedal is pressed, a cable or hydraulic piston pushes on the release
fork, which presses the throw-out bearing against the middle of the diaphragm spring.
As the middle of the diaphragm spring is pushed in, a series of pins near the outside of
the spring causes the spring to pull the pressure plate away from the clutch plate
(friction disc). This releases the clutch from the spinning engine. This is illustrated on
the figures below.
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Engaged
Disengaged
Engagement and disengagement of clutch
The amount of force the clutch can hold depends on the friction between the pressure
disc and the flywheel, and how much force the spring puts on the friction plate. The
figure in the next page illustrates a friction plate. Note the springs in the friction plate.
These springs help to isolate the transmission from the shock of the clutch engaging.
The most common problem with clutches is that the friction material on the disc
wears out. The friction material on a friction disc is very similar to the friction
material on the pads of a disc brake, or the shoes of a drum brake - after a while, it
wears away. When most or all of the friction material is gone, the clutch will start to
slip, and eventually it will not transmit any power from the engine to the wheels.
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Spring to isolate shock

transmitted to gearbox
Lining to wear out
Friction disc of a clutch system
The friction disc only wears while the pressure disc and the flywheel are spinning at
different speeds. When they are locked together, the friction material is held tightly
against the flywheel, and they spin in synchronization. It is only when the friction disc
is slipping against the flywheel that wearing occurs. So if you are the type of driver
who slips the clutch a lot, you will wear out your clutch a lot faster.
Another problem sometimes associated with clutches is a worn throw-out (release)

bearing. This problem is often characterized by a rumbling noise whenever the clutch
engages.
Gearboxes
Control over power output, by means of the throttle pedal, simply regulates the rate at
which the engine is doing work: at very high speeds, the power output will be
correspondingly high but, the torque output can at the same time be significantly less
than at considerably lower speeds. In other words, maximum torque may be available
over only a very limited speed range. Consequently, one needs to be able to regulate
both the power output and the speed range of the engine relative to the range of
speeds over which the vehicle is at any given time likely to be required to operate.
Only in this way can the torque at the wheels be balanced against demands for either a
steady speed uphill or downhill, or on the level, or for acceleration or deceleration. Α
gearbox is necessary, therefore, so that the driver can regulate torque by selecting the
appropriate speed range or, in other words, the vehicle speed at which maximum
torque is obtainable.
This is generally achieved by a gear ratio, meaning the altering of rotation between
the engine and the rear axle at a suitable ratio that is determined by a number of
factors, such as speed of vehicle, gradient (uphill, downhill), etc.
Gearboxes can be classified into three main categories:
25
• Manual gearbox
• Automatic gearbox
• Semi-automatic gearbox
Manual Gearbox
The manual transmission provides a means of varying the relationship between the
speed of the engine and the speed of the wheels. Varying these gear ratios allows the
right amount of engine power at many different speeds.
Manual transmissions require use of a clutch to apply and remove engine torque to the
transmission input shaft. The clutch allows this to happen gradually that so that the
car can be started from a complete stop.
Typical 5 speed manual gearbox
Most cars have five forward gears, and one reverse gear. The transmission changes
the ratio of the engine speed and the wheels by connecting gears in various
combinations. If a gear with 10 teeth is driving a gear with 20 teeth, the drive would
be said to have a 2:1 ratio.
First gear connects the engine power to the driven wheels via a pair of reduction gear
sets, which gives increased power and reduced wheel-speed when the car is beginning
to move. This means the engine is turning much faster than the output shaft, typically
around a 4:1 ratio. Intermediate speeds are delivered by changing the gear ratio closer
to 1:1. Final drive is usually accomplished by directly linking the input and output
shafts, giving a 1:1 gear ratio. Using a moveable set of different sized gears, it's
possible to get several degrees of torque output.
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The table below provides typical gear ratios and also provide the rotation of the output
shaft of a gearbox at 3000 revolutions per minute (RPM).
RPM at Transmission Output Shaft

Gear Ratio
with Engine at 3,000 rpm
st
1 2.315:1 1,295
nd
2 1.568:1 1,913
rd
3 1.195:1 2,510
th
4 1.000:1 3,000
th
5 0.915:1 3,278
Typical gear ratios
To understand the basic idea behind a standard transmission, the diagram below
shows a very simple two-speed transmission in neutral.
E
C
A
Shaft 3
Shaft 1
B
D
F
Shaft 2
A simple two speed gearbox
Shaft 1 provides the input from the engine through the clutch. Shaft 1 and gear A are
connected as a single unit. The shaft 2 and gears B, D and F are called the layshaft.
These are also connected as a single piece, so all of the gears on the layshaft and the
layshaft itself spin as one unit. The shaft 1 and the shaft 2 are directly connected
through their meshed gears so that if the shaft 1 is spinning, so is the shaft 2. In this
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way, the layshaft receives its power directly from the engine whenever the clutch is
engaged.
The shaft 3 is a splined shaft that connects directly to the drive shaft through the
differential to the drive wheels of the car. If the wheels are spinning, the shaft 3 is
spinning. The gears C and E ride on bearings, so they spin on the shaft 3. If the engine
is off but the car is coasting, the shaft 3 can turn inside the gears C and E while these
gears and the layshaft are motionless. The purpose of the collar is to connect one of
the gears C and E to the shaft 3. The collar is connected, through the splines, directly
to the shaft 3 and spins with it. However, the collar can slide left or right along the
shaft 3 to engage either of the gear C and E. Teeth on the collar, called dog teeth, fit
into holes on the sides of the gears C and E to engage them.
In order to estimate the gear ratio of the second gear we use the following formula:
Speed of shaft 1 No. of teeth B No. of teeth C

------------------- = ------------------- X ------------------
Speed of shaft 3 No. of teeth A No. of teeth D
The same will apply for the first gear. Generally as the gear on the output shaft get
bigger and on the layshaft smaller the lower that gear will be.
When you make a mistake while shifting and hear a horrible grinding sound, you are
not hearing the sound of gear teeth miss-meshing. As you can see in these diagrams,
all gear teeth are all fully meshed at all times. The grinding is the sound of the dog
teeth trying unsuccessfully to engage the holes in the side of a gear.
The transmission shown here does not have "synchros", so if you were using this
transmission you would have to double-clutch it. Double-clutching was common in
older cars and is still common in some modern race cars. In double-clutching, you
first push the clutch pedal in once to disengage the engine from the transmission. This
takes the pressure off the dog teeth so you can move the collar into neutral. Then you
release the clutch pedal and rev the engine to the "right speed." The right speed is the
rpm value at which the engine should be running in the next gear. The idea is to get
the blue gear of the next gear and the collar rotating at the same speed so that the dog
teeth can engage. Then you push the clutch pedal in again and lock the collar into the
new gear. At every gear change you have to press and release the clutch twice, hence
the name "double-clutching."
Manual transmissions in modern passenger cars use synchronizers to eliminate the

need for double-clutching. A synchro's purpose is to allow the collar and the gear to
make frictional contact before the dog teeth make contact. This lets the collar and the
gear synchronize their speeds before the teeth need to engage. The figure in the next
page illustrates the use of a synchronizer. With reference to the figure the cone on the
gear fits into the cone-shaped area in the collar, and friction between the cone and the
collar synchronize the collar and the gear. The outer portion of the collar then slides
so that the dog teeth can engage the gear. Every manufacturer implements
transmissions and synchros in different ways, but this is the general idea.
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Synchronizer on a gear
Reverse gear is handled by a small idler gear as shown in the figure below. At all
times, the blue reverse gear in this diagram is turning in a direction opposite to all of
the other blue gears. Therefore, it would be impossible to throw the transmission into
reverse while the car is moving forward - the dog teeth would never engage.
However, they will make a lot of noise.
Output shaft gear
Laysfaft shaft gear
Reverse gear set up
Automatic Transmissions
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Just like that of a manual transmission, the automatic transmission's primary job is to
allow the engine to operate in its narrow range of speeds while providing a wide range
of output speeds.
A typical Automatic transmission
In the USA, the first automatic transmission with a torque converter and epicyclic
gearing was introduced in the mid-1930s and, in Europe, in 1950. Simple automatic
systems may be refined by the inclusion of facilities for changing the gear range to
cope with difficult conditions, such as on rough terrain or in heavy traffic, and for
inhibiting upward changes, for example when ascending steep-gradients. The latter
facility can be used to avoid repeated up and down changes on such gradients. To
provide the different ratios required, all these automatic transmissions feature a
mechanical gearbox, mostly epicyclic, and usually with a torque converter, through
which the drive is transmitted to the mechanical gearbox. Since the introduction of
electronics for road vehicles, the trend has been towards ever increasing sophistication
of control.
In general, the control must bring about changes from low to high ratios as the vehicle
speed rises, and from high to low as it falls. However, it is frequently possible to
employ the higher gears even at low vehicle speeds, for example on level roads and
with following winds, when the resistances to be overcome are low.
The control system must therefore take account of the engine load and, in general,
produce changes up when the load is light and changes down when the load is heavy.
There are, however, occasions, such as on descending hills, when it is desirable to
employ a low gear although the load on the engine may be nil or the engine may be
acting as a brake. It is under these diverse conditions that the human element has to be
retained in the control.
All automatic transmission systems are controlled with reference to vehicle speed and
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engine load. With electronic control, however, additional factors may be introduced,
such as engine temperature, ambient temperature, icy road conditions, and rate of
change of accelerator position. These data are obtained by the use of sensors which, in
the earlier systems, were mechanical, electrical, pneumatic (manifold depression).
Now, however, electronic sensors predominate.
The fuel consumption of an automatic transmission embodying a torque converter is

inherently higher than that of the equivalent manually controlled transmission. This is
attributable to factors such as friction losses in the multi-plate clutches and brakes
used to change gear ratios, losses in their hydraulic control systems, converter losses,
and friction losses in the gears and preloaded rolling element bearings.
The main components that make up an automatic transmission include:
• The Torque Converter which acts like a clutch to allow the vehicle to come
to a stop in gear while the engine is still running.
• Planetary Gear Sets which are the mechanical systems that provide the
various forward gear ratios as well as reverse.
• The Hydraulic System which uses a special transmission fluid sent under
pressure by an Oil Pump through the Valve Body to control the Clutches and
the Bands in order to control the planetary gear sets. .
• The Governor and the Modulator or Throttle Cable that monitor speed and
throttle position in order to determine when to shift.
• On newer vehicles, shift points are controlled by Computer which directs
electrical solenoids to shift oil flow to the appropriate component at the right
instant
Torque converter
The torque converter is a type of fluid coupling between the engine and the gearbox to
even out speed changes and to multiply the engine torque. The torque converter is
used as a clutch to send the power (torque) from the engine to the transmission input
shaft. It provides a continuous variation of ratio from the lowest to the highest.
It has three parts; an impeller (pump) connected to the engine's crankshaft, a turbine
to turn the turbine shaft which is connected to the gears, and a stator between the two.
The torque converter is filled with transmission fluid that is moved by the impeller
blades. The stator's vanes catch the oil thrown off from the impeller, and use it to
move the turbine's blades. When the impeller spins above a certain speed, the turbine
spins, driven by the impeller.
In some designs, the torque converter locks the impeller and the turbine together when
at highway speeds, which increases efficiency. This is called torque converter lock-up
and since no torque is wasted it is more efficient.
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The torque converter
Planetary Gear Sets
Automatic transmissions contain many gears in various combinations. In a manual

transmission, gears slide along shafts as you move the shift lever from one position to
another, engaging various sized gears as required in order to provide the correct gear
ratio. In an automatic transmission, however, the gears are never physically moved
and are always engaged to the same gears. This is accomplished through the use of
planetary gear sets.
The basic planetary gear set consists of a sun gear, a ring gear and two or more planet
gears, all remaining in constant mesh. The planet gears are connected to each other
through a common carrier which allows the gears to spin on shafts called "pinions"
which are attached to the carrier .
One example of a way that this system can be used is by connecting the ring gear to
the input shaft coming from the engine, connecting the planet carrier to the output
shaft, and locking the sun gear so that it can't move. In this scenario, when we turn
the ring gear, the planets will "walk" along the sun gear (which is held stationary)
causing the planet carrier to turn the output shaft in the same direction as the input
shaft but at a slower speed causing gear reduction (similar to a car in first gear).
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If we unlock the sun gear and lock any two elements together, this will cause all three
elements to turn at the same speed so that the output shaft will turn at the same rate of
speed as the input shaft. This is like a car that is in third or high gear. Another way
that we can use a Planetary gear set is by locking the planet carrier from moving, then
applying power to the ring gear which will cause the sun gear to turn in the opposite
direction giving us reverse gear.
The illustration on the figure in the next page shows how the simple system described
above would look in an actual transmission. The input shaft is connected to the ring
gear (1), The Output shaft is connected to the planet carrier (2) which is also
connected to a "Multi-disk" clutch pack. The sun gear is connected to a drum (3)
which is also connected to the other half of the clutch pack. Surrounding the outside
of the drum is a band (4) that can be tightened around the drum when required to
prevent the drum with the attached sun gear from turning.
The clutch pack is used, in this instance, to lock the planet carrier with the sun gear
forcing both to turn at the same speed. If both the clutch pack and the band were
released, the system would be in neutral. Turning the input shaft would turn the
planet gears against the sun gear, but since nothing is holding the sun gear, it will just
spin free and have no effect on the output shaft. To place the unit in first gear, the
band is applied to hold the sun gear from moving. To shift from first to high gear, the
band is released and the clutch is applied causing the output shaft to turn at the same
speed as the input shaft.
Planetary gear system
Many more combinations are possible using two or more planetary sets connected in
various ways to provide the different forward speeds and reverse that are found in
modern automatic transmissions.
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Some of the clever gear arrangements found in four and now, five, six and even
seven-speed automatics are complex enough to make a technically astute lay person's
head spin trying to understand the flow of power through the transmission as it shifts
from first gear through top gear while the vehicle accelerates to highway speed. On
newer vehicles, the vehicle's computer monitors and controls these shifts so that they
are almost imperceptible.
Clutch packs
A clutch pack consists of alternating disks that fit inside a clutch drum. Half of the
disks are steel and have splines that fit into groves on the inside of the drum. This is
illustrated in the figure in the next page. The other half have a friction material
bonded to their surface and have splines on the inside edge that fit groves on the outer
surface of the adjoining hub. There is a piston inside the drum that is activated by oil
pressure at the appropriate time to squeeze the clutch pack together so that the two
components become locked and turn as one.
Clutch packs
One way clutch
A one-way clutch (also known as a "sprag" clutch) is a device that will allow a
component such as ring gear to turn freely in one direction but not in the other. This
effect is just like that of a bicycle, where the pedals will turn the wheel when pedaling
forward, but will spin free when pedaling backward.
A common place where a one-way clutch is used is in first gear when the shifter is in
the drive position. When you begin to accelerate from a stop, the transmission starts
out in first gear. But have you ever noticed what happens if you release the gas while
it is still in first gear? The vehicle continues to coast as if you were in neutral. Now,
shift into Low gear instead of Drive. When you let go of the gas in this case, you will
34
feel the engine slow you down just like a standard shift car. The reason for this is that
in Drive, a one-way clutch is used whereas in Low, a clutch pack or a band is used.
Steel bands
A band is a steel strap with friction material bonded to the inside surface. One end of
the band is anchored against the transmission case while the other end is connected to
a servo. At the appropriate time hydraulic oil is sent to the servo under pressure to
tighten the band around the drum to stop the drum from turning.
Steel band
Oil pump
The transmission oil pump (not to be confused with the pump element inside the
torque converter) is responsible for producing all the oil pressure that is required in
the transmission. The oil pump is mounted to the front of the transmission case and is
directly connected to a flange on the torque converter housing. Since the torque
converter housing is directly connected to the engine crankshaft, the pump will
produce pressure whenever the engine is running as long as there is a sufficient
amount of transmission fluid available. The oil enters the pump through a filter that is
located at the bottom of the transmission oil pan and travels up a pickup tube directly
to the oil pump. The oil is then sent, under pressure to the pressure regulator, the
valve body and the rest of the components, as required.
The oil pump
35
Valve body
The valve body is the control center of the automatic transmission. It contains a maze
of channels and passages that direct hydraulic fluid to the numerous valves which
then activate the appropriate clutch pack or band servo to smoothly shift to the
appropriate gear for each driving situation. Each of the many valves in the valve body
has a specific purpose and is named for that function. For example the 2-3 shift valve
activates the 2nd gear to 3rd gear up-shift or the 3-2 shift timing valve which
determines when a downshift should occur.
The most important valve, and the one that you have direct control over is the manual
valve. The manual valve is directly connected to the gear shift handle and covers and
uncovers various passages depending on what position the gear shift is placed in.
When you place the gear shift in Drive, for instance, the manual valve directs fluid to
the clutch pack(s) that activates 1st gear. it also sets up to monitor vehicle speed and
throttle position so that it can determine the optimal time and the force for the 1 - 2
shift. On computer controlled transmissions, you will also have electrical solenoids
that are mounted in the valve body to direct fluid to the appropriate clutch packs or
bands under computer control to more precisely control shift points.
The Valve body
Controls of the Automatic transmission
These three components are important in the non-computerized transmissions. They

provide the inputs that tell the transmission when to shift. The Governor is connected
to the output shaft and regulates hydraulic pressure based on vehicle speed. It
accomplishes this using centrifugal force to spin a pair of hinged weights against pull-
back springs. As the weights pull further out against the springs, more oil pressure is
allowed past the governor to act on the shift valves that are in the valve body which
then signal the appropriate shifts.
36
Of course, vehicle speed is not the only thing that controls when a transmission
should shift, the load that the engine is under is also important. The more load you
place on the engine, the longer the transmission will hold a gear before shifting to the
next one.
There are two types of devices that serve the purpose of monitoring the engine load:
the Throttle Cable and the Vacuum Modulator. A transmission will use one or the
other but generally not both of these devices. Each works in a different way to
monitor engine load.
The Throttle Cable simply monitors the position of the gas pedal through a cable that
runs from the gas pedal to the throttle valve in the valve body.
The Vacuum Modulator monitors engine vacuum by a rubber vacuum hose which is
connected to the engine. Engine vacuum reacts very accurately to engine load with
high vacuum produced when the engine is under light load and diminishing down to
zero vacuum when the engine is under a heavy load. The modulator is attached to the
outside of the transmission case and has a shaft which passes through the case and
attaches to the throttle valve in the valve body. When an engine is under a light load
or no load, high vacuum acts on the modulator which moves the throttle valve in one
direction to allow the transmission to shift early and soft. As the engine load
increases, vacuum is diminished which moves the valve in the other direction causing
the transmission to shift later and more firmly.
The governor
Semi-Automatic Transmissions
Ideally, the transmission would be so flexible in its ratios that the engine could always
run at its single, best-performance rpm value. That is the idea behind the continuously
variable transmission (CVT). It uses a steel belt and pulleys to vary the ratio from 4-
25:1.So a CVT has a nearly infinite range of gear ratios. In the past, CVTs could not
compete with four-speed and five-speed transmissions in terms of cost, size and
37
reliability, so you didn't see them in production automobiles. These days,

improvements in design have made CVTs more common. The Toyota Prius is a
hybrid car that uses a CVT.
The differential
The differential is the device that divides the torque input from the propeller shaft
equally between the two output shafts to the wheels, regardless of the fact that they
may be rotating at different speeds, for instance on rounding a corner.
Crown wheel
Pinion gear pin Pinion gears
Pinion Differential
cage
Output/side gears
ours
The differential
The crown wheel is fixed to the differential cage and is driven by a pinion which is
connected to the axle shaft. The side or output gears are connected through shafts to
the driven wheels. These gears mesh inside the differential with the two pinion gears.
The pinions are free to turn on their pin fixed in the differential cage.
When the car moves in a circle the road wheels are constrained to move at different
speeds and do so by one wheel going faster than the differential cage while the other
goes an equal amount slower than the differential cage. Thus the speed of the
differential cage is the mean of the road wheel speeds. When the car moves in a
straight line, the road wheels turn at the same speed as the differential cage, and the
differential pinions do not have to turn an their pins at all.
Another function that the differential has is ratio. This ratio is estimated using the
38
gear teeth of the crown wheel and pinion and is typically close to 4:1. That is one
revolution of the crown wheel is equal to 4 of the pinion. Also it will rotate the drive
(if required) at angle necessary to reach the driven wheels.
In order to get better traction out of car different types of differentials can be used
and include:
o Clutch LSD (limited Slip Differential)

o Viscous Coupling
o Locking and Torsen
39
4. Brake Systems
Definition and Purpose
The braking system is the most important system in your car. If your brakes fail, the
result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert
the kinetic energy (momentum) of your vehicle into thermal energy (heat). When you
step on the brakes, you command a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force
that puts the car in motion. All newer cars have dual systems, with two wheels' brakes
operated by each subsystem. That way, if one subsystem fails, the other can provide
reasonably adequate braking power. Safety systems like this make modern brakes
more complex, but also much safer than earlier braking systems.
Generally the brake systems discharge the following functions:
• Reduce the vehicle speed

• Bring a moveable vehicle to a stop
• Keeping it stopped when stationery
This means that brake systems playa vital role in making motor vehicles suitable for
practical application. They are essential for ensuring highway safety, which is why
brake systems are subject to strict official regulations. A vehicle's approval for
homologation and highway operation is contingent upon compliance with a number of
national and international regulations.
Dynamics
The stopping distance is the distance covered in the interval between the time when a
hazard or obstacle is recognized and the point where the vehicle comes to a stop. It is
the sum of the distance travelled during the reaction time tr, the brake system's initial
response delay ta (at constant vehicle speed v) and the distance covered during the
effective braking time tw Maximum retardation a is obtained during the pressure
build-up period ts. Alternatively, half of the pressure build-up period can be viewed as
representing full deceleration.
Graphical representation of deceleration
40
The upper limits on retardation are determined by the static coefficient of friction
between tyres and road surface which will be discussed later. The reaction time is the
period that elapses between recognition of hazard or obstacle, the driver’s decision to
apply the brakes, and the time it takes for the foot to contact the brake petal. This no
fixed constant and depends upon individual driver and various environmental
variables and can range from 0.3 to 1.7 seconds. This is illustrated in the table below.
Tyre and road contact is important and this is emphasised by the tread depth. Low
tread depth is accompanied by a commensurate reduction in the size of the protective
layer covering belts and carcass. Tyre rotation between axles is recommended when
the tyres at various axles are exposed to different rates of tread wear.
Adequate tread depth is especially important for operating safety on passenger cars
and high-speed commercial vehicles, as worn tread leads to reduced traction on wet
roads. Reduced tread depth also leads to an over-proportional increase in braking
distances.
Tread depth and braking distance at 100 km/h
41
Main Components
The brake system is composed of the following basic components: The "master
cylinder" which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake
pedal, converts your foot's mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel "brake
lines" and flexible "brake hoses" connect the master cylinder to the "slave cylinders"
located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions,
fills the system. "Shoes" and "pads" are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the
"drums" and "rotors" thus causing drag, which (hopefully) slows the car.
Example of a passenger-car power-assisted brake system
In recent years, brakes have changed greatly in design. Disc brakes, used for years for
front wheel applications, are fast replacing drum brakes on the rear wheels of modern
cars. This is generally due to their simpler design, lighter weight and better braking
performance. The greatest advantage of disc brakes is that they provide significantly
better resistance to "brake fade" compared to drum type braking systems. Brake fade
is a temporary condition caused by high temperatures generated by repeated hard
braking. It occurs when the pads or shoes "glaze" due to the great pressure and heat of
hard use. Once they cool, the condition subsides. Disc brakes allow greater air
ventilation (cooling) compared to drum brakes. Drum brakes are not internally
ventilated because if they were, water could accumulate in them. Disc brakes can
rapidly fling off any water that they are exposed to, and so they can be well ventilated.
"Boosters" are present in "power brake" systems, and use the engine's energy to add
pressure to the master cylinder. "Anti-lock" (ABS) systems, originally developed for
aircraft braking systems, use computer controlled valves to limit the pressure
delivered to each slave cylinder. If a wheel locks up, steering input cannot affect the
car's direction. With ABS, no matter how hard the pedal is pressed, each wheel is
prevented from locking up. This prevents skidding (and allows the driver to steer
while panic-braking).
42
As impressive as these advances are, the basic process of converting a vehicle's

momentum into (wasted) heat energy has not changed since the days of the horse and
buggy. To stop a horse drawn carriage, the driver would pull on a lever which would
rub on the wheel. But today, with the advent of regenerating brakes on electric
vehicles, new ways of recapturing this lost energy are being developed. In these types
of electric cars, when you step on the brakes, the motor switches into "generator
mode", and stores the car's momentum as chemical energy in the battery, to be used
again when the light turns green!
Disc Brakes
Disc brakes use a clamping action to produce friction between the "rotor" and the
"pads" mounted in the "caliper" attached to the suspension members. Inside the
calipers, pistons press against the pads due to pressure generated in the master
cylinder. The pads then rub against the rotor, slowing the vehicle. Disc brakes work
using much the same basic principle as the brakes on a bicycle; as the caliper pinches
the wheel with pads on both sides, it slows the bicycle. Disc brakes offer higher
performance braking, simpler design, lighter weight, and better resistance to water
interference than drum brakes.
Disc brakes, like many automotive innovations, were originally developed for auto
racing, but are now standard equipment on virtually every car made. On most cars, the
front brakes are of the disc type, and the rear brakes are of the "drum" type. Drum
brakes use two semi-circular shoes to press outward against the inner surfaces of a
steel drum. Older cars often had drum brakes on all four wheels, and many new cars
now have 4-wheel disc brakes.
Floating-caliper disc brake
"Floating caliper" disc brakes, the most common variety, allow the caliper to move
from side to side slightly when the brakes are applied. This is because only one pad
moves (in relation to the caliper). Some calipers contain two or four seperate pistons.
43
These calipers are fixed in place; i.e., there is no lateral movement like the floating
caliper, the pistons take up the slack on each side of the rotor. These are called "dual
cylinder" or "dual piston" calipers, and are standard equipment on many performance
cars.
Because disc brakes can fling off water more easily than drum brakes, they work
much better in wet conditions. This is not to say that water does not affect them, it
definitely does. If you splash through a puddle and then try to apply the brakes, your
brakes may not work at all for a few seconds! Disc brakes also allow better airflow
cooling, which also increases their effectiveness. Some high performance disc brakes
have drilled or slotted holes through the face of the rotor, which helps to prevent the
pads from "glazing" (becoming hardened due to heat). Disc brakes were introduced as
standard equipment on most cars in the early seventies.
Drum brakes
The brake drum is a heavy flat-topped cylinder, which is sandwiched between the
wheel rim and the wheel hub. The inside surface of the drum is acted upon by the
linings of the brake shoes. When the brakes are applied, the brake shoes are forced
into contact with the inside surface of the brake drums to slow the rotation of the
wheels.
The drums are usually covered with fins on their outer surfaces to increase cooling.
They are not cooled internally, because water could enter through the air vent cooling
holes and braking would then be greatly impaired.
Drum Brake
Drum brakes are found on the rear wheels of most older cars, but they are increasingly
being fazed out in favor of rear disc brakes. Drum brakes were standard equipment on
all four wheels of most cars until the early 70's.
44
Brake cylinders, also called the "slave" cylinders, are cylinders in which movable
piston(s) convert hydraulic brake fluid pressure into mechanical force. Hydraulic
pressure against the piston(s) within the wheel cylinder forces the brake shoes or pads
against the machined surfaces of the drum or rotor. There is one cylinder (or more in
some systems) for each wheel. Drum brake wheel cylinders are usually made up of a
cylindrical casting, an internal compression spring, two pistons, two rubber cups or
seals, and two rubber boots to prevent entry of dirt and water. This type of wheel
cylinder is fitted with push rods that extend from the outer side of each piston through
a rubber boot, where they bear against the brake shoes. In disc brakes, the wheel
cylinder is built into the caliper. All wheel cylinders have bleeder screws (or bleeder
valves) to allow the system to be purged of air bubbles.
As the brake pedal is depressed, it moves pistons within the master cylinder,
pressurizing the brake fluid in the brake lines and slave cylinders at each wheel. The
fluid pressure causes the wheel cylinders' pistons to move, which forces the shoes or
pads against the brake drums or rotors. Drum brakes use return springs to pull the
pistons back away from the drum when the pressure is released. On disc brakes, the
calipers' piston seals are designed to retract the piston slightly, thus allowing the pads
to clear the rotor and thereby reduce rolling friction.
Parking (Emergency) Brakes
The parking brake (sometimes called the emergency brake) is a cable-activated

system used to hold the brakes continuously in the applied position. The parking
brake activates the brakes on the rear wheels. Instead of hydraulic pressure, a cable
(mechanical) linkage is used to engage the brake shoes or discs. When the parking-
brake pedal is pressed (or, in many cars, a hand lever is pulled), a steel cable draws
the brake shoes or pads firmly against the drums or rotors. The release lever or button
slackens the cables and disengages the brake shoes. The parking brake is self
adjusting on most systems. An automatic adjuster compensates for lining (brake shoe)
wear. On many cars, the parking brake is used to re-adjust the brake shoes as they
wear in, or when the shoes are replaced. In these systems, the adjustment is made by
repeatedly applying the parking brake while backing up.
The parking brake can be useful while driving up hills: If you're driving a manual
transmission car, and you pull up to a stop on an incline, you might notice that you
don't have enough feet to operate the clutch, brake, and gas at the same time. In other
words, you will likely roll backwards slightly while getting started again. If a
someone pulls up right behind you, this can be a problem. Your parking brake is
useful in this situation: Apply the parking brake after you stop. When you want to go,
release the clutch while pressing the gas, and release the parking brake. This keeps
you from having to quickly switch your left foot from the brake to the clutch, or your
right foot from the brake to the gas pedal. A little practice, and you'll be able to do it
smoothly. Also, remember if you pull up behind someone who is stopped on a hill,
give them extra room to roll back a little. Especially if it's a truck.
Some cars have no parking brake release! They automatically release the parking
brake when the car is placed in drive or reverse.
45
Master Cylinder
The master cylinder displaces hydraulic pressure to the rest of the brake system. It
holds the most important fluid in your car, the brake fluid. It actually controls two
seperate subsystems which are jointly activated by the brake pedal. This is done so
that in case a major leak occurs in one system, the other will still function. The two
systems may be supplied by seperate fluid reservoirs, or they may be supplied by a
common reservoir. Some brake subsystems are divided front/rear and some are
diagonally separated. When you press the brake pedal, a push rod connected to the
pedal moves the "primary piston" forward inside the master cylinder. The primary
piston activates one of the two subsystems. The hydraulic pressure created, and the
force of the primary piston spring, moves the secondary piston forward. When the
forward movement of the pistons causes their primary cups to cover the bypass holes,
hydraulic pressure builds up and is transmitted to the wheel cylinders. When the brake
pedal retracts, the pistons allow fluid from the reservoir(s) to refill the chamber if
needed.
Brakes master Cylinder.
Power Brakes
Power brakes (also called "power assisted" brakes) are designed to use the power of
the engine and/or battery to enhance braking power. The four most common types of
power brakes are: vacuum suspended; air suspended; hydraulic booster, and electro-
hydraulic booster. Most cars use vacuum suspended units (vacuum boosters), which
employ a vacuum-powered booster device to provide added thrust to the foot pressure
applied.
In a vacuum booster type system, pressure on the brake pedal pushes forward a
pushrod connected to the pistons within the master cylinder. At the same time, the
pushrod opens the vacuum-control valve so that it closes the vacuum port and seals
off the forward half of the booster unit. The engine vacuum line then creates a low-
46
pressure vacuum chamber. Atmospheric pressure in the control chamber then pushes
against the diaphragm. The pressure on the diaphragm forces it forward, supplying
pressure on the master cylinder pistons.
Hydraulic booster systems usually tap into the power steering pump's pressure, and
use this power to augment pressure to the master cylinder. Electro-hydraulic booster
systems use an electric motor to pressurize a hydraulic system which augments
pressure to the master cylinder. This allows the vehicle to have power assisted brakes
even if the engine quits.
Brake Fluid
Brake fluid is a special liquid for use in hydraulic brake systems, which must meet
highly exact performance specifications. It is designed to be impervious to wide
temperature changes and to not suffer any significant changes in important physical
characteristics such as compressibility over the operating temperature range. The fluid
is designed to not boil, even when exposed to the extreme temperatures of the brakes.
Different types of brake fluid are used in different systems, and should NEVER be
mixed. Most cars use "DOT 3" or "DOT 4" brake fluid. Some newer cars use silicone
brake fluids. These should NEVER be mixed together, because the seals in each car
are designed to work with only their specific fluid types. For example, the mixing of
"Silicone" brake fluid and conventional glycol based DOT 3 or DOT 4 fluids should
be avoided, as the two fluid types are not miscible (they will not mix together). DOT
3 brake fluids and DOT 4 brake fluids can be mixed.
The table below gives some information on boiling points and viscosity of DOT
fluids. Low temperature viscosity is important in brake systems equipped with ABS.
Dry boiling point is the normal boiling point of the brake fluid and wet boiling point
is the equilibrium boiling point of the fluid after it absorbed some moisture.
DOT 3 DOT4 DOT 5
Dry boiling point at 205 230 260

least oC
Wet boiling point 140 155 180
at least oC
Cold Viscosity at - 1500 1800 900
40oC mm2/s
Brake Fluids
47
ABS Systems
Originally developed for aircraft, ABS basically works by limiting the pressure to any
wheel which decelerates too rapidly. This allows maximum stopping force to be
applied without brake lockup (skidding). If standard brakes are applied too hard, the
wheels "lock" or skid, which prevents them from giving directional control. If
directional control (steering) is lost, the vehicle skids in a straight line wherever it is
going. ABS allows the driver to steer during hard braking, which allows you to
control the car much better. In the old days, drivers had to know how to "pump" the
brakes or sense the lockup and release foot pressure in order to prevent skidding. This
meant that if only one wheel lost traction and started to skid, the driver would have to
reduce braking force to prevent a skid. The advantage of ABS is that the brakes on the
wheels with good traction can be used to the fullest possible amount, even if other
wheels lose traction.
In operation, the wheelspeed sensors at each wheel send electronic pulse signals to the
control unit. If wheel lockup (rapid deceleration) is detected during brake application,
the computer signals the valve unit to limit the hydraulic pressure to the wheel
cylinder. This is usually accomplished by diverting the fluid into a small reservoir.
The fluid is later pumped out of the reservoir and returned to the main fluid reservoir
when the brakes are not being applied.
There are four main components to an ABS system:
• Speed sensors
• Valves
• pump
• Controller
The anti-lock braking system needs some way of knowing when a wheel is about to
lock up, and this comes from the speed sensors. The speed sensors, which are located
at each wheel, or in some cases in the differential, provide this information.
There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some
systems, the valve has three positions:
• In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed
right through to the brake.
• In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master
cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further should the driver push
the brake pedal harder.
• In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.
Since the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes, there has to be some way
to put that pressure back. That is what the pump does; when a valve reduces the
pressure in a line, the pump is there to get the pressure back up.
48
The controller is a computer in the car. It watches the speed sensors and controls the
valves.
There are many different variations and control algorithms for ABS systems. One of
the simpler systems works will be discussed.
The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for decelerations
in the wheel that are out of the ordinary. Right before a wheel locks up, it will
experience a rapid deceleration. If left unchecked, the wheel would stop much more
quickly than any car could. It might take a car five seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6
kph) under ideal conditions, but a wheel that locks up could stop spinning in less than
a second.
1. Brakes master cylinder
2. Hydraulic pressure modulator
3. Damper chamber
4. Return pump
5. Engine
6. Accumulator
7. Inlet valves
8. Exhaust Valves
ABS system
The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it reduces
the pressure to that brake until it sees acceleration, then it increases the pressure until
it sees the deceleration again. It can do this very quickly, before the tyre can actually
significantly change speed. The result is that the tyre slows down at the same rate as
the car, with the brakes keeping the tyres very near the point at which they will start to
lock up. This gives the system maximum braking power.
When the ABS system is in operation you will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this
comes from the rapid opening and closing of the valves. Some ABS systems can cycle
up to 15 times per second.
Anti-lock brakes really do help you stop better. They prevent wheels from locking up
and provide the shortest stopping distance on slippery surfaces. But do they really
prevent accidents? This is the true measure of the effectiveness of ABS systems.
The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) has conducted several studies
trying to determine if cars equipped with ABS are involved in more or fewer fatal
accidents. It turns out that in a 1996 study, vehicles equipped with ABS were overall
no less likely to be involved in fatal accidents than vehicles without. The study
actually stated that although cars with ABS were less likely to be involved in
49
accidents fatal to the occupants of other cars, they are more likely to be involved in
accidents fatal to the occupants of the ABS car, especially single-vehicle accidents.
There is much speculation about the reason for this. Some people think that drivers of
ABS-equipped cars use the ABS incorrectly, either by pumping the brakes or by
releasing the brakes when they feel the system pulsing. Some people think that since
ABS allows you to steer during a panic stop, more people run off the road and crash.
Some more recent information may indicate that the accident rate for ABS cars is
improving, but there is still no evidence to show that ABS improves overall safety.
50
5. Steering mechanism and Tyres

Definition and Purpose
The function of Steering system is thought of simply as that of providing means

whereby the driver can place a vehicle as accurately as practicable where is desired to
be on the road, so as to avoid other road users and obstructions. It must also keep the
vehicle stable on course regardless of irregularities in the surface over which the
vehicle is travelling.
When a vehicle is turning, front wheels are not pointing in the same direction as
shown in the figure below.
Illustration of different angles when the wheels turn
For a car to turn smoothly, each wheel must follow a different circle. Since the inside
wheel is following a circle with a smaller radius, it is actually making a tighter turn
than the outside wheel. If you draw a line perpendicular to each wheel, the lines will
intersect at the center point of the turn. The geometry of the steering linkage makes
the inside wheel turn more than the outside wheel.
Main Types of steering wheels
Rack and Pinion
Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming the most common type of steering on

many vehicles. It is actually a pretty simple mechanism. A rack-and-pinion gearset is
enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the rack protruding from the tube. A rod,
called a tie rod, connects to each end of the rack.
The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn the steering wheel,
the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each end of the rack connects to the
steering arm on the spindle. This illustrated on the figure in next page.
51
The rack-and-pinion gearset does two things:
• It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the linear motion
needed to turn the wheels.
• It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels.
Rack and Pinion steering type
On most cars, it takes three to four complete revolutions of the steering wheel to make
the wheels turn from lock to lock (from far left to far right).
The steering ratio is the ratio of how far you turn the steering wheel to how far the
wheels turn. For instance, if one complete revolution (360 degrees) of the steering
wheel results in the wheels of the car turning 20 degrees, then the steering ratio is 360
divided by 20, or 18:1. A higher ratio means that you have to turn the steering wheel
more to get the wheels to turn a given distance. However, less effort is required
because of the higher gear ratio.
Generally, lighter, sportier cars have lower steering ratios than larger cars and trucks.
The lower ratio gives the steering a quicker response - you don't have to turn the
steering wheel as much to get the wheels to turn a given distance - which is a
desirable trait in sports cars. These smaller cars are light enough that even with the
lower ratio, the effort required to turn the steering wheel is not excessive.
Some cars have variable-ratio steering, which uses a rack-and-pinion gearset that has
a different tooth pitch (number of teeth per cm) in the center than it has on the outside.
This makes the car respond quickly when starting a turn (the rack is near the center),
and also reduces effort near the wheel's turning limits.
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Recirculating-ball steering
Recirculating-ball steering is used on many trucks and SUVs today. The linkage that
turns the wheels is slightly different than on a rack-and-pinion system.
Recirculating-ball Steering System
The recirculating-ball steering gear contains a worm gear. You can image the gear in
two parts. The first part is a block of metal with a threaded hole in it. This block has
gear teeth cut into the outside of it, which engage a gear that moves the pitman arm
(see diagram above). The steering wheel connects to a threaded rod, similar to a bolt,
that sticks into the hole in the block. When the steering wheel turns, it turns the bolt.
Instead of twisting further into the block the way a regular bolt would, this bolt is held
fixed so that when it spins, it moves the block, which moves the gear that turns the
wheels.
Recirculating-ball gearbox
53
Instead of the bolt directly engaging the threads in the block, all of the threads are
filled with ball bearings that recirculate through the gear as it turns. The balls actually
serve two purposes: First, they reduce friction and wear in the gear; second, they
reduce slop in the gear. Slop would be felt when you change the direction of the
steering wheel - without the balls in the steering gear, the teeth would come out of
contact with each other for a moment, making the steering wheel feel loose.
Power Assisted Steering
There are a couple of key components in power steering in addition to the rack-and-
pinion or recirculating-ball mechanism which are the pump and the rotary valve.
When the rack-and-pinion is in a power-steering system, the rack has a slightly
different design.
Rack and pinion power assisted steering
A power-steering system should assist the driver only when he is exerting force on the
steering wheel (such as when starting a turn). When the driver is not exerting force
(such as when driving in a straight line), the system shouldn't provide any assist. The
device that senses the force on the steering wheel is called the rotary valve.
The key to the rotary valve is a torsion bar. The torsion bar is a thin rod of metal that
twists when torque is applied to it. The top of the bar is connected to the steering
wheel, and the bottom of the bar is connected to the pinion or worm gear (which turns
the wheels), so the amount of torque in the torsion bar is equal to the amount of torque
the driver is using to turn the wheels. The more torque the driver uses to turn the
wheels, the more the bar twists.
The input from the steering shaft forms the inner part of a spool-valve assembly. It
also connects to the top end of the torsion bar. The bottom of the torsion bar connects
to the outer part of the spool valve. The torsion bar also turns the output of the
steering gear, connecting to either the pinion gear or the worm gear depending on
which type of steering the car has.
54
As the bar twists, it rotates the inside of the spool valve relative to the outside. Since
the inner part of the spool valve is also connected to the steering shaft (and therefore
to the steering wheel), the amount of rotation between the inner and outer parts of the
spool valve depends on how much torque the driver applies to the steering wheel.
When the steering wheel is not being turned, both hydraulic lines provide the same
amount of pressure to the steering gear. But if the spool valve is turned one way or the
other, ports open up to provide high-pressure fluid to the appropriate line.
The hydraulic power for the steering is provided by a rotary-vane pump (see diagram
below). This pump is driven by the car's engine via a belt and pulley. It contains a set
of retractable vanes that spin inside an oval chamber.
Hydraulic pump
As the vanes spin, they pull hydraulic fluid from the return line at low pressure and
force it into the outlet at high pressure. The amount of flow provided by the pump
depends on the car's engine speed. The pump must be designed to provide adequate
flow when the engine is idling. As a result, the pump moves much more fluid than
necessary when the engine is running at faster speeds.
The pump contains a pressure-relief valve to make sure that the pressure does not get
too high, especially at high engine speeds when so much fluid is being pumped.
Power steering in a recirculating-ball system works similarly to a rack-and-pinion

system. Assist is provided by supplying higher-pressure fluid to one side of the block.
55
Tyres
Their primary function is to provide a comfortable ride by absorbing the high

frequency and low amplitude disturbances generated by its rolling along the road.
Also tyres are subject to great forces during braking, acceleration, steering and so on.
Some design requirements of tyres are as follows:
• Adequate capacity to support both static and dynamic loads

• Ability to withstand centrifugal loading
• Structural Stability
• Reasonable protection against abuse. (side wall strength)
• Cooling to avoid overheating
• Good grip on the road, in both wet and dry conditions
• Light weight to provide good ride, ease of control and fuel economy
• Long life
• Low cost
Tyre construction varies and the main categories are the cross-ply and radial-ply tyres.
Plies are layers of wires and fabric reinforcement. In cross-ply tyres they are set at an
angle of 45o with each alternate layer being orientated in the opposite sense to those
above and below it. Radial-ply tyres tend to be stiffer in resisting loading than cross-
ply tyre. This reduces the under- and over-steering.
Now let say that a tyre provides the following information P235/75 R15 105S. Each
letter and number has a specific meaning which is given below:
o The P designates that the tyre is a passenger vehicle tyre. Some other
designations are LT for light truck, and T for temporary, or spare tyres.
o The 235 is the width of the tyre in millimeters (mm), measured from
sidewall to sidewall. Since this measure is affected by the width of the
rim, the measurement is for the tyre when it is on its intended rim size.
o This number tells you the height of the tyre, from the bead to the top of
the tread. This is described as a percentage of the tyre width. In our
example, the aspect ratio is 75, so the tyre's height is 75 percent of its
width, or 176.25 mm ( .75 x 235 = 176.25 mm). The smaller the aspect
ratio, the wider the tyre in relation to its height.
o The R designates that the tyre was made using radial construction. This is
the most common type of tyre construction. Older tyres were made using
diagonal bias (D) or bias belted (B) construction. A separate note indicates
how many plies make up the sidewall of the tyre and the tread.
o This number specifies, in inches, the wheel rim diameter the tyre is
designed for.
o The load rating is a number that correlates to the maximum rated load for
that tyre. A higher number indicates that the tyre has a higher load
capacity. The rating "105," for example, corresponds to a load capacity of
925kg. A separate note on the tyre indicates the load rating at a given
inflation pressure.See table below
56
o The letter that follows the load rating indicates the maximum speed
allowable for this tyre (as long as the weight is at or below the rated load).
For instance, S indicates that the tyre can handle speeds up to 180km/h.
See table below
Maximum Load-carrying per tyre
Speed Symbols
Additional information can be found on tyres which include:
• Tread Wear: This number comes from testing the tyre in controlled
conditions on a government test track. The higher the number, the longer you
can expect the tread to last. Since no one will drive his or her car on exactly
the same surfaces and at the same speeds as the government test track, the
number is not an accurate indicator of how long your tread will actually last.
It's a good relative measure, however: You can expect a tyre with a larger
number to last longer than one with a smaller number.
57
• Traction: Tyre traction is rated AA, A, B or C, with AA at the top of the

scale. This rating is based on the tyre's ability to stop a car on wet concrete and
asphalt. It does not indicate the tyre's cornering ability.
• Temperature: The tyre temperature ratings are A, B or C. The rating is a
measure of how well the tyre dissipates heat and how well it handles the build-
up of heat. The temperature grade applies to a properly inflated tyre that is not
overloaded. Under-inflation, overloading or excessive speed can lead to more
heat build-up. Excessive heat build-up can cause tyres to wear out faster, or
could even lead to tyre failure.
• If a tyre has MS, M+S, M/S or M&S on it, then it meets the Rubber
Manufacturers Association (RMA) guidelines for a mud and snow tyre. For a
tyre to receive the Mud and Snow designation, it must meet these geometric
requirements
High performance tyres usually have a lower aspect ratio than other tires. This is
because tyres with a lower aspect ratio provide better lateral stability. When a car
goes around a turn lateral forces are generated and the tire must resist these forces.
Tyres with a lower profile have shorter, stiffer sidewalls so they resist cornering
forces better.
Aspect Ratio (low profile to normal tyres)
So low profile tyres provide improved handling and grip and more traction and
braking power. However they provide harsher ride and increased road noise.
Another important aspect of tyres is the tyre pressure which is usually set to 2.1 bar or
30 psi (pounds per square inch). Over-inflation will cause rapid wear of the centre
part of tyre tread, coupled with reduce grip, harsher ride and the danger of shock
damage occurring in the tyre casing. This is known a centre wear.
Shoulder wear (wear on both sides) can occur in tyres if is under-inflated. This will
cause loss of grip and excessive wear, not to mention the danger of sudden tyre failure
due to heat build-up. If wear is on the one side then the camber angle should be
checked or the speed of cornering should be reduced.
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Uneven wear can occur in tyres due to various reasons mainly concerned with
suspension settings such as camber and castor, toe setting, unbalanced wheels and
malfunction in suspensions.
Wear patterns of tyres with different conditions
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6. Suspension Systems
Obviously, if the loads applied to the rolling wheels of a vehicle were transmitted
directly to the chassis, not only would its occupants suffer severely but also its
structure would be subjected to an excessive degree of fatigue loading. The primary
function of the suspension system, therefore, is to isolate the structure, so far as is
practicable, from shock loading and vibration due to irregularities of the road surface.
Secondly, it must do this without impairing the stability, steering or general handling
qualities of the vehicle. The primary requirement is met by the use of flexible
elements and dampers, while the second is achieved by controlling, by the use of
mechanical linkages, the relative motions between the unsprung masses - wheel-and-
axle assemblies - and the sprung mass. These linkages may be either as simple as a
semielliptic spring and shackle or as complex as a double transverse link and anti-roll
bar or some other such combination of mechanisms.
Spring Types
Springs generally reduce the upward acceleration that a vehicle is subjected to. The
force on the spring acts on a small unsprung mass. Since the variations in the spring
force are relatively small, the downward acceleration of the carriage unit supported by
the spring is correspondingly reasonable as compared with that which under the
influence of gravity it would be if there was no spring.
The most common spring types are coil springs, torsion bars and leaf springs. Coil
springs are what most people are familiar with, and are actually coiled torsion bars.
Leaf springs are what you would find on almost all heavy duty vehicles. They look
like layers of metal connected to the axle. The layers are called leaves, hence leaf-
spring.
The torsion bar on its own is a bizarre little mechanism which gives coiled-spring-like
performance based on the twisting properties of a steel bar. It's used in the suspension
of VW Beetles, air-cooled Porsches (356 and 911 until 1989 when they went to
springs), and the rear suspension of small European vehicles amongst other cars.
Torsion bar suspension uses the flexibility of a steel bar or tube, twisting lengthwise
to provide spring action. Instead of the flexing action of a leaf spring, or the
compressing-and-extending action of a coil spring, the torsion bar twists to exert
resistance against up-and-down movement. Two rods of spring steel are used in this
type of suspension. One end of the bar is fixed solidly to a part of the frame behind
the wheel; the other is attached to the lower control arm. As the arm rises and falls
with wheel movement, the bar twists and absorbs more of the road shocks before they
can reach the body of the car. The bar untwists when the pressure is released, just like
a spring rebounding after being compressed.
60
This has the effect of
giving the spring
increasing resistance,
the more it is
compressed
Torsion bars and coil springs
Shock Absorbers (dampers)
In the past, a wide variety of direct and indirect shock absorbing devices were used to
control spring action of passenger cars. Today, direct, double-acting hydraulic shock
absorbers and shock absorber struts have almost universal application.
Typical dampers
The operating principle of direct-acting hydraulic shock absorbers is in forcing fluid

through restricting openings in the valves. This restricted flow serves to slow down
and control rapid movement in the car springs as they react to road irregularities.
Usually, fluid flow through the pistons is controlled by spring-loaded valves.
Hydraulic shock absorber automatically adapt to the severity of the shock. If the axle
moves slowly, resistance to the flow of fluid will be light. If the axle movement is
rapid or violent, the resistance is stronger, since more time is required to force fluid
61
through the openings. By these actions and reactions, the shock absorbers permit a
soft ride over small bumps and provide firm control over spring action for cushioning
large bumps. The double-acting units must be effective in both directions because
spring rebound can be almost as violent as the original action that compressed the
shock absorber.
Suspensions types
There are number of different types of suspension available for both front and rear
axles. The main groupings are dependant and independent suspension types.
PASSIVE SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Front suspension - dependent systems
So-called because the front wheel's suspension systems are physically linked. For
everyday use. There is only one type of dependant system you need to know about. It
is basically a solid bar under the front of the car, kept in place by leaf springs and
shock absorbers. It's still common to find these on trucks. They haven't been used on
mainstream cars for years for three main reasons:
• Because the wheels are physically linked, the beam can be set into oscillation
if one wheel hits a bump and the other does not. It sets up a gyroscopic
torque about the steering axis which starts to turn the axle left-to-right.
Because of the axle's inertia, this in turn feeds back to amplify the original
motion.
• Weight or more specifically unsprung weight. Solid front axles weigh a lot
and need huge springs to keep their wheels on the road.
• You cannot adjust the alignment of wheels on a rigid axis. From the factory,
they are perfectly set, but if the beam gets even slightly distorted, you cannot
adjust the wheels to compensate.
It must be admitted that for off-road use, it probably is pretty good.
Front suspension - independent systems
So-named because the front wheel's suspension systems are independent of each other
(except where joined by an antiroll bar) These came into existance around 1930 and
have been in use in one form or another pretty much ever since then.
MacPherson strut is currently, without doubt, the most widely used front suspension
system in cars of European origin. It is simple. The system basically comprises of a
strut-type spring and shock absorber combo, which pivots on a ball joint on the single,
lower arm. At the top end there is a needle roller bearing. The strut itself is the load-
bearing member in this assembly, with the spring and shock absorber merely
performing their duty as oppose to actually holding the car up. In the rendered image
62
here, you can't see the shock absorber because it is encased in the strut tower, inside
the spring.
Axis of Rotation
Bearing
Coil Spring
Shock Absorber
Spindle
Strut assembly
Pivoting Points
Steering Ball joint

Control Arm
Control Arm Ball joint
MacPherson strut
The steering gear is either connected directly to the lower shock absorber housing, or
to an arm from the front or back of the spindle (in this case). When you steer, it
physically twists the shock absorber housing (and consequently the spring) to turn the
wheel. The spring is seated in a special plate at the top of the assembly which allows
this twisting to take place.
There are many variations to the Mac-Pherson strut and the pictures below illustrate
some. Generally they include greater complexity and the number of control arms is
doubled. The control arms are called wishbones because of their shape. The strut
assembly is separated and there is a damper and a coil spring. The spindle is much
more complex to contract as well.
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Coil spring types
Double wishbone systems (left picture below) rapidly become one of the most
favoured suspension types for new cars as it gives excellent roadholding capabilities
whilst taking up very little room under the car. This allows for smoother lines on the
bodywork, and less intrusion in to the engine bay.
Multi-link is the latest incarnation of the double wishbone system described above.
It's currently being used in the Audi A8 and A4 amongst other cars. The basic
principle of it is the same, but instead of solid upper and lower wishbones, each 'arm'
of the wishbone is a separate item. These are joined at the top and bottom of the
spindle thus forming the wishbone shape. The advantage is that as the spindle turns
for steering, it alters the geometry of the suspension by torquing all four suspension
arms. They have complex pivot systems designed to allow this to happen.
Car manufacturers claim that this system gives even better road-holding properties,
because all the various joints make the suspension almost infinitely adjustable. There
are a few variations on this theme appearing at the moment, with differences in the
numbers of joints, numbers of arms, positioning of the parts etc. But they are all
fundamentally the same.
Double wishbone and multi-link front suspension systems
Rear suspension - dependant systems
Contrary to the front version of this system, many many cars are still designed and
built with dependant (linked) rear suspension systems.
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Solid-axle, leaf-spring
This system was favoured by the Americans for years because it was dead simple and
cheap to build. The ride quality is decidedly questionable though. The drive axle
(purple in this image) is clamped (green) to the leaf springs (red). The shock
absorbers (yellow) are also attached to the clamps. The ends of the leaf springs are
attached directly to the chassis, as are the shock absorbers. Simple, not particularly
elegant, but cheap. The main drawback with this arrangement is the lack of lateral
location for the axle.
Shock Absorbers
Leaf-springs
De-dion Axle
Clamp
Solid rear axle with leaf springs
Solid-axle, coil-spring
This is a variation and update on the system described above. The basic idea is the
same, but the leaf springs have been removed in favour of coil springs and shock
absorbers. Because the leaf springs have been removed, the axle now needs to have
lateral support from a pair control arms. The front ends of these are attached to the
chassis, the rear ends to the axle. A variation on this has the shock absorbers separate
from the springs, allowing much smaller springs. This in turn allows the system to fit
in a smaller area under the car.
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Solid rear axle with coil springs and control arms

There are many other variations to dead axles and are illustrated in the figures below.
4-bay Systems
Beam Axle
Rear suspension - independent systems
It follows, that what can be fitted to the front of a car, can be fitted to the rear to
without the complexities of the steering gear. Simplified versions of all the
independent systems described above can be found on the rear axles of cars. The
multi-link system is currently becoming more and more popular. In advertising, it's
put across as '4-wheel independent suspension'. This means all the wheels are
independently mounted and sprung. There are two schools of thought as to whether
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this system is better or worse for handling than, for example, Macpherson struts and a
twist axle. The drive towards 4-wheel independent suspension is primarily to improve
ride quality without degrading handling.
Other Types of Suspension Systems
Hydrolastic Suspension
The front and rear suspension units have Hydrolastic displacers, one per side. These
are interconnected by a small bore pipe. Each displacer incorporates a rubber spring
(as in the Moulton rubber suspension system), and damping of the system is achieved
by rubber valves. So when a front wheel is deflected, fluid is displaced to the
corresponding suspension unit. That pressurises the interconnecting pipe which in
turn stiffens the rear wheel damping and lowers it. The rubber springs are only
slightly brought into play and the car is effectively kept level and freed from any
tendency to pitch.
Hydragas Suspension
Hydragas is an evolution of Hydrolastic, and essentially, the design and installation of

the system is the same. The difference is in the displacer unit itself. In the older
systems, fluid was used in the displacer units with a rubber spring cushion built-in.
With Hydragas, the rubber spring is removed completely. The fluid still exists but
above the fluid there is now a separating membrane or diaphragm, and above that is a
cylinder or sphere which is charged with nitrogen gas. The nitrogen section is what
has become the spring and damping unit whilst the fluid is still free to run from the
front to the rear units and back.
Displacer units
Hydropneumatic Suspension
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Since the early fifties Citroen have been running a fundamentally different system to
the rest of the auto industry. They call it hydropneumatic and it encompasses features
as diverse as brakes, suspension & steering. As its name may suggest, its core
technology and mainstay of its functionality is hydraulics. Superbly smooth
suspension is provided by the fluid's interaction with a presurised gas.
The system is powered by a large hydraulic pump operated directly by the engine in
much the same way as an alternator or an air conditioner is, and provides fluid to an
"accumulator" at pressure, where it is stored ready to be delivered to servo a system.
Hydropneumatic Suspension
ACTIVE SUSPENSION
Linear Electromagnetic Suspension
The idea is that instead of springs and shock absorbers on each corner of the car, a
single liner electromagnetic motor and power amplifier can be used instead. One of
the big advantages of an electromagnetic approach is speed. The linear
electromagnetic motor responds quickly enough to counter the effects of bumps and
potholes, thus allowing it to perform the actions previously reserved for shock
absorbers.
Linear Electromagnetic Suspension
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In its second mode of operation, the system can be used to counter body roll by
stiffening the suspension in corners. As well as these functions, it can also be used to
raise and lower ride height dynamically. These types of suspension are called active
suspension systems as the act to road anomalies to provide a smoother ride. The main
drawback is that the system cannot compensate for situations beyond its design
parameters.
Anti-roll Bars
Stabilizer bars are part of a car's suspension system. They are sometimes also called
anti-sway bars or anti-roll bars. Their purpose is to try to keep the car's body from
"rolling" in a sharp turn.
Think about what happens to a car in a sharp turn. If you are inside the car, you know
that your body gets pulled toward the outside of the turn. The same thing is happening
to all the parts of the car. So the part of the car on the outside of the turn gets pushed
down toward the road and the part of the car on the inside of the turn rises up. In other
words, the body of the car "rolls" 10 or 20 or 30 degrees toward the outside of the
turn. If you take a turn fast enough, the tires on the inside of the turn actually rise off
the road and the car flips over.
Roll is bad. It tends to put more weight on the outside tires and less weigh on the
inside tires, reducing traction. It also messes up steering. What you would like is for
the body of the car to remain flat through a turn so that the weight stays distributed
evenly on all four tires.
Anti-roll bar
A stabilizer bar tries to keep the car's body flat by moving force from one side of the
body to another. To picture how a stabilizer bar works, imagine a metal rod that is an
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2 to 5 cm in diameter. If your front tires are 1.6 meters apart, make the rod about 1.2
meters long. Attach the rod to the frame of the car in front of the front tires, but attach
it with bushings in such a way that it can rotate. Now attach arms from the rod to the
front suspension member on both sides.
When you go into a turn now, the front suspension member of the outside of the turn
gets pushed upward. The arm of the sway bar gets pushed upward, and this applies
torsion to the rod. The torsion them moves the arm at the other end of the rod, and this
causes the suspension on the other side of the car to compress as well. The car's body
tends to stay flat in the turn.
If you don't have a stabilizer bar, you tend to have a lot of trouble with body roll in a
turn. If you have too much stabilizer bar, you tend to lose independence between the
suspension members on both sides of the car. When one wheel hits a bump, the
stabilizer bar transmits the bump to the other side of the car as well, which is not what
you want. The ideal is to find a setting that reduces body roll but does not hurt the
independence of the tires.
Sprung vs. unsprung weight.
Sprung weight is everything from the springs up, and unsprung weight is everything
from the springs down. Wheels, shock absorbers, springs, and tyres contribute to the
unsprung weight. The car, engine, fluids, passengers, luggage all contribute to the
sprung weight. Reducing unsprung weight is the key to increasing performance of the
car. If you can make the wheels, tyres and swingarms lighter, then the suspension will
spend more time compensating for bumps in the road, and less time compensating for
the mass of the wheels etc.
The greater the unsprung weight, the greater the inertia of the suspension, which will
be unable to respond as quickly to rapid changes in the road surface.
As an added benefit, putting lighter wheels on the car can increase your engine's
apparent power. Why? Well the engine has to turn the gearbox and driveshafts, and at
the end of that, the wheels and tyres. Heavier wheels and tyres require more torque to
get turning, which saps engine power. Lighter wheels and tyres allow more of the
engine's torque to go into getting you going than spinning the wheels. That's why
sports cars have carbon fibre driveshafts and ultralight alloy wheels.
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7. Body Equipment and Safety systems
Modern vehicles are loaded with extras and accessories so as to provide the occupants
with greater degree of comfort, pleasure and safety. This chapter will list the main
component terminology and will provide some information of how the safety systems
work.
Vehicle body components
8
10
2
1. Body
2. Front fender
3. Front section
4. Bonnet
5. Front floor section
6. Rear floor section
7. Body side including rear fender
8. Firewall
9. Roof section
10. Wheel housing
11. Doors
12. Trunk lid (Boot lid)
13. Bumpers (not shown in the picture)
Interior Equipment
The major interior equipment found in all vehicles is the seats, door panels, dashboard
assembly, instruments, switches, etc. Some of these are illustrated below:
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Front Seat Door panel
Dashboard assembly Steering Switches
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It is obvious that each component is further divided into many smaller parts. For
example the dashboard has many components such as the air outlets (2, 11, 12, 13),
the glove compartment (17), covers and screws and so many other parts. Off-course
the complexity is increased since the interior dashboard’s and seats’ colour differs so
as to suit the customer choice, preference and individual taste. This increases the
number of parts dramatically.
Safety Systems
Seat Belts
According to a recent research report from seatbelts save 13,000 lives in the United
States each year. Meanwhile, estimates reveal that 7,000 U.S. car accident fatalities
would have been avoided if the victims had been wearing belts. While seatbelts do
occasionally contribute to serious injury or death, nearly all safety experts agree that
buckling up dramatically increases your chances of surviving an accident. Seatbelts
reduce the risk of death for a front seat car occupant by about 50 percent.
The basic idea of a seatbelt is very simple: It keeps you from flying through the
windshield or hurdling toward the dashboard when your car comes to an abrupt stop.
Inertia is an object's tendency to keep moving until something else works against this
motion. To put it another way, inertia is every object's resistance to changing its speed
and direction of travel. Things naturally want to keep going.
If a car is speeding along at 50 miles per hour, inertia wants to keep it going 50 mph
in one direction. Air resistance and friction with the road are constantly slowing it
down, but the engine's power compensates for this energy loss.
Anything that is in the car, including the driver and passengers, has its own inertia,
which is separate from the car's inertia. The car accelerates riders to its speed.
Imagine that you're coasting at a steady 50 miles per hour. Your speed and the car's
speed are pretty much equal, so you feel like you and the car are moving as a single
unit.
But if the car were to crash into a telephone pole, it would be obvious that your inertia
and the car's were absolutely independent. The force of the pole would bring the car
to an abrupt stop, but your speed would remain the same. Without a seatbelt, you
would either slam into the steering wheel at 50 miles per hour or go flying through the
windshield at 50 miles per hour. Just as the pole slowed the car down, the dashboard,
windshield or the road would slow you down by exerting a tremendous amount of
force.
It is a given that no matter what happens in a crash, something would have to exert
force on you to slow you down. But depending on where and how the force is applied,
you might be killed instantly or you might walk away from the damage unscathed.
If you hit the windshield with your head, the stopping power is concentrated on one of
the most vulnerable parts of your body. It also stops you very quickly, since the glass
is a hard surface. This can easily kill or severely injure a person.
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A seatbelt applies the stopping force to more durable parts of the body over a longer
period of time. A seatbelt's job is to spread the stopping force across sturdier parts of
your body in order to minimize damage.
A typical seatbelt consists of a lap belt, which rests over your pelvis, and a shoulder
belt, which extends across your chest. The two belt sections are tightly secured to the
frame of the car in order to hold passengers in their seats.
When the belt is worn correctly, it will apply most of the stopping force to the rib
cage and the pelvis, which are relatively sturdy parts of the body. Since the belts
extend across a wide section of your body, the force isn't concentrated in a small area,
so it can't do as much damage. Additionally, the seatbelt webbing is made of more
flexible material than the dashboard or windshield. It stretches a little bit, which
means the stop isn't quite so abrupt. The seatbelt shouldn't give more than a little,
however, or you might bang into the steering wheel or side window. Safe seatbelts
will only let you shift forward slightly.
A car's crumple zones do the real work of softening the blow. Crumple zones are
areas in the front and rear of a car that collapse relatively easily. Instead of the entire
car coming to an abrupt stop when it hits an obstacle, it absorbs some of the impact
force by flattening, like an empty soda can. The car's cabin is much sturdier, so it does
not crumple around the passengers. It continues moving briefly, crushing the front of
the car against the obstacle. Of course, crumple zones will only protect you if you
move with the cab of the car - that is, if you are secured to the seat by your seatbelt.
The simplest sort of seatbelt, found in some roller coasters, consists of a length of
webbing bolted to the body of the vehicle. These belts hold you tightly against the
seat at all times, which is very safe but not particularly comfortable. This is shown in
the figure below.
Seat belt mechanism
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Car seatbelts have the ability to extend and retract so that you can lean forward easily
while the belt stays fairly taut. But in a collision, the belt will suddenly tighten up and
hold you in place.
In a typical seatbelt system, the belt webbing is connected to a retractor mechanism.

The central element in the retractor is a spool, which is attached to one end of the
webbing. Inside the retractor, a spring applies a rotation force, or torque, to the spool.
This works to rotate the spool so it winds up any loose webbing.
When you pull the webbing out, the spool rotates counter-clockwise, which turns the
attached spring in the same direction. Effectively, the rotating spool works to untwist
the spring. The spring wants to return to its original shape, so it resists this twisting
motion. If you release the webbing, the spring will tighten up, rotating the spool
clockwise until there is no more slack in the belt.
The retractor has a locking mechanism that stops the spool from rotating when the car
is involved in a collision. There are two sorts of locking systems in common use
today:
• systems triggered by the car's movement

• systems triggered by the belt's movement
The first sort of system locks the spool when the car rapidly decelerates (when it hits
something, for example). The diagram below shows the simplest version of this
design.
Locking System in Seat belts (Relative to car’s movement)
The second kind of system locks the spool when something jerks the belt webbing.
The activating force in most designs is the speed of the spool rotation. The diagram
shows a common configuration.
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Locking System in Seat belts (Relative to belt’s movement)
In some newer seatbelt systems, a pretensioner also works to tighten the belt webbing.
The idea of a pretensioner is to tighten up any slack in the belt webbing in the event of
a crash. Whereas the conventional locking mechanism in a retractor keeps the belt
from extending any farther, the pretensioner actually pulls in on the belt. This force
helps move the passenger into the optimum crash position in his or her seat.
Pretensioners normally work together with conventional locking mechanisms, not in
place of them.
There are a number of different pretensioner systems on the market. Some

pretensioners pull the entire retractor mechanism backward and some rotate the spool
itself. Generally, pretensioners are wired to the same central control processor that
activates the car's air bags. The processor monitors mechanical or electronic motion
sensors that respond to the sudden deceleration of an impact. When an impact is
detected, the processor activates the pretensioner and then the air bag.
Some pretensioners are built around electric motors or solenoids, but the most popular
designs today use pyrotechnics to pull in the belt webbing. The diagram below shows
a representative model.
The central element in this pretensioner is a chamber of combustible gas. Inside the
chamber, there is a smaller chamber with explosive igniter material. This smaller
chamber is outfitted with two electrodes, which are wired to the central processor.
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When the processor detects a collision, it immediately applies an electrical current

across the electrodes. The spark from the electrodes ignites the igniter material, which
combusts to ignite the gas in the chamber. The burning gas generates a great deal of
outward pressure. The pressure pushes on a piston resting in the chamber, driving it
upward at high speed.
Pretensioner - When the gas is ignited, the pressure pushes the piston up to rotate the
retractor.
In severe crashes, when a car collides with an obstacle at extremely high speed, a
seatbelt can inflict serious damage. As a passenger's inertial speed increases, it takes a
greater force to bring the passenger to a stop. In other words, the faster you're going
on impact, the harder the seatbelt will push on you.
Some seatbelt systems use load limiters to minimize belt-inflicted injury. The basic
idea of a load limiter is to release a little more excess belt webbing when a great deal
of force is applied to the belt. The simplest load limiter is a fold sewn into the belt
webbing. The stitches holding the fold in place are designed to break when a certain
amount of force is applied to the belt. When the stitches come apart, the webbing
unfolds, allowing the belt to extend a little bit more.
More advanced load limiters rely on a torsion bar in the retractor mechanism. A
torsion bar is just a length of metal material that will twist when enough force is
applied to it. In a load limiter, the torsion bar is secured to the locking mechanism on
one end and the rotating spool on the other. In a less severe accident, the torsion bar
will hold its shape, and the spool will lock along with the locking mechanism. But
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when a great deal of force is applied to the webbing (and therefore the spool), the
torsion bar will twist slightly. This allows the webbing to extend a little bit farther.
Airbags or Supplemental Restraint System (SRS)
Air bags have been under development for many years. The attraction of a soft pillow
to land against in a crash must be very strong -- the first patent on an inflatable crash-
landing device for airplanes was filed during World War II! In the 1980s, the first
commercial air bags appeared in automobiles.
Since model year 1998, most new cars have been required to have air bags on both
driver and passenger sides. To date, statistics show that air bags reduce the risk of
dying in a direct frontal crash by about 30 percent. Newer than steering-wheel-
mounted or dashboard-mounted bags, are seat-mounted and door-mounted side air
bags. Having evoked some of the same controversy that surrounded seat-belt use in its
early years, air bags are the subject of serious government and industry research and
tests.
So according to the laws of motion: Moving objects have momentum (the product of
the mass and the velocity of an object). Unless an outside force acts on an object, the
object will continue to move at its present speed and direction. Cars consist of several
objects, including the vehicle itself, loose objects in the car and, of course, passengers.
If these objects are not restrained, they will continue moving at whatever speed the
car is traveling at, even if the car is stopped by a collision.
Stopping an object's momentum requires force acting over a period of time. When a
car crashes, the force required to stop an object is very great because the car's
momentum has changed instantly while the passengers' has not - there is not much
time to work with. The goal of any supplemental restraint system (SRS) is to help stop
the passenger while doing as little damage to him or her as possible.
What an air bag wants to do is to slow the passenger's speed to zero with little or no
damage. The constraints that it has to work within are huge. The air bag has the space
between the passenger and the steering wheel or dash board and a fraction of a second
to work with. Even that tiny amount of space and time is valuable, however, if the
system can slow the passenger evenly rather than forcing an abrupt halt to his or her
motion.
There are three parts to an air bag that help to accomplish this feat:
• The bag itself is made of a thin, nylon fabric, which is folded into the steering
wheel or dashboard or, more recently, the seat or door.
• The sensor is the device that tells the bag to inflate. Inflation happens when
there is a collision force equal to running into a brick wall at 10 to 15 miles
per hour (16 to 24 km per hour). A mechanical switch is flipped when there is
a mass shift that closes an electrical contact, telling the sensors that a crash has
occurred. The sensors receive information from an accelerometer built into a
microchip.
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• The air bag's inflation system reacts sodium azide (NaN3) with potassium
nitrate (KNO3) to produce nitrogen gas. Hot blasts of the nitrogen inflate the
air bag.
The inflation system is not unlike a solid rocket booster (see How Rocket Engines
Work for details). The air bag system ignites a solid propellant, which burns
extremely rapidly to create a large volume of gas to inflate the bag. The bag then
literally bursts from its storage site at up to 200 mph (322 kph) - faster than the blink
of an eye! A second later, the gas quickly dissipates through tiny holes in the bag, thus
deflating the bag so you can move.
The steering Air-bag
Inflator
Even though the whole process happens in only one-twenty-fifth of a second, the
additional time is enough to help prevent serious injury. The powdery substance
released from the air bag is regular cornstarch or talcum powder, which is used by the
air bag manufacturers to keep the bags pliable and lubricated while they're in storage.
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It didn't take long to learn that the force of an air bag can hurt those who are too close
to it. Researchers have determined that the risk zone for driver air bags is the first 2 to
3 inches (5 to 8 cm) of inflation.
Until recently, most of the strides made in auto safety were in front and rear impacts,
even though 40 percent of all serious injuries from accidents are the result of side
impacts, and 30 percent of all accidents are side-impact collisions. Many carmakers
have responded to these statistics (and the resulting new standards) by beefing up
doors, door frames and floor and roof sections. But cars that currently offer side air
bags represent the new wave of occupant protection. Engineers say that designing
effective side air bags is much more difficult than designing front air bags. This is
because much of the energy from a front-impact collision is absorbed by the bumper,
hood and engine, and it takes almost 30 to 40 milliseconds before it reaches the car's
occupant. In a side impact, only a relatively thin door and a few inches separate the
occupant from another vehicle. This means that door-mounted side air bags must
begin deploying in a mere five or six milliseconds.
Volvo engineers experimented with different ways of mounting side air bags and
chose seat-back installation because that protects passengers of all sizes regardless of
how the seat is positioned. This arrangement allows them to place a triggering
mechanical sensor on the sides of the seat cushions under the driver and front
passenger. This prevents the air bag on the undamaged side of the car from inflating.
Installing the entire air bag package in the seat-back also offers the advantage of
preventing unnecessary deployments that might be caused by collisions with
pedestrians or bicycles. It takes a collision of about 12 mph (19 kph) to trigger side air
bags.
BMW engineers have chosen door-mounted air bags. The door has more space,
allowing for a bigger bag that provides more coverage. The head air bag, or Inflatable
Tubular Structure (ITS), was featured in all of BMW's 1999 models (except
convertibles). The head bags look a little like big sausages and, unlike other air bags,
are designed to stay inflated for about five seconds to offer protection against second
or third impacts. Working with the side air bag, the ITS is supposed to offer better
protection in some side collisions.
BMW’s ITS
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All of this makes it pretty clear that the science of air bags is still new and under rapid
development. You can expect many advances in this field as designers come up with
new ideas and learn from real-world crash data.
Inflatable Curtain (IC) covers the entire upper part of a vehicle's side, cushioning the
heads of the driver and all passengers (both front and rear seat occupants) seated next
to the side.
Volvo’s IC
Stored in the head liner above the doors, the cells of the IC are inflated in less than 25
thousands of a second in a triggering accident (four times faster than the blink of an
eye). To avoid stitches from sewing the bag, its cells are woven on the loom directly
from the yarn using one-piece-weaving technology. Therefore the bag can remain
inflated for several seconds, which is imperative in roll-over accidents.
Laboratory tests have shown that the so-called Head Injury Criterion (HIC) can be
reduced by approximately 80%. The Inflatable Curtain was developed in cooperation
with Mercedes and Volvo, who began to introduce it in their cars in 1998.
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Anti-Whiplash Seat (AWS)
AWS is based on a yieldable backrest that will be tilted in a controlled way in a rear-
end collision to absorb energy and reduce the forward rebound of the occupant.
Rear-end collisions are rarely fatal, but they give rise to fully one quarter of all
personal injuries - often with permanent impairment - and to extended sick-leave and
inability to work. In addition to the human suffering, these injuries account in many
countries for more than 50% of all insurance claims and costs for societies for
personal injuries sustained by car occupants.
For front-seat occupants, anti-whiplash system AWS was developed, which has
proven to be very effective in rear-end impact test. In a study by the U.S. Insurance
Institute for Highway Safety, for instance, the Neck-Injury-Criterion (NIC) levels
were reduced by approximately 50%, to levels that are deemed to be safe. These rear-
end crash tests were performed at 15 mph or 24 km/h. Anti-Whiplash Seat (AWS)
was introduced in 1998 by Volvo.
Volvo’s AWS
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CASE STUDY:
The Volvo XC90 sport utility vehicle, is an example of a new
vehicle with many state-of-the-art safety products.
1. On-Call-System
The airbags' electronic control unit automatically calls a Volvo On-Call Emergency
Center after a severe crash and provides the rescue team with the location of the
vehicle from the vehicle's GPS navigation system. This post-crash system can also be
used to trace a stolen vehicle. Introduced in 2000.
2. Steering Wheel
Driver airbags are increasingly being delivered integrated with the steering wheels.
This was started with this concept in 1995.
3. Driver Airbag
Estimated to reduce driver fatalities in frontal crashes by approximately 25% (for
belted drivers). The vehicle's frontal airbags have two stages to adjust the deployment
to the crash severity.
4. Thorax Bags
Estimated to reduce the risk of serious chest injuries in side-impact crashes by
approximately 20%. Introduced by Volvo in 1994, and now available in most cars.
5. Automatic Height Adjuster

(for the front seat belts) Assures that the shoulder belt is correctly positioned to
provide the best possible restraint characteristics for different-sized occupants.
6. Seat Structures
Produced since 1996 in order to develop and promote stronger seat structures.
7. Seat Belt Systems

Estimated to reduce the risk of serious injuries in frontal crashes by 40-50%.
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Produced since 1965. The seat belts in the Volvo XC90 have:
a) Pretensioners that tighten the belt at the onset of a crash, using a small pyrotechnic
charge, so that the restraining of the occupant starts as early as possible. Introduced in
1989.
b) Load Limiters which pay out some seat belt webbing before the load on the
occupant's chest becomes too high. In the front seats where there is a risk of hitting
the steering wheel or the dash board, the excessive energy is instead absorbed more
uniformly by the frontal airbags. The load limiters in the Volvo XC90 are of a new
design with two stages to provide an even load on the occupant's body from the
combined seat belt and airbag system.
8. Passenger Airbag
Estimated to reduce fatalities in frontal crashes by approximately 20% (for belted
occupants).
9. Inflatable Curtain (IC)

Estimated to reduce the risk of life threatening head injuries in side-impact collisions
by more than 50%. It is also very efficient for rollover protection. This was introduced
in 1998.
10. Anti-Whiplash Seat (AWS)

Estimated to reduce the risk of neck injuries in rear-end collisions by more than 50%.
An innovation introduced in 1998 and available in all Volvo cars.
11. Integrated Child Seat

A foldable seat, which makes it possible for children to use the vehicle's seat belt
system, which is more efficient than a separately attached belt.
12. Belt-In-Seat (BIS)

Volvo has developed a unique recliner to allow the shoulder belt to be attached to the
backrest of the seat (instead of the car structure). BIS will be especially effective in
maintaining clearance between the head and the roof in rollovers.
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8. Vehicle manufacture, materials, dimensioning, markets, environment and

legislation
Until the end of the second World War the majority of cars had separate frames
similar to, though of course much smaller than, those now associated with most
modern commercial vehicles. The function of the frame is to carryall the major
components or sub-assemblies making up the complete vehicle - engine, transmission,
suspension, body, etc. In Figure below a fairly early ladder-type frame is illustrated,
but it has been drawn with dissimilar side members, to show two different types of
layout. These side, or main longitudinal, members normally would be virtually
identical, though opposite handed.
Cross section of both the longitudinal and transverse members
• A= straight longitudinal member (easy to manufacture)

• B= cranked inwards member
• C= transverse members
• D & E= suspension linkage points
• F= carry the running boards (i.e. Body sides, engine, etc.)
After the Second World War manufacturer found more practical ways in
manufacturing the vehicle body. They produced a vehicle body that was called
monocoque. This implies that the body of vehicle will include the lower frame, but it
would also include some outer panels which are welded together to provide strength.
It is estimated that 95% of the vehicle manufacturers use this technique today.
85
Steel monocoque construction

However manufacturers seek for newer techniques and nowadays some vehicles are
built based on a technique called spaceframe. It a structural frame with non loading
panels where the body panels are attached on extruded metal structure. This provides
great flexibility in production assembly and choice of materials.
Aluminium spaceframe construction
Automotive manufacturers have tried and are trying to save weight in vehicle
construction and thus they have looked for new materials other than steel. These
newer materials include aluminium and polymers. Such materials have been used
through the years but they were found to be costly and therefore were used only on a
limited number of vehicles such as luxury and sport. Today it is estimated that 76% of
total vehicle production use steel for their body and only 9% aluminium. The rest are
manufactured through polymers. Below are some of the advantages of each material
category.
Steel:
Relatively cheap
Good sheet formability
Strength, stiffness and ductility
Aluminium:
Light weight
Strong and durable
Excellent corrosion resistance
Polymer composites:
Strong, stiff and tough
Light weight
86
The vehicle is measured by length, width and height, by taking the maximum values.
The wheel base is the distance between the centre of front and rear wheel. The track is
the distance between the centre of right and left wheel. Some vehicles have a different
track value for front and rear axles but the majority have the same. Another important
aspect is the ground clearance which is the distance from the lower point at the front
or rear of the vehicle with respect to the lower point of the tyres.
Vehicle dimensions
Now since we have seen the manufacture and materials used on vehicle it is important
to state some of the main factors that influence a vehicles manufacture which are
environment, legislation and markets (or customers).
Environment is widely influenced by motor vehicle. Motor vehicles are the single
largest contributor to urban air pollution. As such air quality improvement
mechanisms necessarily involve control and reduction of emissions from motor
vehicles. In the past 20 odd years, controls on these emissions have been
progressively tightened. Over the last 10 years in particular there have been
improvements in a number of air quality indicators, and it is generally accepted that
the increasing proportion of vehicles meeting tighter emission standards has played a
major part in these air quality improvements. Nevertheless, there is still community
concern over urban air quality and the contribution that motor vehicles make to urban
air pollution. Vehicle noise is identified by the community as a significant
environmental issues associated with vehicle use.
Legislation therefore imposes acts on manufacturers to control vehicles’ emissions

and in some countries limits the importation of large engine vehicles through high
taxation. Another problem that is associated with vehicles is the noise pollution. This
cannot be controlled through manufacturers though.
87
Legislation does not stop into emissions but goes more deeply into the manufacture of
the vehicles and imposes the use of safe materials. For example lead was forbidden in
vehicle manufacture other than batteries. Paints used in the automotive industry are
water-based nowadays. Such acts are not uncommon in the automotive industry and
new acts are coming all the time.
Another important act is the end-of-life derivative, where the manufacturer is

responsible for the vehicles produced at their end of their life. Manufacturers are
imposed to set recycling stations so as to recycle the vehicles they produce. This
means that newer vehicle must be designed for recycling.
So legislation and environment are related in the same ways customers and legislation
are related. Vehicles must be produced so as to provide safety not only to passengers
but to the other road users as well. Pedestrians have to be taken into consideration, so
the body work of a vehicle must not have sharp edges by legislation. Bonnet emblems
are cancelled; engine to bonnet clearance is increased and so on.
Another aspect is the signaling and lighting which differs for example in the US and
in Europe and should be designed according to legislation that each country imposes.
However this does not stop just at lighting but other features must be taken into
account which include acoustic, radio transmitting or any other sort of detail that
differs from country to country.
More to that, customers are giving continually feedback to the manufacturers so as to

produce vehicles will features that suit the customers in each country.
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Frederick University Cyprus

AUTO 101 – Introduction to road vehicles

A road vehicle contains a number of assemblies and sub-assemblies. It uses a

Vehicle Category Descriptions

Mopeds engine displacement up to 49cc (cubic capacity)

Motorcycles engine displacement over 50cc.

3 or 4 wheeled light vehicles Motor tricycles / quadricycles, 3 or 4 wheeled vehicles

Large Vehicles over Maximum Authorised Mass (MAM) 7500kg

Minibuses Vehicles with between 9 and 16 passenger seats

Buses Any bus with more than 16 passenger seats

Engine and Associated Systems

Body equipment (General)

Technical Info of a Road Vehicle

Car Type: Brand, Model

VIN (vehicle Identification Number)

Since 1954, American automobile manufacturers have used a vehicle identification

Example of a VIN number:

XLB 345 21 1 B C 545573

Diagram of a conventional engine

The description of these parts will be given here:

Engine displacement = Volume of cylinder X number of cylinders

A four stroke engine piston

In the great majority of IC engines this is of a double web type as previously

It is now necessary to describe the sequence of operations by which the combustible

Four Stroke Cycle

The four strokes are as follows:

(a) Induction stroke

(b) Compression or working stroke

Compression ratio = (Vswept volume + Vclearence volume)/ Vclearence volume

(c) Combustion or working stroke

(d) Exhaust stroke

Two stroke Engine

Three-port two-stroke engine

Operation of a 3 port 2 stroke engine

NSU Wankel Rotary Engine

Diesel versions were also seen in the market by Rolls-Royce.

Diesel Injection Engines

Turbocharging and Supercharging

Supercharging can used to modify the torque characteristic, generally to help to

The major disadvantage of turbochargers is what is termed as turbocharger lag. This

Why a transmission system is required?

A transmission system is required a number of reason that are going to be analysed

General set-up of a rear wheel drive vehicle

Front wheel drive set-up with longitudinal engine mounting

Front wheel drive set-up with transverse engine mounting

A Porsche 911 with rear engine layout

Four-wheel-drive Transmission sytems

Typically in a four-wheel-drive (4WD) transmission layout (figure below), a transfer

General arrangement of a four-wheel driven chassis

The principal disadvantages are increased weight, bulk and cost.

If a clutch is stripped of all complications such as friction linings and actuation

A simple arrangement of a clutch system

However a much better arrangement is to introduce a third disc which is positioned

Arrangement of a clutch on a vehicle

The pressure plate assembly

Engagement and disengagement of clutch

Spring to isolate shock

Lining to wear out

Friction disc of a clutch system

Another problem sometimes associated with clutches is a worn throw-out (release)

Gearboxes can be classified into three main categories:

Typical 5 speed manual gearbox

RPM at Transmission Output Shaft

Typical gear ratios