Cement and Concrete Composites 95 (2019) 169–182

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Cement and Concrete Composites

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconcomp

Water absorption and electrical resistivity of concrete with recycled T

concrete aggregates and fly ash
Rawaz Kurda, Jorge de Brito∗, José D. Silvestre
CERIS, DECivil, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001, Lisbon, Portugal

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper presents a literature review and experimental results on the effect of high incorporation levels of fly
Fly ash ash (FA) and recycled concrete aggregates (RCA), individually and jointly, on the pore system of concrete that
Concrete remarkably influences its durability. For that purpose, apart from an extensive literature review, three tests were
Durability performed, including electrical resistivity (ER) test, which indirectly measures the interconnected porosity of
Water absorption by immersion and capillarity
concrete, and water absorption (WA) by capillarity and immersion tests that both depend on the pores number
actions
Electrical resistivity
and size but in a different way. A comparison between the experimental results and the literature is also pre-
Recycled aggregates sented to show the main findings and the research needs. The results show that WA increases and ER decreases
with increasing incorporation level of RCA, and the opposite occurs with the addition of FA for both tests. The
reduction percentage of WA was higher in mixes with both RCA and FA when compared to the sum of reductions
in mixes with only RCA or FA. Thus, it is advisable to produce concrete with both mentioned non-traditional
materials in terms of WA and ER of concrete. In addition, the benefit of incorporating of FA and RCA in concrete
increased even more when superplasticizers was used.

1. Introduction According to the standards [5,6], FA can be classified based on its

The consumption of energy and natural resources has exponentially
increased in the construction sector due to the significant increment of
the human population and demand. As a result, the volume of waste has
swiftly increased worldwide. To overcome this situation and as a step
towards environmental sustainability in the construction sector, one
vital step is to use by-products such as supplementary cementitious
materials and recycling aggregates simultaneously.
Based on Freedonia group [1], fifty two billion metric tonnes of
aggregates will be consumed in 2019 worldwide. However, globally,
only 3% of the consumed aggregates are recycled aggregates [2]. Fur-
thermore, the production of cement was four thousand and one hun-
dred million metric tonnes in 2017 worldwide [3]. Furthermore, a
significant amount of by-product materials such as fly ash (FA) is ob-
tained annually from pulverise coal at electrical thermal power plant
(3769 million metric tonnes of coal was consumed in 2017 [4]). As
mentioned before, one alternative to decrease the consumption of
natural resources is to introduce high volume of by-product (e.g. FA)
and recycling aggregates (e.g. recycled concrete aggregates “RCA”) in
concrete instead to sending them to landfill.
CaO content, namely class F (low CaO content) and class C (high SiO2).
However, the most common FA type globally produced in thermal
power plants is class F. Therefore, this study focuses on the mentioned
type. Moreover, the quantity of Ca(OH)2 in RCA can be high due to the
attached mortars [7]. However, the quantity depends on several factors,
e.g. the age of the source concrete when it is crushed, water to binder
ratio (w/b) and size of the aggregates. The variation of the major
chemical composition in each of the mentioned products (RCA and FA)
motivates their joint incorporation to produce a concrete with sufficient
durability, due to pozzolanic reaction that may happen between SiO2 of
FA (§3.1) (§3.1) and CaO of RCA [7].
Since there is a strong relationship between the service life (mea-
sured by durability characteristics) and environmental impact of con-
crete, previous studies have focused on the durability of concrete made
with FA [8–13] or RCA [14–20], and both FA and RCA [21–24].
However, the number of the studies regarding the influence of high
incorporation of both FA and RCA on durability of concrete are very
scarce [25–27]. In addition, there are tests performed to identify the
same durability concept (e.g. water absorption (WA) by immersion and
capillarity) of concrete, but they are quite different regarding their

Acronyms list: FA, fly ash; NA, natural aggregates; w/b, water to binder ratio; RCA, recycled concrete aggregate; SP, superplasticizers; SSD, saturated surface dry;
ER, electrical resistivity; OPC, Ordinary Portland cement; Dnssm, non-steady state chloride migration coefficient of diffusion; WA, water absorption
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: rawaz.kurda@tecnico.ulisboa.pt (R. Kurda), jb@civil.ist.utl.pt (J. de Brito), jose.silvestre@ist.utl.pt (J.D. Silvestre).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.10.004
Received 16 August 2018; Received in revised form 2 October 2018; Accepted 9 October 2018
Available online 12 October 2018
0958-9465/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Kurda et al.
influence on concrete. For example, the WA by immersion mainly de-
pends on the total porosity of concrete, while the capillary absorption is
affected by the diameter of the pores, their connectivity and their tor-
tuosity. Therefore, it is worthwhile to simultaneously consider most of
the factors that explain the pore system of concrete that is neglected in
most of the previous studies, namely the WA by immersion and ca-
pillarity, and also electrical resistivity (ER) of concrete. Also, the re-
lationship between the mentioned characteristics is presented with
other concrete characteristics (saturated surface dry (SSD) density, ul-
trasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and chloride ion penetration resistance)
that were obtained for the same concrete mixes to understand the
global influence of incorporation of FA and RCA on most of the concrete
durability characteristics.
Additionally, the first part of this study is dedicated to the expected
trends (literature review) by considering the results of the previous
studies [8,14–17,20–22,28–51], and then the results of this study (ex-
perimental work) are shown, namely those which are not expected or
not given by the previous studies. With this presenting structure, the
readers can easily see what can be expected from durability of concrete
by incorporating FA and RCA, and also what innovative trends this
study shows.
According to previous studies [52,53], it is demonstrated that the
sum of the decrements in mechanical performance of concrete due to
the individual effects of incorporating FA and RCA are higher than that
of concrete produced with both FA and RCA. Apart from the fact that
some authors believe this may be related to the pozzolanic reaction
between FA and RCA [54], this still may not be the only factor. For
example, for high-strength concrete (e.g. made only with Ordinary
Portland cement “OPC”) the incorporation of RCA significantly de-
creases the mechanical strength of concrete because the ultimate
strength depends on the strength of aggregates, but for low-strength
concrete (e.g. made with OPC and FA), the strength of concrete may not
significantly decrease by incorporating RCA because for low-strength
concrete the ultimate strength depends on the strength of paste rather
than the strength of aggregates. Since the RCA and FA affect the dur-
ability of concrete in different phenomena, the trends mentioned for the
mechanical performance of concrete may not necessarily apply to the
durability of high- and low-strength concrete made with FA and RCA,
especially when joint and individual effects are compared.
2. Methodology and experimental program
As mentioned before, to present the effects of the incorporation of
FA and RCA on the durability of concrete mixes, the results are divided
into two main aspects. First, the expected trends are shown by con-
sidering the results of the previous studies (section 3). Then, the missing
information and the non-expected results from the previous studies are
shown in sections 4, 5 and 6 in terms of WA by immersion and ca-
pillarity, and ER, respectively.
Regarding the experimental program, OPC (CEM I 42.5 R) and FA
(type F) were used as binder. The coarse and fine natural aggregates'
(NA) geological nature are crushed limestone and natural silica, re-
spectively. The fine (WA of 8%) and coarse (WA of 5%) RCA were made
from uncontaminated concrete with compressive strength of 24 MPa
(further details regarding the source concrete were shown in a previous
study [52]). The binder content (OPC and/or FA) of the concrete mixes
was kept constant at 350 kg/m3. Furthermore, the target workability
(S2) was obtained by maintaining the effective w/b. The w/b of the
conventional concrete without (M) and with (Msp) superplasticizers
“SP” (1% of cement's mass) were 0.53 and 0.40, respectively. Ad-
ditionally, twenty eight mixes were obtained with various incorpora-
tion ratios of FA (0–60%) and RCA (0–100%) (Table 1). To understand
the effect of w/b on the pore system of concrete containing FA and/or
RCA, half of the concrete mixes were repeated by using SP. Further
information regarding the methodology and experimental program of
this study (e.g. material properties, experimental design, mixing
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Cement and Concrete Composites 95 (2019) 169–182
procedures and curing methods) can be found in the previous studies
made by the same authors [52,55].
The procedure used in the WA by immersion test complied with the
provisions of specification LNEC E394 [56]. In this study, three 100 mm
cubical specimens per mix were tested at 28, 90, 180 and 365 days.
Regarding the WA by capillarity, the test was performed according to
the methodology indicated in specification LNEC E393 [56]. For each
concrete composition, three cylinders per mix with 150 mm diameter
and 100 mm height were tested, at 28, 90, 180 and 365 days. For the ER
test, cylinders with Ø100 × 50 cm were used in accordance with the
proposed European standard presented by the ChlorTest group [57], as
well as the DURAR manual [58] and technical recommendation TC 154
RILEM [59]. For each of these tests further information is provided in
Supplementary file I.
3. Expected trends
In this section, the effect of incorporation of FA and/or RCA on the
WA by immersion and capillarity and ER of concrete is presented based
on the results of the previous studies [8,14–17,20–22,28–51].
3.1. Effect of incorporating FA according to previous studies
FA is considered a by-product material and it is mostly sourced from
electrical thermal power generation plants. Its particles are usually
spherical in shape and very small in size [60]. These two physical
properties increase the density of concrete because the smaller particles
of FA fill the voids between particles of the other materials used, and
due to their spherical shape less water is required to obtain the target
workability. According to the results of previous studies
[12,13,30,61–72], the major element of FA is SiO2, followed distantly
by Al2O3, Fe2O3 and CaO, and for OPC it is CaO, followed distantly by
SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 (Fig. 1). Apart from the fact that it is expected to
decrease the WA, FA may also decrease the ion penetration due to its
chemical composition, e.g. its richness in Al2O3 (Fig. 1).
Some studies [73–76] investigated the sorptivity of concrete mixes
made with high contents of FA (50–70% of cement's mass), and the
results show a sorptivity decrease of 13–54%. In all studies, the sorp-
tivity of FA concrete significantly deceased over time. On the contrary,
other studies [28–30] using similar content of FA (60% of cement's
mass) found sorptivity increase of 27–61%. This inconsistency (FA in-
creasing sorptivity) may be due to the short curing period of the spe-
cimens [8,77]. Another explanation for this inconsistency may be re-
lated with the size of the pores, where water cannot go through either
because they are very small or too wide.
It is well-known that the WA by immersion of concrete decreases
with the incorporation of low volume of FA due to the mentioned
factors above, namely the size and shape of FA particles. However,
there are no adequate evidences regarding the effect of high volume of
FA on the WA by immersion of concrete. As for the total porosity of
concrete, some studies [29,31,32] incorporated 50–60% of FA and
found increases of 33–38%. Apart from this fact, the mentioned in-
formation may not be reliable because the total porosity results cannot
be compared with the WA by immersion values, due to the fact that the
WA test only measures the volume of the accessible pores and does not
represent total volume of the voids [78].
There is still a lack of research related to the effect of high in-
corporation ratios of FA on the ER of concrete. However, according to
some of the studies [31,33], it can be concluded that a high in-
corporation level of FA increases the ER about 5 times. Moreover, other
studies [8,34] showed that the ER was not significantly changed by the
incorporation of FA. This may be explained by the same fact referred to
for WA by capillarity, namely short curing time.
R. Kurda et al.
Table 1
Mix proportions of the concrete mixes.
RAC (%) Coarse RCA 0 100
Fine RCA 0 50
FA (%) 0 M1 & M1sp M2
30 M4 M5 & M5sp
60 M7 & M7sp M8
3.2. Effect of incorporating RCA according to previous studies
The density, WA, particle shape and chemical composition of RCA
differ from NA due to the attached mortar. The mentioned factors
considerably affect the durability behaviour of concrete, due to the
angular shape and higher WA of RCA compared to NA. Fig. 2 presents
the correlation between density and WA of RCA
[7,16,17,37,44,54,79–115]. The results show that the WA of fine and
coarse RCA is higher than that of the fine (≈1%) [48] and coarse
(0.3–1.67%) NA, and the WA of coarse RCA is lower than that of the
fine RCA. Additionally, the average flakiness index and shape index of
RCA are 8% and 18%, and of the NA are 12% and 13%, respectively
[97,99,103,107,108,112,116].
Previous studies show that the WA by capillarity [14,15,17,35] and
immersion [14–17,36] increased by up to 3 and 1.6 times, respectively,
as the incorporation level of fine RCA increased, due to the higher w/b
of the concrete mixes. In addition, concrete mixes made with fine RCA
of higher WA seem to absorb more water by capillarity than mixes with
fine RCA of lower WA. Similar trends can be seen in concrete mixes
made with coarse RCA, leading to an increase of WA by capillarity
[37,38] and immersion [36,38–42], by up to 1.48 and 1.33 times, re-
spectively. In addition, the capillary absorption of concrete mixes with
fine RCA was higher than that of those made with coarse RCA due to the
difference between their WA (Fig. 2). Opposite to the WA tests of RCA
concrete, studies regarding the ER of RCA concrete are still scarce.
Apart from the w/b [20], the ER may also depend on the aggregate
content, binder type, humidity, and temperature [43]. A few studies
obtained the ER for fine [44] and coarse [45,46] RCA concrete, and
they show that it decreases with incorporation of RCA.
3.3. Effect of incorporating both FA and RCA according to previous studies
As confirmed by other recent review studies [47,48], opposite to the
individual effect of FA and RCA on the WA by immersion and ca-
pillarity, and ER of concrete, studies regarding the combined effect of a
Fig. 1. The main components of OPC and FA. Y ± Y′ value is the average content and standard deviation of the elements in FA.
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Cement and Concrete Composites 95 (2019) 169–182
100 0 50 100
M3 & M3sp M10 & M10sp M11 M12 & M12sp
M6 M13 M14 & M14sp M15
M9 & M9sp M16 & M16sp M17 M18 & M18sp
high volume of the mentioned non-traditional materials are still very
scarce. A study [21] shows that the WA by immersion of fine RCA
concrete can be equivalent to that of conventional concrete by in-
corporating 30–40% of FA, after 28 days. Similar trends can be seen for
the porosity of RCA concrete containing FA [23]. However, other stu-
dies [22,49] found an opposite behaviour. As mentioned above, this
inconsistency in FA concrete may be related to the curing process and
delayed binding action of FA. Additionally, some studies [50,51] show
that the sorptivity of RCA concrete can be offset by incorporating FA.
From the above literature review, it can be concluded that there is
lack of research related to the effect of high incorporation ratios of FA
and RCA on the ER and WA of concrete made with low and high w/b
ratio (with or without SP). Therefore, the following sections mainly
focus on this gap.
4. Water absorption by immersion
WA is a relevant test in terms of concrete durability, since it is an
indirect measurement of the water accessible porosity [117,118]. The
WA by immersion test shows the difference between the mass of SSD
sample and its mass in the dry state. The WA by immersion of concrete
mixes is mainly affected by the factors that control the concrete por-
osity, namely w/b [117].
In this study, the WA by immersion of the concrete mixes was de-
termined at 28, 90, 180 and 365 days (Table 2). Regarding the in-
dividual effects, in summary, the results show that the WA by immer-
sion increased linearly with increasing incorporation level of RCA. The
WA of coarse RCA concrete was lower than that of fine RCA concrete.
Further details were shown in Supplementary file II. The mentioned
facts agree with the conclusions obtained by the previous studies (§3.2).
Contrary to the RCA effect, WA by immersion decreased when the
incorporation level of FA increased. As mentioned above, the number of
evidences regarding this test is very few, but the results agree with the
previous study (§3.1) where the porosity of concrete was obtained. The
results show that the WA by immersion decreased 3% and 15% with
R. Kurda et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 95 (2019) 169–182

Fig. 2. Relationship between WA and particle oven-dried density of (a) fine and (b) coarse RCA.

incorporation of 30% and 60% of FA at 28 days. This is because FA

decreases the water content that is required to achieve the target
workability. As a consequence, the density of the cementitious paste
increased. Another possible explanation for this is the texture and size
of the FA particles, since they fill the voids between particles of the
other materials used [119].
For longer ages, the WA significantly decreased with growing in-
corporation levels of FA, e.g. the WA decreased by about 27–31% and
38–44% when OPC was replaced with 30% and 60% of FA, respec-
tively, at ages from 90 to 365 days (Fig. 3). The observed increase in
pozzolanic activity of FA, especially at longer ages, can explain the
mentioned decrement in WA of the FA concrete because FA decreases
the interconnectivity of the pore structure since it consumes Ca(OH)2
from the cement paste and causes secondary calcium silicate to hydrate.
However, the incorporation of FA may increase the total porosity of
concrete but it reduces the pore refinement/“pore size” [31]. Fig. 3. Effect of the incorporation of FA on the WA by immersion of concrete
Regarding the combined influence of RCA and FA, Fig. 4 shows that over time.
the WA by immersion in most of the RCA concrete mixes containing FA
was higher than that of traditional concrete, at 28 days. However, the If the actual results (experimental) are compared with the expected
opposite can be seen at later ages. These results are likely to be related results (summing the individual effects of introducing of RCA and FA),
with the pozzolanic reaction of FA and RCA [54]. As mentioned in it is clear that the experimental WA by immersion of concrete mixes
another study [55], due to better compactness, the air content of the containing both FA and RCA was significantly lower than the one ex-
fresh concrete decreased when FA and RCA were incorporated in the pected by summing the individual effects of FA and RCA. The men-
same mixes. This secondary factor may also change the WA by im- tioned facts can be clearly seen for concrete made with fine RCA and
mersion of concrete. FA, because fine RCA contains higher old cement content than coarse
Table 3 shows the combined and individual effect of RCA and FA on RCA [120], and helps the SiO2 of FA consume further Ca(OH)2 and
the WA by immersion of the mixes.

Table 2
-WA by immersion of the concrete mixes (%).
Mixes M1 M1sp M2 M3 M3sp M4 M5 M5sp M6 M7 M7sp M8 M9 M9sp

28 days 12.99 8.21 16.34 17.50 14.51 12.66 13.89 8.60 15.29 11.00 6.43 11.72 14.50 11.18
90 days 12.57 8.13 15.78 16.80 14.33 9.24 10.12 7.31 11.11 7.81 4.82 8.30 10.22 8.21
180 days 12.44 8.04 15.59 16.58 14.16 8.78 9.59 6.36 10.52 7.26 4.58 7.68 9.43 7.79
365 days 12.32 8.00 15.41 16.37 14.08 8.51 9.27 6.26 10.17 6.90 4.40 7.27 8.91 7.38
Mixes M10 M10sp M11 M12 M12sp M13 M14 M14sp M15 M16 M16sp M17 M18 M18sp
28 days 15.90 10.20 19.69 21.25 18.02 15.21 16.24 11.70 19.91 13.00 7.90 14.10 16.90 13.10
90 days 15.34 10.05 18.98 20.36 17.71 11.07 11.77 9.83 14.33 9.18 5.85 9.93 11.85 9.56
180 days 15.14 9.94 18.69 20.01 17.45 10.49 11.11 8.50 13.47 8.49 5.55 9.15 10.90 9.02
365 days 14.98 9.89 18.47 19.75 17.33 10.15 10.71 8.37 12.95 8.05 5.27 8.62 10.25 8.97

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Fig. 4. Effect of the incorporation of FA and fine RCA on concrete's WA by immersion with (a) 0% and 30%, (b) 100% and 30%, (c) 100% and 60%, and (d) 100% and
60% of coarse RCA and FA, respectively.

consequently produce hydration products. Furthermore, the best con-
crete mix in terms of the combined effect was the one with high in-
corporation level of FA and 100% RCA with SP. The use of SP is ad-
visable for mixes containing RCA and FA because it causes better
dispersion of their particles and makes them react [121], and decreases
the pore size as a result.
Concerning the influence of w/b on the WA by immersion of con-
crete mixes, Fig. 5 presents the WA by immersion of mixes without SP
versus the corresponding mixes with SP.
Similarly to the mechanical strength of the same concrete mixes
[52], the SP efficiency is more sensitive (its advantage decreases) to the
incorporation of fine RCA regarding WA because the specific surface of
fine RCA is very high. However, the incorporation of coarse RCA seems
not to affect the efficiency of SP because their surface area is much
lower than that of the fine RCA. Furthermore, there is a significant
effect of SP on the WA of some concrete mixes, namely those containing
FA. In other words, a better performance was found by using SP in FA
concrete because it significantly decreases the water content (major
contributor to the porosity of concrete) required to obtain the target
workability, and it also helps the particles of the FA to disperse in the
whole system and fill the voids as a result. This is due to the above-
mentioned factor, namely the dispersion of FA particles. Moreover,
relative to the traditional concrete mixes (Mx), the performance of most
of the mixes (Mxsp) with SP decreased over time. This is because SP
disperses the particles of FA and RCA, which is the main reason to
accelerate the hydration process and decrease the pore size at early age

Table 3
Comparison between the individual and combined effects of RCA and FA on the WA by immersion of concrete.
Mixes Fine RCA (%) FA (%) Coarse RCA (%) SP (%) WA of concrete mixes relative to the reference concretea

28 days 365 days

RCA FA Expected (∑FA + RCA) Experimental RCA FA Expected (∑FA + RCA) Experimental

M5 50 30 0 0 26 −3 23 7 25 −31 −6 −25
M6 100 30 0 0 35 −3 32 18 33 −31 2 −17
M8 50 60 0 0 26 −15 10 −10 25 −44 −19 −41
M9 100 60 0 0 35 −15 19 12 33 −44 −11 −28
M13 0 30 100 0 22 −3 20 17 22 −31 −9 −18
M14 50 30 100 0 52 −3 49 25 50 −31 19 −13
M15 100 30 100 0 64 −3 61 53 60 −31 29 5
M16 0 60 100 0 22 −15 7 0 22 −44 −22 −35
M17 50 60 100 0 52 −15 36 9 50 −44 6 −30
M18 100 60 100 0 64 −15 48 30 60 −44 16 −17
M9sp 100 60 0 1 77 −22 55 36 76 −45 31 −8
M16sp 0 60 100 1 24 −22 3 −4 24 −45 −22 −34
M18sp 100 60 100 1 120 −22 98 60 116 −45 71 12

a
Positive means the WA by immersion increased and negative means the opposite.

173
R. Kurda et al.
Fig. 5. Effect of the incorporation of SP on the WA by immersion of the concrete mixes at (a) 28 and (b) 365 days.
compared with the corresponding concrete without SP. This is clearly
shown in mixes containing both FA and RCA, e.g. M18, because it
promotes the dispersion of the particles of FA and absorbs more Ca
(OH)2 from the RCA and cement particles.
Fig. 6 presents the relationship between the WA by immersion
(current study) and SSD density [122] and UPV [123] of concrete be-
tween 28 and 365 days that was obtained for the same concrete mixes.
The results show a power relationship between WA by immersion
and SSD density with a coefficient of determination of 0.61–0.78, and a
power relationship between WA by immersion and UPV with a coeffi-
cient of determination of 0.72–0.79, between 28 and 365 days (Fig. 6).
Furthermore, the coefficient of determination of the relationship be-
tween WA by immersion and SSD density significantly decreased when
FA was incorporated because of the reaction between FA and RCA at
longer ages. As a result, the density (total mass) of concrete mixes may
not increase over time but the size of pores may significantly decrease
over time due to the hydration products. Hence, both properties may
not increase proportionately with time. Since UPV and WA by immer-
sion of concrete both depend on the total porosity (e.g. paste micro-
structure [124]) and both properties change proportionally over time,
Fig. 6. Relationship between WA by immersion and (a) SSD density, and (b) UPV of the concrete mixes at 28–365 days.
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Cement and Concrete Composites 95 (2019) 169–182
the coefficient of determination slightly decreased when FA was used.
5. Water absorption by capillarity
WA by capillarity is one of the most relevant factors to understand
the durability performance of concrete, since it is subjected to many
aggressive environments that may affect its components due to the
penetrability of the pore system that absorbs water or other liquids by
ascending capillarity. The concept of WA by capillarity is the penetra-
tion of a liquid into a porous solid due to the surface stress of the ca-
pillaries [125]. The WA by capillarity test of concrete allows measuring
its capacity to absorb water through the capillaries because of the
pressure difference between the water surface inside the capillaries and
the air.
In this study, apart from the fact that WA by capillarity obtained for
the concrete mixes at various period of times (10 min–72 h) (Fig. 7), the
evolution over time of the WA by capillarity was obtained by the ad-
justment function given by Halls [126] model (Eq. (1)), in order to
obtain a coefficient that gives a general idea of the WA rate in each mix.
According to Evangelista and de Brito [15] and Cartuxo et al. [14], the
R. Kurda et al.
Fig. 7. WA by capillarity of the reference concrete between 28 and 365 days.
WA by capillarity perfectly adapts to the Hall's formula. Fig. 7 shows
the capillary WA over time of the reference concrete and the adjustment
function given by Hall at ages between 28 and 365 days. The same
graph is drawn for all mixes in Supplementary file III in order to find
the sorptivity of each concrete mix (Table 4).
WAC = A + S⋅t 0.5 − C⋅t (1)
Where, WAc - capillary WA (g/mm2); S - sorptivity (mm/hour0.5); t -
time (hour); and A and C are constants.
As expected from §3.2, the reduction of capillary absorption (e.g.
WA by capillarity at 72 h and sorptivity) of concrete increased over time
as the RCA content increased. This is associated with the factor men-
tioned for WA by immersion (§4), namely the size of pores starts to
decrease over time due to the increased formation of hydration pro-
ducts because of the old mortar attached in RCA. As for the WA by
immersion, after 28 days, the reduction of the capillary absorption of
fine RCA concrete was higher than that of coarse RCA concrete.
Furthermore, the sum of the individual influences of fine and coarse
RCA on the capillary WA of concrete was similar to the influence found
in the mixes with both fine and coarse RCA when only OPC is used as a
binder. Broadly speaking, these results agree with the ones reached for
WA by immersion.
The type of binder significantly affected capillary WA. The capillary
absorption of concrete decreased when cement was replaced with FA
either at early or later ages (Table 4). At early ages, this can be asso-
ciated with the lower amount of water required to obtain the target
slump, resulting in denser concrete [73] and, because of its size, FA
works as filler and reduces the pore sizes and microcracking in the ITZ
[127]. At longer ages, FA decreases the interconnectivity of the pore
structure [31] due to the fact that it consumes Ca(OH)2 from the cement
and causes secondary calcium silicate hydrate. Moreover, the results
show that the sorptivity of concrete mixes decreased as the FA content
increased. However, the findings of the current study are not supported
by some of the previous studies, since there are contradictory conclu-
sions concerning the influence of high incorporation ratios of FA on the
sorptivity. For example, some studies [73–77] agreed with the findings
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Cement and Concrete Composites 95 (2019) 169–182
of this study, while others [28,29,128] argue that the sorptivity of
concrete increased with high volume of FA content. However, it is
difficult to make a comparison and draw conclusions based on those
results, especially when two of the most important factors (concrete
moisture content and room temperature) that affect water absorption
results are not given by the mentioned studies.
Regarding the combined effects of FA and RCA on capillary ab-
sorption of concrete, Fig. 8 shows that the sorptivity of fine RCA con-
crete made with 30–60% of FA is higher (up to 11%) than that of the
reference concrete up to 28 days, after that (at or after 90 days) it re-
markably decreases. Furthermore, the difference between the sorptivity
of the traditional concrete and of FA concrete mixes produced with
100% coarse was not significant at early ages. For later ages, relative to
traditional concrete, the sorptivity decreased up to 27%. Additionally,
for concrete mixes made with 100% coarse RCA and various in-
corporation ratios of fine RCA and FA, the sorptivity decreased at 28
days. After that, the results depended on the incorporation level of RCA
and FA. However, after one year, the sorptivity of all mixes decreased
up to 22%. In addition, the results show that, as the capillary absorption
(at 72 h) increased, the sorptivity of concrete also increased (Table 1).
As for the WA by immersion, the difference between the actual effects
of both FA and RCA in the same concrete and the sum of the positive
effect of FA and negative effect of RCA on the capillary WA were sig-
nificant. In other words, the incorporation of FA that exceed the stan-
dard limit (higher than 55% of cement's mass) in RCA concrete is ad-
visable because, apart from the fact that the particles of FA work as a
filler (fine aggregates) and also decrease the required water needed to
obtain the target workability (further details regarding these two
mentioned factors were shown in a previous study [55] including the
proportions and the properties of the ingredients of the concrete mixes),
many of the particles may work as a pozzolanic binder due to high
amount of the Ca(OH)2 in RCA.
Fig. 9 presents the level between the capillary WA of concrete mixes
with SP and that of the corresponding mixes without SP. Broadly
speaking, the WA by capillarity of concrete decreases with the use of SP
because less water content is needed to obtain the target workability
R. Kurda et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 95 (2019) 169–182

Table 4
Capillary WA, sorptivity, and adjustment parameters of the Hall's capillarity model for each concrete mix.
Age (day) Mixa A ×10−7 S “sorptivity” C ×10−5 R2 WA at 72 h Mixa A ×10−7 S “sorptivity” C ×10−5 R2 WA at 72 h
(×10−3 mm/h0.5) (×10−3 g/mm2) (×10−3 mm/h0.5) (×10−3 g/mm2)

28 M1 0.4 1.37 2.6 0.99 9.7 M10 1.5 1.60 2.7 0.99 11.6
90 F0 0.3 1.29 3.0 0.97 8.8 F0 0.1 1.50 3.4 0.98 10.3
180 C0 −0.4 1.25 2.9 0.98 8.5 C100 2.3 1.46 3.4 0.98 9.9
365 FA0 −0.3 1.24 3.4 0.97 8.1 FA0 3.6 1.44 3.9 0.98 9.4
28 M2 0.6 2.02 3.3 0.98 14.7 M11 1.0 2.25 3.0 0.98 16.9
90 F50 7.8 1.87 3.6 0.98 13.2 F50 1.9 2.10 4.2 0.98 14.8
180 C0 0.3 1.80 3.3 0.98 12.9 C100 2.6 2.01 3.7 0.98 14.4
365 FA0 24.0 1.77 4.1 0.97 12.1 FA0 3.5 1.97 4.5 0.98 13.5
28 M3 28.0 2.15 3.1 0.96 16.0 M12 2.7 2.47 4.0 0.98 18.1
90 F100 4.4 2.00 4.3 0.97 13.9 F100 5.8 2.30 5.4 0.98 15.6
180 C0 −4.9 1.92 3.9 0.97 13.5 C100 4.9 2.21 5.2 0.99 15.0
365 FA30 −7.5 1.89 4.6 0.96 12.7 FA30 −1.3 2.16 5.9 0.99 14.1
28 M4 29.0 1.24 4.3 0.97 7.4 M13 4.4 1.39 3.3 0.99 9.4
90 F0 3.5 1.08 5.0 0.98 5.6 F0 0.6 1.20 4.6 0.98 6.9
180 C0 9.3 0.97 4.3 0.99 5.2 C100 4.0 1.07 3.9 0.99 6.3
365 FA30 −4.2 0.92 4.4 0.99 4.7 FA30 −1.0 1.01 4.1 0.98 5.6
28 M5 −6.0 1.40 0.8 0.99 11.3 M14 1.2 1.55 2.0 0.99 11.7
90 F50 −3.8 1.20 2.5 0.98 8.4 F50 2.6 1.33 3.9 0.98 8.5
180 C0 4.8 1.07 1.8 0.98 7.7 C100 4.8 1.18 3.4 0.98 7.6
365 FA30 4.6 1.01 2.3 0.98 6.9 FA30 −0.3 1.10 3.5 0.98 6.8
28 M6 2.1 1.52 1.4 0.98 11.9 M15 0.2 1.72 1.0 0.98 13.9
90 F100 2.3 1.30 3.4 0.98 8.6 F100 4.5 1.46 3.3 0.98 10.0
180 C0 4.8 1.16 2.7 0.98 7.9 C100 5.9 1.29 2.8 0.98 8.9
365 FA30 −0.2 1.10 3.3 0.98 7.0 FA30 3.8 1.20 3.1 0.98 7.9
28 M7 7.0 1.22 4.6 0.98 7.0 M16 −1.3 1.35 3.7 0.98 8.8
90 F0 −7.5 1.03 5.1 0.98 5.1 F0 4.9 1.18 5.3 0.98 6.2
180 C0 −0.5 0.88 3.8 0.98 4.7 C100 6.6 1.00 4.2 0.98 5.5
365 FA60 4.4 0.81 4.0 0.98 4.0 FA60 0.1 0.90 4.5 0.98 4.4
28 M8 8.6 1.36 4.4 0.98 8.3 M17 −0.3 1.52 3.3 0.98 10.5
90 F50 1.6 1.14 5.4 0.98 5.8 F50 2.4 1.28 4.8 0.99 7.4
180 C0 5.1 0.96 4.0 0.99 5.3 C100 5.4 1.08 3.6 0.99 6.6
365 FA60 6.9 0.87 4.1 0.99 4.5 FA60 4.8 0.97 4.2 0.99 5.2
28 M9 9.3 1.47 3.1 0.99 10.2 M18 2.5 1.68 1.5 0.99 13.2
90 F100 2.7 1.23 4.6 0.98 7.1 F100 −0.8 1.39 3.8 0.98 9.0
180 C0 3.5 1.03 3.4 0.98 6.3 C100 −3.3 1.16 2.5 0.98 8.0
365 FA60 0.6 0.93 3.7 0.98 5.2 FA60 5.6 1.03 3.3 0.98 6.3
28 M1sp −3.5 0.75 1.4 0.97 5.3 M10sp 3.0 0.98 0.5 0.97 8.0
90 F0 4.6 0.69 1.1 0.97 5.1 F0 3.4 0.86 −0.3 0.99 7.5
180 C0 0.6 0.68 1.1 0.97 5.0 C100 −4.1 0.84 −0.2 0.98 7.2
365 FA0 1.1 0.67 1.1 0.98 4.9 FA0 1.5 0.82 −0.1 0.97 7.0
28 M3sp 4.1 1.40 4.1 0.98 8.9 M12sp 2.7 1.72 1.5 0.98 13.5
90 F100 3.7 1.27 3.2 0.98 8.4 F100 2.4 1.56 1.0 0.99 12.5
180 C0 0.6 1.23 3.0 0.97 8.3 C100 2.1 1.52 1.2 0.96 12.0
365 FA60 0.3 1.21 3.0 0.98 8.1 FA60 3.7 1.49 1.2 0.98 11.7
28 M5sp −2.3 1.00 4.8 0.97 5.1 M14sp 5.3 1.30 4.0 0.98 8.1
90 F100 4.8 0.80 3.1 0.99 4.5 F100 1.6 1.00 1.7 0.98 7.3
180 C0 1.8 0.74 2.8 0.97 4.2 C100 2.3 0.91 1.7 0.98 6.5
365 FA30 −1.2 0.70 2.7 0.97 4.0 FA30 1.9 0.85 1.5 0.98 6.1
28 M7sp 0.4 0.75 3.8 0.97 3.7 M16sp 2.4 0.99 5.0 0.98 4.8
90 F0 3.0 0.50 1.4 0.98 3.2 F0 1.3 0.58 1.0 0.98 4.2
180 C0 1.7 0.45 1.2 0.98 3.0 C100 −1.1 0.52 1.0 0.98 3.7
365 FA60 1.9 0.41 1.1 0.98 2.7 FA60 0.7 0.48 0.9 0.97 3.4
28 M9sp 3.2 1.12 5.4 0.97 5.6 M18sp −0.1 1.44 6.4 0.98 7.6
90 F100 4.7 0.62 0.5 0.98 4.9 F100 −3.1 0.70 −0.8 0.99 6.5
180 C0 5.5 0.54 0.4 0.98 4.3 C100 5.4 0.61 −0.7 0.98 5.7
365 FA60 −2.5 0.49 0.4 0.98 3.9 FA60 −4.5 0.54 −0.7 0.98 5.1

a
F - fine RCA%, C - coarse RCA%, FA - fly ash% and SP - superplastisizer.

and resulting decrease of porosity. In other words, the same factors that
affect the WA by immersion “§4” and UPV [123] of the concrete mixes
containing SP can be invoked concerning the WA by capillary. As ex-
pected from other properties of concrete (e.g. WA by immersion “§4”
and compressive strength [52] and UPV [123]), the mixes in-
corporating SP were more sensitive when NA were replaced with RCA
because of the particles’ distribution change caused by the use of SP, as
referred by Mehta and Monteiro [127], which enhance the inter-con-
nectivity of the capillaries [92]. Since SP disperses the particles of FA
and causes the particles to pack competently and effectively fill the
voids between the other particles of the materials used [121], in most
FA concrete mixes the use of SP was found to improve the performance.
However, the use of SP is more effective in concrete with low volume
FA (M5) compared to those with high volume (e.g. M7, M16). Although
in concrete mixes with high incorporation level of FA the SP disperses
their particles, due to the high number of the FA particles, the distance
between cement particles will be significant and the total voids between
the particles will increase. In other words, high incorporation level of
FA decreases the size of the voids but it also increases the number of
voids. Further evidences regarding these phenomena were shown for
the same mixes in a study of Kurda et al. [123].
In terms of the combined effect of FA and RCA in mixes with SP, the
findings of this investigation complement those of previous properties,
namely WA by immersion, i.e. the use of SP in concrete mixes with FA

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Fig. 8. Relative sorptivity of concrete mixes (a) with and (b) without 100% of coarse RCA at 28 days, and (c) with and (d) without 100% of coarse RCA at 365 days.

Fig. 9. Effect of the incorporation of SP on the capillary WA of concrete mixes.

177
R. Kurda et al. Cement and Concrete Composites 95 (2019) 169–182

possible all the time [135].

Fig. 10. Relationship between WA by capillarity and immersion of the concrete
mixes between 28 and 365 days.
and RCA is an added value because it disperses the FA particles in the
mix and they reach more Ca(OH)2 from the RCA's particle and therefore
further pozzolanic reactions develop at early ages. In addition, for some
types of SP, the use of high contents may increase the total air content
of concrete [129] and, consequently the WA of concrete mixes may be
slightly higher than expected due to the air bubbles. However, in this
study, the use of SP did not affect the total air content in most of the
concrete mixes [55].
Fig. 10 presents the relationship between the WA by capillarity
(Table 4) and by immersion (Table 2) between 28 and 365 days. It
shows a linear correlation between them with a high coefficient of
determination between 0.87 and 0.92.
6. Electrical resistivity
Electrical resistance is defined as the ratio between the applied
voltage and the electrical current that flows through a sample. It may
also be defined as the resistance of materials to the electrical current
passage. It is important to know how concrete opposes the flow of
electrical current because it can help to determine the corrosion risk of
the reinforcement. Alonso et al. [130] and report COST-509 [131]
grouped the value of conventional concrete resistivity in four broad
types: < 100, 100–500, 500–1000 and > 1000 Ω m, for which the risk
of corrosion of the reinforcement is high, moderate, low and negligible,
respectively. Apart from the w/b [20], the ER may also depend on the
aggregates content, binder type, humidity, and temperature [43], the
method of measuring the resistivity whether AC or DC [132], frequency
[133] and curing age [132,134]. In this study, the ER of the concrete
specimens was obtained by considering the “bulk electrical resistivity”.
The “surface electrical resistivity” was not used to measure the ER
because some of the specimens contained FA and their surface layer
may be fully carbonated and densified as a result. Therefore, the spe-
cimens may have a higher resistivity than the “bulk electrical re-
sistivity” [59]. Thus, the samples cannot be compared with those
without FA. However, it should be kept in mind that the application of
the “bulk electrical resistivity” is limited for field evaluation because
electrodes access to opposite sides of the concrete element is not
As shown in §3, the number of studies regarding the ER of concrete
mixes containing FA and/or RCA is still limited. Therefore, the effect of
the incorporation of each mentioned non-traditional material on the ER
of concrete is presented next. The average ER of the concrete mixes at
28, 90, 180 and 365 days is presented in Table 5. Generally, the results
show that RCA decreased the ER of concrete and the opposite occurred
for FA.
Similarly to the evidences mentioned for chloride ion penetration
resistance [136] and other concrete properties, namely porosity of
concrete [45] that was obtained for the same concrete mixes, the ER of
the concrete mixes decreased as the replacement level of NA with RCA
increased. As for the chloride ion penetration resistance [136], the ER
of concrete mixes with fine RCA was lower than that of those made with
coarse RCA (Fig. 11). This variability was found to be mainly due to the
fact that coarse RCA (5%) normally exhibited lower WA than fine RCA
(8%) due to higher porosity of the mortar attached to the fine RCA.
Similar results can be seen in Levy and Helene [44] for fine RCA con-
crete and Andreu and Mire [45] for coarse RCA concrete.
The current study found that, after 28 days, the difference between
ER of reference concrete and RCA concrete decreased over time. This is
because the size of pores starts to decrease over time due to the hy-
dration products that increase owing to the old mortar attached in RCA.
The hydration product, and also further pozzolanic capability may be
considered as the main reasons for the increment of the ER over time
(Figs. 11 and 12), since they affect the porosity, pore solution chemistry
and tortuosity of the pore network [133,137]. Furthermore, the sum of
the individual influences of fine and coarse RCA on the ER of concrete
was similar to the influence found in the mixes with both fine and
coarse RCA when only OPC was used as a binder (Fig. 11). Furthermore,
the ER of RCA concrete increased up to 122% and 45% with the use of
SP (1% of cement's weight) at 28 and 365 days, respectively. However,
the risk of corrosion of reinforcement in the OPC concrete mixes (with
or without RCA) still remains in the same classification group (risk of
corrosion of the reinforcement: high, moderate, low and negligible)
mentioned before according to the study of Alonso et al. [130] and
report COST-509 [131].
Fig. 12 shows that the ER of concrete significantly increased for
greater incorporation ratios of FA. This can be explained by the same
factors invoked for chloride ion penetration resistance [136]. The ER
increased about 1, 1.8, 2.2 and 2.4 times when incorporating 30% of
FA, and 1.4, 2.3, 4.0 and 5.1 times when incorporating 60% of FA at 28,
90, 180 and 365 days, respectively (Fig. 12). Due to the chemical
composition of FA (high amount of SO2 and Al2O3, and low CaO content
- Fig. 1), the long-term kinetic reaction of FA alters the original mi-
crostructure formed by cement during the initial stages. FA particles fill
the pores and increase the tortuosity of the capillary network, resulting
in longer paths and smaller pore diameters [138]. The pore diameter
reduction intensifies the interaction between the soluble ions, the par-
ticles, and the hydrates. As a consequence, the ionic mobility in elec-
trolytic solutions decreases [139].
Fig. 13 shows the ER of concrete mixes with various incorporation

Table 5
ER of the concrete mixes at 28, 90, 180 and 365 days (Ω.m).
Mixes M1 M1sp M2 M3 M3sp M4 M5 M5sp M6 M7 M7sp M8 M9 M9sp

28 days 98 220 80 72 142 197 155 381 145 230 633 194 170 460
90 days 147 238 120 110 155 417 330 516 310 490 960 450 421 760
180 days 162 250 134 124 165 521 413 610 400 809 1296 748 715 1050
365 days 170 256 142 132 170 586 465 666 462 1040 1523 970 930 1250
Mixes M10 M10sp M11 M12 M12sp M13 M14 M14sp M15 M16 M16sp M17 M18 M18sp
28 days 88 195 73 66 134 183 145 340 135 210 570 180 165 430
90 days 140 212 112 101 146 390 310 462 290 455 870 435 415 680
180 days 155 225 126 115 156 500 410 580 382 755 1195 725 710 990
365 days 164 232 134 123 161 571 480 654 447 975 1418 940 925 1219

178
R. Kurda et al.
Fig. 11. Effect of incorporation of (a) fine RCA, (b) coarse RCA, and (c) fine RCA plus 100% coarse RCA on the ER of the concrete mixes between 28 and 365 days.
Fig. 12. ER of concrete containing FA at 28–365 days.
ratios of fine RCA (100%, 50% and 0%), coarse RCA (100% and 0%)
and FA (60%, 30% and 0%) either with or without SP. At 28 days, the
corrosion risk of most RCA concrete mixes was high when only OPC was
used and it was moderate when 30–60% of FA was incorporated in the
Fig. 13. Effect of the incorporation level of FA and fine RCA (0%, 50% or 100%, and/or coarse RCA 0 or 100%) on concrete's ER with and without SP at (a) 28 days
and (b) 90–365 days.
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Cement and Concrete Composites 95 (2019) 169–182
mix, either with or without SP. For later ages (90–365 days), the cor-
rosion risk of RCA concrete can be considered moderate when only OPC
was used, either with or without SP. For fine RCA concrete mixes
containing 30% of FA, the corrosion risk was moderate without SP and
low with SP. Moreover, for mixes with 100% of coarse RCA and 30% of
FA, the risk was low after 180 days. For RCA concrete mixes containing
60% of FA, the risk was mostly either low or negligible. Therefore, the
use of FA is notoriously favourable to the increase of RCA concrete's ER.
As stated before, the main use of the ER test is to understand the
corrosion risk of concrete. Moreover, a power regression function was
considered for the relationship between ER (Table 5) and non-steady
state chloride migration coefficient of diffusion “Dnssm” [136] that was
obtained for the same concrete mixes, with a high coefficient of de-
termination from 0.80 to 0.88 for mixes with high and low incorpora-
tion levels of FA regardless of the type of aggregates (Fig. 14).
7. Conclusion
As mentioned above, one of the objectives of this study is to show a
literature review and experimental results on the effect of incorporating
fly ash (FA) and/or recycled concrete aggregates (RCA), on the water
absorption (WA) and electrical resistivity (ER) of concrete. The results
of this experimental study are compared with those of the literature to
highlight the main findings and innovation of this study and identify
R. Kurda et al.
Fig. 14. Relationship between ER and chloride ion penetration resistance with
increasing incorporation levels of FA and RCA, either with or without SP, at
28–365 days.
research needs, as shown below.
• Water absorption by immersion
- After 28 days, the actual reduction percentage of WA when FA is
incorporated in RCA concrete is bigger than the sum of the re-
duction percentages for FA concrete and RCA concrete. Thus, it is
worthwhile in terms of WA to produce concrete with both non-
traditional materials;
- At early ages, namely 28 days, the WA by immersion of most of the
RCA concrete mixes made with either low or high incorporation
ratios of FA was higher than that of the reference concrete. For
longer ages, namely after 90 days, the opposite occurs in most of
the mixes;
- The best concrete mix in terms of the combined effect was the one
with high incorporation level of FA and RCA with SP. The use of
SP is recommended for mixes containing RCA and FA because it
causes better dispersion of their particles and makes them react,
decreasing the pore size as a result. However, further research is
required to conclude this, namely microstructural analysis;
- Similarly to other concrete properties, the SP efficiency regarding
WA is more sensitive (its advantage decreases) to the incorpora-
tion of fine RCA. However, this phenomena cannot be seen for
coarse RCA. Contrary to fine RCA concrete, a better SP efficiency
was found in FA concrete;
- Good correlations were found between WA by immersion and each
related property, namely SSD density and UPV of concrete.
However, the coefficient of determination of the relationship be-
tween WA by immersion and SSD density significantly decreased
when FA was incorporated.
• Water absorption by capillarity and sorptivity
- Regarding the individual effects of FA and RCA, generally, the
results of WA by capillarity (sorptivity) agree with the ones of WA
by immersion. Concerning the combined effects, the difference
between the sorptivity of traditional concrete and of FA concrete
mixes produced with 100% coarse RCA was not significant at early
ages. However, it decreased at later ages. Additionally, for coarse
RCA concrete mixes containing various incorporation levels of fine
RCA and FA, the sorptivity decreased at early ages. After that, the
results depended on the incorporation level of RCA and FA.
However, after one year, the sorptivity of all mixes decreased up to
22% relative to traditional concrete;
- As for the WA by immersion, the difference between the actual
effects of both FA and RCA in the same concrete and the sum of
their effects (positive of FA and negative of RCA) on capillary WA
was significant. In other words, the incorporation of FA that
180
Cement and Concrete Composites 95 (2019) 169–182
exceeds the standard limit (higher than 55% of cement's mass) in
RCA concrete is still advisable, especially when the SP uses;
• Electrical resistivity
- At 28 days, the corrosion risks of most RCA concrete mixes was
high when only OPC was used and it was moderate when 30–60%
FA was incorporated, either with or without SP. For later ages
(90–365 days), the corrosion risks of RCA concrete can be con-
sidered moderate when only OPC was used, either with or without
SP. For fine RCA concrete mixes containing 30% FA, the corrosion
risks was moderate without SP, and low with SP. Moreover, for
mixes with 100% of coarse RCA and 30% FA, the risk was low after
180 days. For RCA concrete mixes containing 60% FA, the risk was
mostly either low or negligible. Therefore, the use of FA is no-
toriously favourable to the increase in RCA concrete's ER. In ad-
dition, a power regression function was considered for the re-
lationship between ER and Dnssm, with a high coefficient of
determination for all concrete mixes.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank CERIS research unit from IST/University of
Lisboa and the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.10.004.
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