STABILIZATION OF BLACK COTTON SOIL WITH GROUNDNUT SHELL ASH

USING BRITISH STANDARD LIGHT COMPACTION ENERGY

BY

ABBAS LAWAL ASHIMIYU

(U07CV1105)

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN

PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG) IN CIVIL ENGINEERING,

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING.

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA.

SUPERVISOR

DR. T.S IJIMDIYA

OCTOBER 2012

1
 DECLARATION

I, Abbas Lawal Ashimiyu do hereby declare that this project is a product of my personal

work under the guidance and supervision of Dr. T.S.Ijimdiya. All authors whose works

served as sources of information for my work have been duly recognized by references to

their work. I remain solely responsible for all view expressed and errors there in.

………………………… …………………………

Abbas Lawal Ashimiyu Date

(U07CV1105)

2
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project “ Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Groundnut

Shell Ash (British Standard Light)” is an original work undertaken by Abbas Lawal

Ashimiyu and has been prepared in accordance with the regulation governing the preparation

and presentation of project in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

………………………………… ………………………

Dr. T.S.IJIMDIYA, DATE.

PROJECT SUPERVISOR

……………………………… ……………………….

Dr. I. ABUBAKAR, DATE.

HEAD OF DEPARTEMENT

3
 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to my good friends and classmates that passed away during the

struggle; Umar Faruk Giza at 100 level, Lukman Sheik at 300 level and Abdullahi Aliyu

Gama during Industrial Attachment (400 level). May Allah, The Almighty have mercy on

them and grant them the paradise of Al-Firdaous. Amin.

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I give praises to Allah, The Most Beneficent, The Most Merciful, for seeing me

through this project, my academic challenges and my entire life in general. I say

“Alhamdulillah rabil alamin”. May His peace and Blessings be upon the noble prophet

Muhammad, his household, disciples and those that follow their path till the day of

accountability.

I express my sincere gratitude to my Parents Alhaji Abbas Lawal and Hajia Zulfa Abbas

for their prayers, moral and financial support in my academics and every ramifications of my

being. “My Lord! bestow on them Your Mercy as they did bring me up when I was young”

Ameen

My sincere appreciation goes to my best brothers, Kamal Lawal and Abdullahi Lawal

for their contributions towards my academic success and also to all the members of my

family; Baraka Lawal, Maryam Lawal and Sekina Lawal. May Allah reward you all

bountifully in this world and the hereafter. Ameen

I wish to express my profound gratitude to Dr. T. S Ijimdiya for his constructive

criticism and jovial attitude; the very effective supervision and direction he provided during

this project. Thank you Sir. May The Almighty bless you and your family. I sincerely

condole you on the loss of your deceased. May his gentle soul rest in perfect peace. Ameen

Significant and assistance information was received from the Technicians of the Civil

Engineering soil laboratory. May Allah richly bless you for the assistance. Ameen

I am also indebted to Prof. K. J Osinubi, Dr A. O Eberemu and Engr. A. A Murana for

their helpful insight and experience in defining the problem and providing focus for this

project. Also to the rest of the lecturers and staffs of Civil Engineering Department.

5
 To my friends and course mates; Big Kay Bee, Rash, KB Isa, KB Abiodun, Ummu

Muaz and the other class members. I wish to thank you for the moral support.

Finally, to my pearl and dearest Khadija Muhammad Murtala. Thank you for your support.

May Allah answer your prayers. Ameen.

6
 ABSTRACT

The study is a potential stabilization of black cotton soils in Gombe state using

Groundnut Shell ash. Index properties of the natural soil showed that, the soil belongs to A-7-

6 in AASHTO classification system and CH in USCS classification system. This indicate a

poor soil for engineering use. Liquid limit and Plasticity index values of 83.36 % and 89.32

% respectively for the natural soil suggest that the soil is highly pastic. There was gradual

decrease in the free swell to a minimum value of 2.91% at 10% GSA as compared to the

natural value of 15.25%. The soaked CBR for the natural soil is 1.67% which increased to

2.17% at 10% GSA. This value fell short of specification requirement of the CBR value to be

used as sub-base or base material. For the electrokinetic test, pH test, considerable increase to

a peak value of 9.2 while the peak CEC is 70.50mol/kg at 0% GSA. The durability of

samples determined in terms of resistance to lost in strength failed to meet the 80% resistance

to loss in strength. This concludes that the groundnut shell ash cannot be used as stabilization

for black cotton soil as stated by Stephen (2006) However, there was increase in strength for

UCS of 21 days curing period from a value of 134kN/m2 as compared to 313kN/m2 for the

unstabilized soil.

7
 ABBREVIATION

AASHTO Association of America State of Highway and Transportation Officials

ASTM American Standard of Testing Material

BCS Black Cotton Soils

BS British Standard

BSL British Standard Light

CBR California Bearing Ratio

CEC Cation Exchange Capacity

GSA Groundnut Shell Ash

LL Liquid Limit

LS Linear Shrinkage

MDD Maximum Dry Density

NAERLS National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services

NCHRP National Co-operative Highway Research Program

OMC Optimum Moisture Content

pH Potential Of Hydrogen

PI Plasticity Index

PL Plastic Limit

SG Specific Gravity

UCS Unconfined Compressive Strength

8
 LIST OF TABLE

Table Page

3a Oxide composition of black cotton soil 9

3b Oxide composition of GSA 18

3.1 Variation of specific gravity with GSA content 20

3.2 Result of Sieve Analysis 21

3.3 Results of hydrometer 21 21

3.4 Variation of Liquid limit with GSA content 23

3.5 Variation of Plastic limit with GSA content 24

3.6 Variation of Plasticity index with GSA content 24

3.7 Variation of Linear shrinkage with GSA content 25

3.8 Variation of OMC with GSA content 27

3.9 Variation of MDD with GSA content 27

3.10 Variation of UCS with GSA content 28

3.11 Variation of Soaked CBR with GSA content 29

3.12 Variation of Unsoaked CBR with GSA content 30

3.13 Variation of Free Swell with GSA content 30

3.14 Variation of CEC with GSA content 32

3.15 Variation of PH with GSA content 32

9
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

4.1 Variation of Specific Gravity with GSA 34

4.2 Particle size distribution curve 35

4.3 Variation of Aterberg limit with GSA 37

4.4 Variation of Free Swell with GSA content 38

4.5 Variation of pH with GSA content 39

4.6 Variation of CEC with GSA content 40

4.7 Variation of OMC with GSA content 41

4.8 Variation of MDD with GSA content 42

4.9 Variation of UCS with GSA content 43

4.10 Variation of Durability with GSA content 44

4.11 Variation of soaked CBR with GSA content 45

4.12 Variation of unsoaked CBR with GSA content 45

10
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page i

Declaration ii

Certification iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgement v

Abstract vii

Abbreviation viii

List of table ix

List of figure x

Table of content xi

Chapter one: Introduction

1.1 Preamble 1

1.2 Justification of the Research 2

1.3 Aim of Research 3

1.4 Objectives of the research 3

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Research 3

Chapter two: Literature Review

2.1 Black cotton soil 5

2.1.1Colouration of Black Cotton Soil 6

2.2 Groundnut 6

2.2.1 Economic and Social Impact of Groundnut 8

2.2.2 Decorticating or Shelling of Groundnut 8

11
2.2.3 Groundnut shell ash (GSA) 8

2.2.4 Uses of Groundnut Shell 9

2.2.5 Groundnut Shell Charcoal Making 9

2.3. Pozzolanas 10

2.4 Soil stabilization 10

2.4.1 Stabilization Mechanism 10

2.4.2 Traditional Stabilizer 11

2.4.3 Electrokinetic Stabilization 14

2.5 Treatment of Expansive Soil 15

Chapter Three: Materials, Methods and Test Result 17

3.1 Materials 17

3.1.1 Black cotton soil 17

3.1.2 Groundnut shell ash 17

3.2 Methods 18

3.2.1 Natural moisture content 19

3.2.2 Specific gravity 19

3.2.3 Particle size distribution 20

3.2.4 Hydrometer 20

3.2.5 Atterberg limits 22

3.2.5.1 Liquid limit 22

3.2.5.2 Plastic limit 23

3.2.5.3 Plasticity Index 24

3.2.5.4 Linear shrinkage 24

12
3.2.6 Compaction tests 25

3.2.6.1 British Standard Light (BSL) 25

3.2.7 Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) 27

3.2.8 Califonia bearing ratio (CBR) 28

3.2.9 Free Swell 30

3.2.10 Cation Exchange capacity (CEC) 31

3.2.11 Potential of Hydrogen (PH) 32

Chapter Four: Discussion of results

4.1 Index properties 33

4.2 Evaluating the effect of groundnut shell ash (GSA) on the black cotton soil 34

4.2.1 Specific gravity 34

4.2.2 Sieve analysis 34

4.2.3 Atterberg limit 35

4.2.3.1 Liquid limit 35

4.2.3.2 Plastic limit 36

4.2.3.3Plasticity index 36

4.2.3.4 Linear shrinkage 37

4.2.4 Free swell 37

4.2.5 Potential of hydrogen (pH) 38

4.2.6 Cation exchange capacity (CEC) 39

4.3 Compaction parameters 40

4.3.1 Optimum moisture content (OMC) 40

4.3.2 Maximum dry density (MDD) 41

13
4.3.3 Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) 42

4.3.4 Durability 43

4.3.5 California bearing ratio (CBR) 44

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendation 26

5.1 Conclusion 46

5.2 Recommendation 47

References 48

CHAPTER ONE

14
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 PREAMBLE

Generally, lands with Black Cotton soils are fertile and very good for agriculture,

horticulture, sericulture and aquaculture. Good irrigation systems exist, rainfall is high and

people are affluent in these areas. Though black cotton soils are very good for agricultural

purposes, they are not so good for laying durable roads. Good road network is a basic

requirement for the all round development of an area. Unfortunately, poor road network is

hampering the full fledged development of the otherwise prosperous areas. (Bhavanna Rao,

2005).

Application of solid waste (Groundnut Shell Ash) disposal for soil stabilization is a

significant which serves various benefits to the environment. The term solid waste includes

all those solid and semi solid materials that are discarded by the community. Improper

management of solid waste causes adverse effects on ecology which may lead to possible

outbreaks of diseases and epidemics. The over dependence on industrially manufactured soil

improving additives (cement, lime etc) have kept the cost of construction of stabilized road

financially high. This hitherto have continued to deter the underdeveloped and poor nations

of the world from providing accessible roads to meet the need of their rural dwellers who

constitute large percentage of their population which are mostly rural farmers. Furthermore,

the World Bank has been expending substantial amount of money on research aimed at

harnessing industrial waste products for further usage. (Oriola and Moses 2010).

Black cotton soils are expansive clays with potential for shrinking or swelling under

changing moisture condition. The soils are formed under conditions of poor drainage from

basic rocks or limestones under alternating wet or dry climatic conditions. They usually

exhibit high shrink-swell characteristics with surface cracks, opening during the dry seasons

15
which are more than 50mm or more wide and several mm deep. These cracks close during

the wet season and an uneven soil surface is produced by irregular swelling and heaving.

Such soils are especially troublesome as pavement sub-grades. (Osinubi, 1997)

Groundnut Shell is an agricultural waste obtained from milling of groundnut. In the

world, the total hectare planted to groundnut is over 20 million hectares per year. It is

estimated that over 2 million hectares are planted on groundnut in Nigeria. Groundnuts are

mostly intercropped. Groundnut contains about 25% Protein and 45 to 50 % oil. The skins are

high in Vitamin B. Groundnut can be decorticated by hand-operated decorticating machine.

(NAERLS, 2009)

In this work, an exercise is done to utilize groundnut shell ash (GSA) to improve the

engineering performance of Black Cotton soil which may be an economical solution of soil

stabilization.

1.2 Justification of the Research

In Nigeria, and the world at large; the cost of constructing stabilized roads is financially

high. This is apparently due to the over dependence on industrially manufactured soil

improving additives (cement, lime etc). The high amount of money spent has continued to

invalidate poor and underdeveloped nations of the world from making accessible roads

available to meet the standard of their rural dwellers that constitute large percentage of their

population. On the other hand, the safe disposal of waste products from industries and

agriculture has been hitherto a challenging issue demanding urgent solution because of the

decline effect of these materials on the environment and the hazardous risk it pose to the

health of humanity.

Thus, it is greatly required to consider the use of agricultural waste (such as Groundnut

Shell Ash- GSA ) in improving the engineering properties of the soil, in this case Black

16
Cotton soil (BCS) when used in road construction will considerably reduce the cost of

construction and as well as eradicate or reduce the environmental and hazardous risk of such

wastes. Hence, this research is justifiable in the use of Groundnut Shell ash to stabilized

Black Cotton soil.

1.3 AIM OF RESEARCH

This research is aimed at evaluating the possibility of utilizing groundnut shell ash

(GSA) in the stabilization of black cotton soils.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

The following objectives are devised for this research work and are summarized below.

- To investigate the pozzolanic properties of Groundnut Shell Ash.

- To examine the physical and engineering properties of black cotton soil treated with

various percentage of Groundnut Shell Ash (0% - 10%) using British Standard Light

compactive effort.

- To contrast between the engineering properties of natural black cotton soil and

engineering properties of the treated soil.

- To investigate the electrokinetic properties of virgin BCS treated with GSA

- To carry out durability and strength assessment tests on natural and treated BCS

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE RESEARCH STUDY

This research is focused on stabilizing black cotton soil treated with various percentage

of Groundnut Shell Ash (0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8% and 10% by dry weight of soil). All these

tests are carried out at their respective Optimum Moisture Content limited to British Standard

Light Compactive effort.

17
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

18
2.1 BLACK COTTON SOIL

The black cotton soils possess low strength and undergo excessive volume changes,

making their use in constructions very difficult. The properties of the black cotton soil may

be altered in many ways viz, mechanical, thermal, chemical and other means. (Bell,1993).

Black cotton soils are expansive clays with potential for shrinking or swelling under changing

moisture condition. These soils cause more damage to structures, particularly light buildings

and pavements, than any other natural hazard, including earthquakes and floods. They are

produced from the breakdown of basic igneous rocks where seasonal variation of weather is

extreme. (Ijimdiya and Osinubi 2011).They are known as Vertisols; Chernozems; Gilgais;

self mulching soils; self swallowing soils; black cotton soils; black cracking clays; vleis and

wadi soils (Greenfield 2004). A small amount of rainfall as little as 6mm can make these soils

impassable to all traffic. The sticky plastic nature of the soils causes them to pack up under

wheels, animals feet, clog cultivation implements, making the clay extremely difficult to

extract or dislodge. (Greenfield 2004).

The black cotton soils also known as "REGOR” soils. The damage caused by these soils

to roads, canals, buildings and other structures is of the order of 2255 million dollars per

annum as estimated by Jones and Holtzs (1973). It was reported that this loss exceeds

combined losses due to floods, hurricanes, earth quakes, tornadoes i.e. natural calamities.

Studies on expansive soils by various research workers are mostly directed towards

understanding the nature and development of swelling pressure. To understand the behavior

of this soil thoroughly, shear strength characteristics are also to be given due importance.

Black cotton soils are poor materials to employ in highway or airfield construction because

they contain high percentages of plastic clay. Consequently, lime and cement has been used

19
to appreciably improve the properties of black cotton soils to make them meet the

requirements for construction works. However, the cost of incorporating the additive is

prohibitive and recent studies have focused on potentially cost effective materials that can

improve the properties of deficient soils. (Osinubi et al., 2008).

2.1.1 COLOURATION IN BLACK COTTON SOIL

The Black soils of the tropics and subtropics have been extensively studied in different

parts of the world, and from the available evidence it appears that even on very different

parent materials, under certain soil-climatic conditions, some similar or common constituents

are probably formed which impact dark or black colour to these soils. Investigations shows

considerable light on the physicochemical and mineralogical properties of these soils, but

very little evidence seems to be available for explaining the causes of their dark or black

colouration. Some said that the black colour formation is an intrinsic property of the mineral

clay which fixes the humus in a certain proportion to form the clay- humus complex which

colours the soils black. It is of the interest to mention here this concluding remarks on the

dark colour of these soils. (Singh 1954)

2.2 GROUNDNUT

Groundnut, or peanut, is commonly called the poor man's nut. Today it is an important

oil seed and food crop. This plant is native to South America and has never been found

uncultivated. The botanical name for groundnut, Arachis hypogaea Linn., is derived from two

Greek words, Arachis meaning a legume and hypogaea meaning below ground, referring to

the formation of pods in the soil. Groundnut is an upright or prostrate annual plant. It is

generally distributed in the tropical, sub-tropical and warm temperate zones. (Nautiyal,

2002).

20
 Groundnuts are not only rich in proteins which are easily digestible and consequently,

a higher biological value, but are also rich in B-complex vitamins. It is an important item in

several confectionery products, and in supplementary feeding programmes such as in

weaning food formulations in combination with cereals and pulses in many developing

countries. Various cultivars of groundnut tested in Andhra Pradesh, southern India have

shown high contents of P and K, possibly due to varietal differences (Pillari et al., 1984). The

principal use of groundnut however, is in the production of oil (Cummings, 1986).

However, production and preservation of this crop is faced by numerous challenges.

Since the pods are located underground, the challenge is the absence of suitable implements

for harvesting. The curing or drying and storage facilities at the farmers` level also contribute

much to the deterioration of seed or kernel quality in storage (Marthur and Jorgensen, 1992).

The seeds are prone to quality and quantity losses during storage due to very serious insect

pest damage especially Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium Everts. The insect was

discovered in stored guinea corn in Nigeria in 1948 and may have been present in stored

groundnuts as early as 1944 (Pasek, 1998). In Nigeria, this insect pest seriously threatens the

sustainability of groundnut preservation. Adults T. granarium are short-lived and do not feed,

but their larvae voraciously feed and cause heavy contamination to the stored product through

mass webbing and frass (insect refuse). It will feed on almost any dried plant or animal

matter, including dog food, dried orange pulp, bread, and dried coconuts (Szito, 2006).

2.2.1 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPACT OF GROUNDNUT

21
 China and India together are the world's leading groundnut producers accounting for

nearly 60 percent of the production and 52 percent of the crop area. India cultivates about

7.74 million hectares and produces 7.61 million tonnes of groundnut with the productivity

level of 991.8 kg ha-1. South Africa is the major producer in Africa, while in Latin America

almost one half of the total groundnut produced in that region may be credited to Argentina.

Among the developing countries, Egypt has the highest productivity and capacity to produce

groundnuts (Nautiyal, 2002)

2.2.2 DECORTICATING OR SHELLING OF GROUNDNUT

Due to the lack of an efficient machine to shell groundnut, small farmers generally

depend upon mouth shelling or employing labour to prepare seed for sowing purpose. This is

a time consuming operation and does not match the shelling requirements within a limited

period of time to retain seed viability. A small machine is required for this purpose, which

may also meet the shelling needs of the farmers for their domestic consumption of kernels.

This can also facilitate the shelling of graded kernels by the farmers instead of pods. Sale of

kernels in graded quality will also fetch them more price for the produce. (Nautiyal, 2002)

2.2.3 GROUNDNUT SHELL ASH (GSA)

Groundnut shell is an agricultural waste obtained from milling of groundnut. Nigeria

contributes about 7 percent of world groundnut production which makes Nigeria the 3rd

largest producer of groundnut in the world. In 2002, about 2,699,000 Mt of groundnut were

produced in about 2,783,000 Hectares of Land. Meanwhile, the ash from groundnut shell has

been categorized under pozzolana (Alabadan et.al, 2006), with about 8.66% Calcium Oxide

(CaO), 1.93% Iron Oxide (Fe2O3), 6.12% Magnesium Oxide (MgO), 15.92% Silicon Oxide

(SiO2), and 6.73% Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3). The utilization of this pozzolana as a

22
replacement for traditional stabilizers will go a long way in actualizing the dreams of most

developing countries of scouting for cheap and readily available construction materials.

Groundnut shell ash has been used in concrete as a partial replacement material for cement

with a measure of success achieved (Alabadan et al., 2005).

2.2.4 USES OF GROUNDNUT SHELL

Of the several million tonnes of groundnut produced each year, hulls form about 25

percent of the total mass produced and their utilization thus becomes very important. At

present in the developing countries the majority of groundnut shells are either burned,

dumped in forest areas or left to deteriorate naturally. Sufficient information is available to

use groundnut shell in cattle feed, as carrier of insecticide, in the manufacture of logs and

production of pulp and as a fibre component in human diet. Shell digestibility is quite low;

research efforts are being directed to improve it as it contains more than 60 percent fibre.

Inoculation and biodegradation of shell have been tried but these efforts have not been

successful (Kerr, et al., 1986). The shell is also used for the production of alpha-cellulose. By

adopting the neutral sulphate method about 40 to 42 percent of unbleached pulp yield on an

average 93 percent of alpha-cellulose from groundnut shell. Finely ground groundnut shells

are often used for polishing tin plate. (Nautiyal 2002)

2.2.5 GROUNDNUT SHELL CHARCOAL MAKING

Charcoal making is based on the principle that groundnut shell can be converted into

charcoal by incomplete burning. Limiting the amount of air used during the burning process

produces incomplete burning. Thus, the quality and quantity of charcoal depend largely on

how well the amount of air is regulated in the charcoal chamber. Groundnut shell can also be

used for preparing activated carbon. (Nautiyal 2002)

23
2.3 POZZOLANAS

Pozzolanas are materials containing reactive silica and/or alumina which on their own

have little or no binding property but, when mixed with lime in the presence of water, will set

and harden like cement.

Of the active oxides, silica is normally considered to be the most important and should

not normally fall below 40 percent of the total; indeed some of the best pozzolanas have silica

contents above 90 percent. Carbon is a common constituents in pozzolanas and its content

should be as low as possible. Plant ashes will often have higher carbon contents, unless the

airflow on combustion is carefully controlled (Haruna 2011).

2.4 SOIL STABILIZATION

Soil stabilization is the alteration of one or more soil properties, by mechanical or

chemical means, to create an improved soil material possessing the desired engineering

properties. Soils may be stabilized to increase strength and durability or to prevent erosion

and dust generation. Regardless of the Purpose for stabilization, the desired result is the

creation of a soil material or soil system that will remain in place under the design use

conditions for the design life of the project. (FM 5-410)

2.4.1 STABILIZATION MECHANISM

The stabilization mechanism may vary widely from the formation of new compounds

binding the finer soil particles to coating particle surfaces by the additive to limit the moisture

sensitivity. Therefore, a basic understanding of the stabilization mechanisms involved with

each additive is required before selecting an effective stabilizer suited for a specific

application. (Dallas and Syam 2009)

24
 Chemical stabilization involves mixing or injecting the soil with chemically active

compounds such as Portland cement, lime, fly ash, calcium or sodium chloride or with

viscoelastic materials such as bitumen. Chemical stabilizers can be broadly divided in to three

groups: Traditional stabilizers such as hydrated lime, Portland cement and Fly ash; Non-

traditional stabilizers comprised of sulfonated oils, ammonium chloride, enzymes, polymers,

and potassium compounds; and By-product stabilizers which include cement kiln dust, lime

kiln dust etc. Among these, the most widely used chemical additives are lime, Portland

cement and fly ash. Although stabilization with fly ash may be more economical when

compared to the other two, the composition of fly ash can be highly variable. (Dallas and

Syam 2009).

2.4.2 TRADITIONAL STABILIZERS

Traditional stabilizers generally rely on pozzolanic reactions and cation exchange to

modify and/or stabilize. Among all traditional stabilizers, lime probably is the most routinely

used. Lime is prepared by decomposing limestone at elevated temperatures. Lime-soil

reactions are complex and primarily involve a two step process. The primary reaction

involves cation exchange and flocculation/agglomeration that bring about rapid textural and

plasticity changes. The altered clay structure, as a result of flocculation of clay particles due

to cation exchange and short-term pozzolanic reactions, results in larger particle agglomerates

and more friable and workable soils. (Dallas and Syam 2009).

Although pozzolanic reaction processes are slow, some amount of pozzolanic strength

gain may occur during the primary reactions, cation exchange and focculation/agglomeration.

Extent of this strength gain may vary with soils depending on differences in their

mineralogical composition. Therefore, mellowing periods, normally about one-day in length

but ranging up to about 4-days, can be prescribed to maximize the effect of short term

25
reactions in reducing plasticity, increasing workability, and providing some initial strength

improvement prior to compaction. The second step, a longer-term pozzolanic based

cementing process among flocculates and agglomerates of particles, results in strength

increase which can be considerable depending on the amount of pozzolanic product that

develops, and this, in turn depends on the reactivity of the soil minerals with the lime or other

additives used in stabilization. (Dallas and Syam 2009).

The pozzolanic reaction process, which can either be modest or quite substantial

depending on the mineralogy of the soil, is a long term process. This is because the process

can continue as long as a sufficiently high pH is maintained to solubilize silicates and

aluminates from the clay matrix, and in some cases from the fine silt soil. These solubilized

silicates and aluminates then react with calcium from the free lime and water to form

calcium-silicate-hydrates and calciumaluminate- hydrates, which are the same type of

compounds that produce strength development in the hydration of Portland cement. However,

the pozzolanic reaction process is not limited to long term effects. The pozzolanic reaction

progresses relatively quickly in some soils depending on the rate of dissolution from the soil

matrix. In fact, physio-chemical changes at the surface of soil particles due to pozzolanic

reactions result in changes in plasticity, which are reflected in textural changes that may be

observed relatively rapidly just as cation exchange reactions are.

Portland cement is comprised of calcium-silicates and calcium-aluminates that hydrate

to form cementitious products. Cement hydration is relatively fast and causes immediate

strength gain in stabilized layers. Therefore, a mellowing period is not typically allowed

between mixing of the components (soil, cement, and water) and compaction. In fact it is

general practice to compact soil cement before or shortly after initial set, usually within about

2 hours. Unless compaction is achieved within this period, traditional compaction energy may

not be capable of developing target density. However, Portland cement has been successfully

26
used in certain situations with extended mellowing periods, well beyond 2 to 4 hours.

Generally, the soil is remixed after the mellowing periods to achieve a homogeneous mixture

before compaction. Although the ultimate strength of a soil cement product with an extended

mellowing period may be lower than one in which compaction is achieved before initial set,

the strength achieved over time in the soil with the extended mellowing period may be

acceptable and the extended mellowing may enhance the ultimate product by producing

improved uniformity. Nevertheless, the conventional practice is to compact soil cement

within 2 hours of initial mixing. During the hydration process, free lime, Ca(OH) 2 is

produced. In fact up to about 25 percent of the cement paste (cement and water mix) on a

weight basis is lime. This free lime in the high pH environment has the ability to react

pozzolanically with soil, just as lime does and this reaction continues as long as the pH is

high enough, generally above about 10.5 (Dallas and Syam 2009).

Fly ash is also generally considered as a traditional stabilizer. While lime and Portland

cement are manufactured materials, fly ash is a by-product from burning coal during power

generation. As with other by-products, the properties of fly ash can vary significantly

depending on the source of the coal and the steps followed in the coal burning process. These

by-products can broadly be classified into class C (self-cementing) and class F (non-self

cementing) fly ash based on AASHTO M 295 (ASTM C 618). Class C fly ash contains a

substantial amount of lime, CaO, but almost all of it is combined with glassy silicates and

aluminates. Therefore upon mixing with water, a hydration reaction similar to that which

occurs in the hydration of Portland cement occurs. As with Portland cement, this hydration

reaction produces free lime. This free lime can react with other unreacted pozzolans, silicates

and aluminates, available within the fly ash to produce a pozzolanic reaction, or the free lime

may react pozzolanically with soil silica and/or alumina. Class F ash, on the other hand,

contains very little lime and the glassy silica and/or alumina exists almost exclusively as

27
pozzolans. Therefore, activation of these pozzolanas requires additives such as Portland

cement or lime, which provide a ready source of free lime. The hydration or “cementitious”

reactions and the pozzolanic reactions that occur when fly ash is blended with water form the

products that bond soil grains or agglomerates together to develop strength within the soil

matrix. As discussed previously, maintenance of a high system pH is required for long term

strength gain in fly ash-soil mixtures.

The kinetics of the cementitious reactions and pozzolanic reactions that occur in fly

ash stabilized soils vary widely depending on the type of ash and its composition. Normally,

class C ashes react rapidly upon hydration. However, class F ashes activated with lime or

even Portland cement produce substantially slower reactions than Portland cement – soil

blends. Generally compaction practice of fly ash - soil blends varies depending on the type of

ash used or whether or not an activator is used, but the standard practice is to compact within

6 hours of initial mixing. (Dallas and Syam 2009).

2.4.3 ELECTROKINETIC STABLIZATION

Electro-kinetic stabilisation is a ground improvement method in which stabilising

agents are induced into soil under direct current. The movement of stabilising agents into soil

masses is governed by the principles of electrokinetics, while the mechanisms of stabilization

can be explained by the principles of chemical stabilisation. When cations are used as

stabilising agents, ions migrate into soils through processes of electro-migration and electro-

osmosis. These ions improve the soil strength by three mechanisms, namely cation exchange,

mineralization and precipitation of species in the pore fluid. (Azhar 2009)

Other effects that are caused by the technique include water movement due to electro-

osmosis, electrolysis, i.e. oxidation and reduction at the anode and cathode respectively, and

soil modification and stabilization. When a direct current is applied to a soil liquid medium,

28
water in the immediate vicinity of the electrodes is electrolysed. Oxidation occurs at the

anode, generating an acid front, while reduction takes place at the cathode, producing an

alkaline front. These reaction cause the pH to decrease at the anode and increase at the

cathode. The development of this pH gradient (known as acid/base profile) and its effects on

the species transport through soil porous medium have been investigated in detail and well

documented by many researchers. (Azhar 2009)

2.5 TREATMENT OF EXPANSIVE SOILS

Many treatment procedures are available for stabilizing expansive soils (Chen, 1988;

Nelson and Miller, 1992). Removal of expansive soil and replacement with a non-expansive

material is a common method of reducing shrink-swell risk. If the expansive soil or stratum is

thin, then the entire layer can be removed. However, frequently the soil or stratum extends to

a depth too great to remove economically. Pre-wetting a site to increase the moisture content

can eliminate an expansive soil problem if the high moisture content can be maintained. Soils

with low hydraulic conductivity may take years to prewet and conversely soils with high

hydraulic conductivity may never sufficiently wet. Lime stabilization has been used

extensively in highway projects. The addition of lime creates several stabilizing reactions.

The solubility of silica is increased in a higher pH environment and silica becomes available

as a cementing agent. The lime also provides a divalent cation that can form Casilicates and

Ca-Al hydrates that increase soil strength. The presence of organics, sulfates, and some iron

compounds can inhibit lime stabilization reactions. Fly ash (product of coal combustion) has

also been used instead of lime as a stabilizing agent. Swell potential of soils has been reduced

in expansive soils; the reduction is attributed to bonding of soil particles to the fly ash

resulting in flocculation (Ferguson, 1993).

29
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS, METHOD AND RESULTS

30
3.1 MATERIALS

3.1.1 BLACK COTTON SOIL

The soil used in this study is a Black Cotton Soil (dark grey in colour) collected from

Baure town in Deba Local Government area of Gombe State in the North Eastern part of

Nigeria. (Deba is located at Latitude 100 13’ N and Longitude 110 23’). The community

called the soil ‘Kasan Kalari’ .

The black cotton soil was collected by method of disturbed sampling after removing the

top soil at 500mm dept and transported in sacks to the laboratory. Little amount of the sample

was sealed in polythene bag for determining its natural moisture content. The soil was air

dried, pulverized and sieved with British Standard Sieve N0. 4 (4.75mm aperture) as required

for laboratory test. (Head 1970)

3.1.2 GROUNDNUT SHELL ASH

The groundnut shell ash used for this research was procured locally from Funtua town

(latitude 110 32’ N, 70 19’ E) of Kastina State, Nigeria. It was also decorticated, ashed in open

air under normal temperature at the same place where it was procured.

The oxide composition of both ash and soil was carried out to fully understand

the pozzolanic behavior of the ash on the soil. The oxide composition test was carried out

using compact Energy Dispersive X- ray spectrometer method (mini pal) at the Centre for

Energy Research and Training (CERT), Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria. Summary

of the result is given in Table 3a for the black cotton soil and Table 3b for the GSA.

Table 3a. Oxide Composition of Black Cotton Soil

Oxide Concentration (%)

Al2O3 20
SiO2 5.2.61

31
 CaO 2.53
Fe2O3 18.53
MnO 0.376
TiO2 2.05
K2O 2.29

Table 3b. Oxide Composition of Groundnut Shell Used

Oxide Concentration (%)

SiO2 26.2
CaO 14.9
Fe2O3 7.3
TiO2 1.23
K2O 41.74

3.2 METHODS

Index tests on the natural and stabilized BC soils were carried out in accordance with the

procedures outlined in BS 1377 (1990) and BS 1924 (1990) respectively, for the stabilized

soil specimens, step percentages of groundnut shell ash by dry weight of soil (0, 2, 4, 6 8 and

10%) was introduced into the soil.

The following test were carried out on the natural and stabilized soils

Compaction test (BSL)

Specific gravity

Atterberg Limit (Liquid limit, Plastic Limit, Linear shrinkage)

Free swell

Unconfined Compressive Strength (7, 14, 28 days curing period)

California Bearing Ratio (soaked and unsoaked)

Cation Exchange Capacity

Particle size distribution/ hydrometer

Potential of Hydrogen (pH)

32
3.2.1 NATURAL MOISTURE CONTENT

All moisture content determination was done by the oven drying method as specified

by the BS 1377 (1990) code. For the determination of natural moisture content, samples were

collected in polythene bag and immediately taken to the laboratory for the test. The water

content is calculated from equation 3.0

m2 – m 3
W= × 100 .................................................................... 3.0
m3−m1

Where m1 = mass of container (g)

m2 = mass of container and wet soil (g)

m3 = mass of container and dry soil (g)

The natural moisture content was determined to be 26.95 %

3.2.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The specific gravity of the soil sample was determined using the density bottle method as

specified by BS 1377 (1990) part 2:8:3. The sieved sample was grouped into approximately

four equal parts. Each part was placed into dried 50cm3 density bottle of known mass (M1) to

the nearest 0.01g. The mass of each bottle with sample inside was measured (M 2) to the

nearest 0.01g. Each bottle was then filled with water and mixed thoroughly removing all air

bubbles. The bottle was weighed to a mass (M 3). Finally each bottle was washed and dried.

Water was introduced and the mass of the bottle with water full taken (M 4). The specific

M 2−M 1
gravity is expressed as Gs =
(M ¿ ¿ 4−M 1 )−(M 3−M 2 )¿
.......................... 3.1

The average of the values was taken for various samples. The variation of specific gravity

with GSA contents is shown in Table 3.1

33
Table 3.1 Variation of specific gravity with GSA content

GSA % 0 2 4 6 8 10
Specific Gravity 2.28 2.26 2.25 2.09 1.95 1.91

3.2.3 Particle size distribution

The particle size distribution of the natural soil was determined using the method

specify by BS 1377 (1990) for cohesive soil. It specifies the use of both sedimentation

analysis and the dry sieving of the coarse fraction. The soil was washed through BS sieve No.

200 and the material retained was oven dried and sieved by agitating the material through a

range of sieves from sieve No.7 (2.4mm aperture) and downwards while the material passing

was turned into a sedimentation cylinder for hydrometer analysis. Table 3.2 shows result of

sieve analysis.

When the black cotton soil was treated with 2 - 12% groundnut shell ash by dry weight

of soil at optimum moisture content (OMC), less than 10% of the material passed through BS

No. 200 sieve, and therefore did not meet the minimum requirement for sedimentation

analysis to be carried out.

3.2.4 Hydrometer analysis

A density hydrometer No. 680102 was used to measure the density of the soil

pretreated with sodium hexametaphosphate at various intervals of time according to the

procedures given in BS 1377 (1990). The hydrometer was calibrated and the calibration

equation obtained as

Hr = 17.67-0.176R

Cm = 0.2 meniscus correction used

34
Where R = hydrometer reading

The particle diameter D (mm) for each reading was obtained from

Hr
D = k1 √ t ( mm ) .............................................................. 3.2

where

Hr = effective depth (mm) corresponding to each value of Rh

Kr = values of a range working temperature and particle densities

Table 3.3 shows the result of hydrometer/sedimentation

Table 3.2 Result of sieve analysis

B.S sieve 0% GSA 2% GSA 4% GSA 6% GSA 8% GSA 10% GSA

Sizes % passing % passing % passing % passing % passing % passing
2.36 99.65 6.42 3.27 8.96 17.81 29.6
2.00 98.75 3.86 1.98 4.22 9 17.56
0.60 97.50 2.45 1.3 2.26 4.66 11.33
0.425 94.20 0.71 0.41 0.64 1.01 3.91
0.30 93.45 0.47 0.27 0.51 0.71 3.06
0.212 92.80 0.34 0.17 0.41 0.51 2.6
0.150 92.95 0.27 0.14 0.37 0.37 2
0.075 91.35 0.17 0.03 0.34 0.17 1.3

Table 3.3 Result of hydrometer

BS sieve sizes 0.0697 0.050 0.0344 0.0264 0.0191 0.0142 0.010 0.0075
% Passing 87.77 83.9 76.9 66.8 53.76 44.13 37.76 30.34

0.0056 0.0046 0.0036 0.0030 0.0022 0.0016

23.87 20.54 17.52 9.94 1.66 0.7

3.2.5 Atterberg limits

The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil.

Depending on the water content of the soil, it may appear in four states: solid, semi-solid,

35
plastic and liquid. In each state, the consistency and behaviour of a soil is different and thus

so are its engineering properties. Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined based

on a change in the soil's behaviour. The Atterberg limits can be used to distinguish between

silt and clay, and it can distinguish between different types of silts and clays. These limits

were created by Albert Atterberg, and later refined by Arthur Casagrande.

3.2.5.1 Liquid Limit

BS 1377 (1990) describes the procedure for determination of the liquid limit test of a

soil. 200g of the air dried BC soil passing 425–μm sieve size was taken and was mixed with

water and kneaded for achieving uniformity. The mixing time was specified as 5 to 10 min.

The soil paste was placed in the liquid limit cup, and levelled off with the help of the spatula.

A clean and sharp groove was cut in the middle by means of a grooving tool. The crank was

rotated at about 2 revolutions per second and the number of blows required to make the

halves of the soil pat separated by the groove meet for a length of about 12 mm was counted.

The water content was determined from a small quantity of the soil paste.

This operation was repeated a few more times at different consistencies or moisture

contents. The soil samples were prepared at such consistencies that the number of blows or

shocks required to close the groove will be less than 10 and more than 25. The relationship

between the number of blows and corresponding moisture contents thus obtained were

plotted on semi-logarithmic graph paper, with the logarithm of the number of blows on the x-

axis, and the moisture contents on the y-axis. The ‘Flow-graph’ or ‘Flow curve’ graph thus

obtained, i.e., the best fit straight line. The moisture content corresponding to 25 blows from

the flow curve was taken as the liquid limit of the BC soil.

The same procedure was repeated for the material containing the stabilizer in the

groundnut shell ash. The soil fraction passing the BS 425 μm sieve was mixed with the

36
groundnut shell ash prior to the test. The procedure is repeated for each soil and for various

moisture contents. The liquid limit for various percentage of GSA is shown in Table 3.4

Table 3.4 Variation of Liquid limit with GSA content

GSA % 0 2 4 6 8 10
Liquid Limit % 83.36 81.98 83.1 86.39 102.05 103.59

3.2.5.2 Plastic limit

The plastic limit (PL) is the water content where soil starts to exhibit plastic behavior.

The Proportion of the material passing sieve with aperture 425 μm which was used for the

determination of the liquid limit (LL) was also used for the determination of the plastic limit.

A sample of the wet soil was taken and moulded between the palms of the two hands. The

sample was rolled and sub-divided into two sub samples which was further subdivided into

parts. The rate of rolling was between 80 and 90 strokes per minute, counting a stroke as one

complete motion of the hand forward and back to the starting position again. The rolling was

done till the threads are of 3 mm diameter as specified by BS 1377 (1990). The soil was

kneaded together to a uniform mass and rolled again. This process of alternate rolling and

kneading was continued until the thread crumbles under the pressure required for rolling and

the soil can no longer be rolled into a thread. The pieces of crumbled soil thread was

collected and the moisture content was determined and recorded as the plastic limit. The

plastic limit of the samples is shown in Table 3.5

Table 3.5 Variation of Plastic limit with GSA content

GSA % 0 2 4 6 8 10
Plastic Limit % 44.4 22.86 25 26.2 27.78 27.78

37
3.2.5.3 Plasticity Index

The plasticity index (PI) is computed as the difference between the liquid limit (LL) and

the plastic limit (PL) as follows:

PI (or Ip) = (LL - PL)

The Plasticity Index for the soil samples is shown on Table 3.6

Table 3.6 Variation of Plasticity index with GSA content

GSA % 0 2 4 6 8 10
Plasticity Index % 38.92 59.1 58.19 60.19 74.27 75.81

3.2.5.4 Linear shrinkage

BS 1377 (1990) describes the procedure for linear shrinkage adopted in this work.

150g of the air dried soil sample passing the 425 μm BS test sieve was mixed thoroughly on a

glass plate with the aid of palette knives until the soil mass became a smooth homogenous

paste. The soil mass was subsequently placed in a greased mould with slight clearance at the

edge. The mould was then slightly jarred to remove air pockets in the mixture.

The mould was then placed so that the soil water mixture could air dry slowly and

subsequent drying was done at 60oC to 65oC until shrinkage ceased and then further drying

was done at 1050C to 110oC to complete the drying. The mean length of the dried soil was

measured from the length of the top and bottom of the dried soil samples after cooling. The

linear shrinkage of the soil was calculated. The procedure was repeated to every successive

increment of groundnut shell ash. The variations of linear shrinkage with increase in GSA

content is shown in Table 3.7

Table 3.7 Variation of Linear shrinkage with GSA content

38
 GSA 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%
Linear Shrinkage % 19.22 23.69 23.29 24.16 24.16 24.71

3.2.6 Compaction tests

Compaction of soil is the process by which the solid particles are packed more closely

together, usually by mechanical means, thereby increasing the dry density of the soil. The dry

density which can be achieved depends on the degree of compaction applied and on the

amount of water present in the soil. For a given degree of compaction of a given cohesive soil

there is an optimum moisture content at which the dry density obtained reaches a maximum

value.

The objective of the compaction tests described in BS 1377 (1990) is to obtain

relationships between compacted dry density and soil moisture content, using two magnitudes

of manual compactive effort, or compaction by vibration. The compaction effort adopted for

this project is the British Standard Light (BSL) compactive effort.

3.2.6.1 British Standard Light (BSL)

For the British Standard Light test, the soil is compacted in a mould that has a volume of

100cm3. The diameter of the mould is 101.6mm. During the laboratory test, a base plate is

placed at the bottom of the mould and an extension at the top. The BC soil was mixed with

varying amount of water and then compacted in three layers by a rammer that delivers twenty

seven (27) blows to each layer. The rammer weighs 2.5 kg and has a drop of 304.8 mm.

For each of the compacted samples, protruding soils are carefully levelled off with a

spatula. The soil samples were then removed from the mould and a little portion taken for

moisture content determination.

39
 Various percentages by weight of the groundnut shell ash are added to the black cotton

soil again with increasing water content from 2%-10%. The bulk density pi was calculated

for each compacted sample as

M 2−M 1
pi=
1000
(Mg/m3) .................................... 3.3

Where

M1 = Mass of mould and base (g)

M2 = Mass of mould, base and soil (g)

And the dry density Pd is calculated as

100
Pd =
100+ W (Mg/m3) ........................................ 3.4

Where

W = Moisture content

For each percentage of water added to the soil samples, the dry density is plotted against

the moisture content and from these the maximum point on the resultant curves gives the

Maximum Dry Density (MDD) on the ordinate axis and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)

on the abscissa.

The procedure was repeated for the stabilized material by adding requisite proportions by

weight of groundnut shell ash to the natural soil sample. The MDD and OMC values were

tabulated in Table 3.8 and Table 3.9 respectively

Table 3.8 Variation of OMC with GSA content

GSA content % 0 2 4 6 8 10
OMC % 27.5 28.1 29.1 23.5 22.3 25

40
Table 3.9 Variation of MDD with GSA content

GSA Content % 0 2 4 6 8 10
Max D. D Mg/m³ 1.40 1.39 1.361 1.391 1.44 1.42

3.2.7 Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests

Samples utilized for unconfined compressive strength were produced by compressing

the natural or treated soil in the BS compaction mould at the British Standard Light

compactive effort. Specimens utilized for the test were extruded in cylindrical mould

measuring 38mm diameter and 76mm height. Each sample was produced based on the

predetermined weight constituents’ of the density volume relationship compacted. The

compacted sample were carefully removed from the mould and subjected to curing by

wrapping each sample in polythene material bags to prevent lost of moisture. The curing

period for the sample was 7, 14 and 28. Another set of soil samples were cured for 7 days

under similar conditions and thereafter were removed carefully, de-waxed top and bottom

and completely immersed in water for another 7 days.

At the end of the curing period, the samples were unwrapped and subjected to a steady

increasing axial compressive force until failure occurs, using the load frame method

(accomplished using a tri-axial compression machine) by uniaxial compression i.e without

water pressure application. The UCS is given by

P
σ= ∗C ∗( 1−ϵ )∗100 (KPa)......................................................... 3.5
A0 r

The results are as given in Table 3.10

Table 3.10 Variation of UCS with GSA content

GSA (%) Durability UCS (7 days) UCS (14 days) UCS (28 days)

41
 0 14.97 91.35 145.64 134.03
2 30.32 68.69 100.68 99.15
4 46.71 88.42 130.69 148.38

6 49.24 163.55 251.07 293.68

8 45.41 211.29 255.04 312.89

10 24.59 180.60 228.69 295.12

3.2.8 California bearing ratio (CBR)

The California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR Test) is a penetration test developed by

California State Highway Department (U.S.A.) for evaluating the bearing capacity of

subgrade soil for design of flexible pavement. Tests are carried out on natural or compacted

soils in water soaked or un-soaked conditions and the results so obtained are compared with

the curves of standard test to have an idea of the soil strength of the subgrade soil.

The principle of California bearing ratio is to determine the relationship between force

and penetration when a cylindrical plunger of a standard cross-sectional area is made to

penetrate the soil at a given rate. At certain values of penetration the ratio of the applied force

to a standard force, expressed as a percentage, is defined as the California Bearing Ratio

(CBR). The tests were carried out as specified in B.S 1377 (1990), B.S 1924 (1990) and the

Nigerian General Specification for roads and bridgeworks (1997).

About 5kg of the BC soil sample with or without the stabilizer were placed into the 2360

cm3 mould and compacted at the optimum moisture content and at the British Standard Light

compactive effort (BSL). For this compactive effort, the soil samples were compacted in

three (3) layers each receiving 62 blows from the 2.5kg rammer.

After the compaction, the base plates were removed and then the compacted specimens

were placed into a sealed plastic bag for curing. The plastic bags were used to avoid moisture

loss due to evaporation. The specimen were cured for six (6) days and then removed from the
42
plastic bags and the base plate replaced; they were then transferred to the CBR testing

machine. The plunger was made to penetrate the specimen at a uniform rate. The dial reading

indicating, force were taken each at 0.25 mm interval of penetration until the maximum of

12.7 mm was attained or alternatively until failure was reached. The bottom of the specimens

was also tested in like manner. The tested specimens were then immersed in water fully for

24 hours before testing in accordance with the specification by the Nigerian General

Specification for Roads and Bridgeworks (1997). The CBR curves (i.e. forces versus

penetration of plunger) were plotted using the values obtained from both tests. The CBR was

calculated at the penetration of 2.50 mm and 5.0 mm as shown in equation 3.6

measured force
CBR= × 100 % ................................................. 3.6
standard force

The average of the two values were recorded as the CBR where they are within 10 %

of each other, otherwise the higher value was used as the CBR; as specified by BS 1377

(1990). The soaked CBR and unsoaked CBR with variations in GSA is shown in Table 3.11

and 3.12 respectively

Table 3.11 Variation of Soaked CBR with GSA content

GSA % 0 2 4 6 8 10
CBR % 1.67 1.55 1.58 1.6 1.51 2.17

Table 3.12 Variation of Unsoaked CBR with GSA content

GSA % 0 2 4 6 8 10
CBR% 2.2 2.06 1.45 3.34 6.32 5.85

3.2.9 Free Swell

43
 The free swell test is one of the most commonly used simple tests in the field of

geotechnical engineering for getting an estimate of soil swelling potential. The test was

conducted according to Holtz and Gibbs (1956). This test was performed by pouring 10 cm 3

of air dried soil through a sieve or aperture size 0.42 mm into a l00 cm 3 graduated jar filled

with water noting the swelled volume or the soil after it comes to rest. The procedure was

repeated for each soil and for various moisture contents. Then the free swell is given in

equation 3.7

V −v 0
FS= × 100 % ............................................3.7
V

Where

FS = the free swell, (%)

V = the soil volume after swelling, cm3, and

V0 = the volume of dry soil. 10 cm3

The free swell test for the natural and stabilized soil is illustrated in the Table 3.13

Table 3.13 Variation of Free Swell with GSA content

GSA Content % 0 2 4 6 8 10
Free swell % 15.25 10.71 9.91 9.09 4.76 2.91

3.2.10 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Cations are positively charged ions such as calcium (Ca 2+), magnesium (Mg2+), and

potassium (K+), sodium (Na+) hydrogen (H+), aluminum (Al3+), iron (Fe2+), manganese

(Mn2+), zinc (Zn2+) and copper (Cu2+). The capacity of the soil to hold on to these cations

called the cation exchange capacity (CEC). These cations are held by the negatively charged
44
clay and organic matter particles in the soil through electrostatic forces (negative soil

particles attract the positive cations). The cations on the CEC of the soil particles are easily

exchangeable with other cations and as a result, they are plant available. Thus, the CEC of a

soil represents the total amount of exchangeable cations that the soil can adsorb.

To understand the reaction behavior of GSA and Black Cotton Soil which affects the

soil’s properties to a large extent, CEC test was carried out. The test was conducted at the

department of soil science, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. 10g of 2mm sieved soil was put

into a 100mm3 plastic beaker, 40ml of Ammonia Acetate (1N Ph7) were added, stirred with

glass rod and left over night. The soil was filtered with a light suction using 55mm Bucher

funnel, the soil was leached so that it could fit with Ammonium to a volume of 250cm 3. The

leachate was tested from the soil to know if it was calcium free, the presence of calcium is

indicated by a white precipitate or turbidity. The electrolyte was washed out with 150-200ml

of isopropyl alcohol.

Chloride was tested for in the leachate with (0.1N AgNO 3) till the leachate became

negligible, the soil was allowed to drain thoroughly, then the leached soil was acidified to a

volume of 250ml. 50ml of Boric acid was measured into 250ml conical flask and the flask

was connected to the steel, some anti-bump and 10ml of 1N NaOH was added into the flask

and distilled over the boric acid in the conical flask, 150ml of distilled was collected. The

NH4-borate was titrated with a standard acid 0.1N HCl. The CEC is computed using equation

3 and the result expressed in centi mol per kg is shown in Table 3.14

(Titre−B)× NA ×100
CEC= .............................……………3.8
Weight of soil

Where

B= Blank

45
NA= Normality of acid

Table 3.14 Variation of CEC with GSA content

GSA Content (%) 0 2 4 6 8 10

CEC (mol per kg) 70.50 69.2 68.40 66.1 64.90 53.50

3.2.11 Potential of Hydrogen (PH)

The PH test was conducted at the department of soil science, Ahmadu Bello

University Zaria. Log of the air dried soil sample sieved through 2mm sieve was collected

and place inside a 50ml plastic breaker, 25ml of distilled water was added and the suspension

was stirred several times for 30 minutes. The soil suspension was then allowed to stand for

about 30 minutes undisturbed. The PH meter was calibrated using the PH buffer. 4, 7 and 9.

The electrode was then immersed into the soil without touching the bottom of the breaker, the

value of the Ph was then recorded after so seconds. The above procedure was repeated] for

the various percentage of the GSA. The result of the PH is shown in Table 3.15

Table 3.15 Variation of PH with GSA content

GSA Content (%) 0 2 4 6 8 10

PH 6.8 8.2 8.7 8.9 9.0 9.2

CHAPTER FOUR

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 Index Properties

Results of tests carried out on the natural BC soil are summarized in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Geotechnical properties of the unstabilized Black cotton soil

46
 Property Value/description

Percentage passing BS sieve No. 200 91.35%

Liquid limit 83.36%
Plastic Limit 44.4%
Plasticity Index 38.92%
Linear Shrinkage 19.22%
AASHTO Classification A-7-6
Unified Soil Classification System (UCS) CH
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) 1.4Mg/m3
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) 27.5%
134kN/m2
Unconfined Compressive strength
1.67%
California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
6.8
pH
26.95%
Natural Moisture Content
70.5/kg
CEC
Dark grey
Colour
15.25%
Free Swell

4.2 Evaluating the effect of groundnut shell ash (GSA) on the black cotton soil

4.2.1 Specific Gravity

The variation of specific gravity of the samples with the addition of different percentage

of GSA is shown in Fig 4.1. Gradual decrease in specific gravity to 1.95 was observed with

increasing percentage of GSA up to 8%. Further addition of GSA led to decrease in specific

gravity

47
 2.31

2.26

2.21

2.16
Specific Gravity

2.11

2.06

2.01

1.96

1.91

1.86
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
GSA Content (%)
Fig 4.1 Variation of Specific Gravity with GSA content

4.2.2 Sieve Analysis

Fig 4.2 shows the particle size distribution BCS upon addition of GSA content. It can

been seen from the Fig 4.2 that a similar curve pattern was generated for all percentages of

GSA. This could be due to similar flocculation and aggregation into masses of similar sizes.

48
 100

90

80

70

60 2% GSA
4% GSA
50
6% GSA
40 8% GSA
10% GSA
30 0% GSA
20

10

0
0 0.01 0.1 1 10

4.2.3 Atterberg Limit

4.2.3.1 Liquid Limit

The effect of GSA on the liquid limit of the black cotton soil samples are presented in

Fig.4.3. There was an increase in liquid limit with increase in groundnut shell ash content

after an initial decrease at 2% GSA content. The result is in agreement with the definition of

liquid limit, which is the moisture content at which the soil exhibits dynamic shear strength.

When an alteration occur s in the system of a soil existing in its liquid limit such that there is

relative decrease in the repulsive forces , its strength increase to a specific value that more

moisture will be needed to bring the soil to its dynamic shear strength. This tended to

increase the value of the liquid limit of the soil- GSA ash mixture from the value of 83.36%

at no GSA content to a maximum value of 103.59% at 10 % GSA content. The initial

decrease in the liquid limit could be due to the effect of reduction in the diffused double layer

as well as due to the effect of dilution of clay content to the mix. The increase in the liquid

limit between 2% GSA and 10% GSA could be attributed to the fact that each increase in

49
GSA introduced more pozzolanic substances from the ash that required more amount of

water for hydration to go to completion.

4.2.3.2 Plastic Limit

Fig 4.3 shows the variation of the plastic limit of the samples with GSA contents. As can

be seen from the graph, the addition of GSA resulted in a decrease in the plastic limit of the

treated soils.

Hankari (2012) obtained results contrary to the trend in this research. He stated that the

plastic limit of the BCS increased due to flocculation owing to the presence of free lime in

the fly ash. But in the case of GSA, the free lime content is not sufficient enough as to

increase the plastic limit and hence no such change was observed. Sharp reduction in the

plastic limit (18.89%) was observed at 6% GSA. This is because of the fact that as the

quantity of GSA in the mix increased, The amount of soil to be flocculated decreased and

also the finer particles of GSA may be incorporated in the voids of flocculated soil. This lead

to the decrease in the water held in the pores leading to the decrease of the plastic limit.

4.2.3.3 Plasticity index

The variation of plasticity index of the samples with the addition of varying

percentages of GSA is shown in Fig 4.3. As seen from the graph, the addition of GSA

increases the plasticity index of the soil samples. The plasticity index at no GSA content was

38.92 % and as stabilizer content was increased to 10% GSA, a peak value of 75.81% was

recorded. The increase in PI could probably be due to deficiency of Ca 2+ which is required to

replace the weakly bonded ions in the clay structure and hence, flocculation did not occur.

Instead, there was an increase in the fine fraction which absorbed more water and became

more plastic.

50
4.2.3.4 Linear Shrinkage

A value of 19.22 % was recorded for the natural soil; an increase in the linear

shrinkage to a peak value of 24.71 % can be observed as it is been depicted in Fig 4.3. The

increase in the linear shrinkage with the addition of GSA could be attributed to lack of

flocculation and agglomeration as explained earlier and hence the mixture contained more

finer materials which exhibited more shrinkage characteristics.

110
100
90
Atterbarg Limit (%)

80
70
60
LL
50 PI
LS
40
PL
30
20
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
GSA Content (%)
Fig 4.3 Variation of Atterberg limit with GSA content

4.2.4 Free Swell

Fig 4.4 depicts the variation in the free swell test with GSA contents. The free swell at

0% stabilizer content is 15.25%. Further increase in the GSA contents led to a reduction in

the free swell to a minimum value of 2.91% . The sharp reduction in the free swell could be

due to the increased presence of finer particles which are not clayey and hence lesser free

swell.

51
 17.86

15.86

13.86

11.86
Free Swell %

9.86

7.86

5.86

3.86

1.86
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
GSA Content (%)
Fig 4.4 Variation of Free Swell with GSA content

4.2.5 Potential of hydrogen (pH)

Fig 4.5 shows the variation of pH with groundnut shell ash content. The pH was

observed to be 6.8 at 0% stabilizer. Further increase in GSA content led to gradual increase in

pH to a peak value of 9.2 for the samples. Thus the pH values of the samples stabilized with

GSA increased when the percentage of GSA increase. The test result is in conformity with

what was proposed by Millar, that pH increased with increasing the percentage of lime.

52
 9.36

8.86

8.36

7.86
PH

7.36

6.86

6.36
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
GSA Content (%)
Fig 4.5 Variation of pH with GSA content

4.2.6 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

It can be seen from Fig 4.6 that the CEC value for 0% GSA was 70.5 Cmol/kg. Further

increase in GSA content led to reduction to 53.9 Cmol/kg. The maximum CEC value was

obtained in the sample with 0% GSA. It is thought that the increasing in CEC of clay samples

with cement is occurred by reason of the high pH value. However, the decrease in CEC

values is due to the percentage of free lime.

Similarly, most of the researchers state that there is a decrease in CEC of soils

treated with stabilizers (Nalbantoglu, 2001), however a little of researchers state that there is

an increase in CEC with lime (Mathew 1997). This increase may be explained by reaction

between and water instead of soil particles. The reduction of CEC in soil samples was

explained by the formation of new phases and flocculated fabric that results in less water

absorption potential (Nalbantoglu, 2001).

53
 76.36

71.36

66.36
CEC Cmol/kg

61.36

56.36

51.36
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
GSA Content (%)
Fig 4.6 Variation of CEC with GSA content

4.3 Compaction Parameters

4.3.1 Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)

The variation of the optimum moisture contents (OMC) with GSA content is shown in

Fig 4.7. The OMC at no GSA is 27.5% and subsequent increases in OMC reached a value of

29.1% at 4% GSA content. Further addition of groundnut shell ash led to a sharp reduction in

the OMC to 22.3% at 8% GSA, and finally, increase of OMC to 25% was observed at 10%

GSA content.

The initial increases in OMC recorded could be due to the increasing demand for water

by the various cations and the clay mineral particles to undergo hydration reaction (Moses,

2008; Osinubi, 1997; Stephen and Osinubi, 2006,). The decline observed in OMC from 6%

GSA were as a result of self-desiccation whereby all the available water molecules were used

up in the hydration reaction with consequent lower hydration and an incomplete hydration

that affected the OMCs.

54
 30

29

28

27
Optimum M.C (%)

26

25

24

23

22

21

20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
GSA Content (%)
Fig 4.7 Variation of OMC with GSA content

4.3.2 Maximum Dry Density (MDD)

The variation of the maximum dry density (MDD) with GSA content on the BC soil is

depicted in Fig 4.8. For 0% GSA, the maximum dry density was 1.4 Mg/m 3 and on addition

of GSA, a decrease in MDD was observed to a value of 1.36 Mg/m3 at 4% GSA. Further

increase in GSA content led to increase in MDD to a peak value of 1.44 Mg/m 3 at 8% GSA

and subsequently increase in GSA led to reduction in MDD value.

The initial reduction in MDD could be partly attributable to the flocculation and

agglomeration of clay particles occupying larger spaces leading to corresponding decrease in

the MDD (O’ Flaherty, 1988). Later increase in MDD observed is due to flocculation and

agglomeration of the clay particles due primarily to ion exchange.

55
 1.45

1.44

1.43
Max Dry Density (MDD) (Mg/m³)

1.42

1.41

1.4

1.39

1.38

1.37

1.36
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
GSA Content (%)
Fig 4.8 Variation of MDD with GSA content

4.3.3 Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)

The effect of addition of groundnut shell ash to the black cotton soil samples on their UCS

values together with the variation of UCS with increase in the curing period are presented in

Fig 4.9.

It is observed in Fig 4.3 that on addition of 2% GSA, there was a decrease in the UCS

of the mixture. The reasons for the decrease could be due to the lack of adequate calcium

oxide in the GSA which is required for the stabilization of the BCS. However, at 4, 6 and 8%

GSA, there were increased values of UCS recorded. The increased UCS could be due to the

presence of adequate calcium oxide required for stabilization. The UCS values at 8% GSA

increased with curing periods of 7, 14 and 28 days to 211, 255 and 313 kN/m2 respectively.

The trend of increase compressive strength with curing period can be attributed to time

dependent strength gain action and pozzolanic reactivity of the free lime content of the GSA.

The increase in compressive strength is due to the sufficient water which enhanced hydration

56
reaction that is attributed to the reaction between BC soil and the groundnut shell ash to form

secondary cementatious compounds (Osinubi and Medubi 1997).

351.86

301.86

251.86

201.86
UCS kN/m2

151.86 14 Days UCS

7 days UCS
28 Days UCS
101.86

51.86

1.86
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
GSA Content (%)
Fig 4.9 Variation of UCS with GSA content

4.3.4 Durability

Fig 4.10 shows the variation of the soil durability with addition of groundnut shell ash.

The peak durability value for resistance to loss in strength was 46.72 % at 4% GSA content.

The resistance to lost in strength for 7 days curing period and 4 days immersion period

suggested by Osinubi, 2001 regardless of the difference in immersion periods. Based on this

premise, the GSA did not meet the minimum durability requirement for use in pavement

construction.

57
 60

50

40
Durabilty %

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
GSA Content (%)
Fig 4.10 Variation of Durability with GSA content

4.3.5 California Bearing Ratio

The variation of CBR with GSA content is shown on Fig 4.11. On addition of 2%

GSA, there was a slight decrease in the CBR. This could be due to the inadequacy of calcium

required for the formation of GSA, which is the major element of strength gain. However, as

the amount of GSA increased to 4, 6, 8, and 10% respectively. There was an increased CBR.

Although the increase is still very much required which could also be attributed to the

insufficient amount of calcium oxide present in the GSA. The Nigerian General Specification

(1997) recommends that a CBR value of 180 should be attained in the laboratory for cement

stabilized material to be constructed by the mix in place method. It is clear that the GSA

stabilized BCS cement be used as a potent stand alone stabilization in agreement with the

findings of Stephen (2006)

For the unsoaked condition which is shown in Fig 4.12, the peak CBR value obtained was

at 8% GSA content with a CBR value of 6.32%. Further increase in GSA percentage causes a

reduction in the CBR value to 5.85%. The slight increase in CBR could be attributable to

inadequate amount of calcium required.

58
 2.3

2.1

1.9
Soaked CBR %

1.7

1.5

1.3

1.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
GSA Content (%)
Fig 4.11 Variation of CBR (soaked) with GSA content

5
Unsoaked CBR %

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
GSA Content (%)
Fig 4.12 Variation of CBR (unsoaked) with GSA content

59
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Based on the results of this investigation, the following conclusions and recommendations are

drawn.

(1) The soil is classified under the A-7-6 subgroup of the AASHTO classification

system. Liquid limit and Plasticity index values of 83.36 % and 89.32 % respectively

suggest that the soil is highly plastic. Thus, from the results obtained, the soil falls

below the standard recommended for most geotechnical work (Butcher and Sailie,

1984).

(2) Groundnut Shell Ash (GSA) is used as a stabilizer for improving the

geotechnical characteristics of Baure black cotton soils. Addition of Groundnut Shell

Ash significantly improves the index properties, compaction and strength

characteristics of black cotton soil under study and the effect of GSA vary depending

upon the quantity of GSA, that is mixed with the black cotton soil samples

(3) The plastic limit of the soils decrease with the addition of GSA which indicates

a desirable change as the BCS with GSA mix can gain shear strength at an early stage

than the virgin soil. The relative increase in the liquid limit and Plasticity index of the

soils is an unfavourable change since decrease in LL and PI increase the workability

of these soils. The linear shrinkage of the soils increases with the addition of

groundnut shell ash, which facilitates in checking the volume change behaviour of the

soils over a large variation in the moisture content as the season changes.

60
(4) Addition of GSA brings in an improvement in the compaction parameters of

the study soils, by increasing the maximum dry density of the soils with decrease in

the corresponding values of optimum moisture content.

(5) The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of these soils increases upon the

addition of GSA. The trend of improvement in the UCS is observed to be more

pronounced with the curing of the soil and GSA mix. A curing period of 28 days is

observed to yield the maximum enhancement in the unconfined compressive strength.

(6) The durability values of all tested specimens fell short of the acceptable

conventional 80% accepted as minimum resistance to the loss of strength by Ola

(1974) even though specimen in this test were subject to 7 days soaking period as

against 4 day soaking period by Ola, 1974

(7) The peak of the California bearing ratio (soaked) value of 2.17% was attained at

10% GSA. This value fail to satisfy the specification for base and sub-base materials

as recommended by the Nigerian General Specification (1997) and suggest that the

GSA cannot be used as a STANDALONE stabilizer for road construction work

(Stephen, 2006).

5.2 Recommendation

The result obtained from this work show that groundnut shell ash can be used

more profitably as an admixture with a conventional stabilizer such as lime and

cement.

61
 REFRENCES

AASHTO (1986) Standard Specifications’ for Transportation Materials and Methods of

Sampling and Testing. 14th Ed., Am. Assoc. of State Highway and Transport

Officials (AASHTO), Washington, D. C

Agbede, I. O, and Joel, M. (2011) . “Effect of rice husk ash (RHA) on the properties of

Ibaji burnt clay bricks.” American Journal Of Scientific And Industrial

Research. Vol 2. No 4. pp 674-677.

Alabadan B.A, Njoku C.F and Yusuf M.O. (2006)“The Potentials of Groundnut Shell

Ash ash Concrete Admixture”. Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR

Ejournal.Manuscript BC 05 012, Vol. VIII

Alabadan, B.A., M.A. Olutoye, M.S. Abolarin and M. Zakariya (2005) “Partial

Replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) with Bambara Groundnut Shell

Ash (BGSA) in Concrete”. Leonardo Electronic Journal of Practices and

Technologies. Issue 6, pp.43-48, January-June 2005. Vol. 04.08, American Society

for Testing and Material, Philadelphia.

Alhassan, M.; and Mustapha, A.M. (2007) Effect of rice husk ash on cement stabilized

laterite. Leonardo Electronic J. Practice and Technol. 6(11): 47-58.

Arpita V P (2011). “Study of Geotechnical properties of black cotton soil contaminated

by castor oil and stabilization of contaminated soil by sawdust.” National Conference

on Recent Trends in Engrn. & Tech. Parul Institute of Engrn and Tech, Waghodia,

Vadodara.

ASTM (1992) Annual book of ASTM standards.

62
 Azhar S.A (2009). Electrokinetic Stabilisation of Soft Clay Soils. Research in

Birmingham university. www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/.../electrokinetic-

stabilisation.pdf

B.S. 1377 (1990) “Methods of testing soil for civil engineering purposes”. British

standards institute London.

B.S. 1924 (1990) “Methods of testing for stabilized soils” British standards institute

London.

Bell, F.G.(1993) “Engineering treatment of soils” E & FN Spon Publishers, London.

Bhavanna Rao D.V (2005)," Steps to Improve Road on Black Cotton Soil.” Indian Road

Congress’s Indian Highways –February (2005).

Braja M.D. (2002) “ Soil Mechanics Laboratory Manual” Sixth Edition, Oxford

University Press.

Butcher, F.and Sailie, E. L., (1984). “Swelling behaviour of tropical black clays”. Proc.

Of the Eighth Reg. Conf. For Africa on Soil Mech. And Foundation Engineering,

Harare, 81 – 86.

Butcher, F.and Sailie, E. L., (1984). “Swelling behaviour of tropical black clays”. Proc.

Of the Eighth Reg. Conf. For Africa on Soil Mech. And Foundation Engineering,

Harare, pp 81 – 86.

Chen, F.H. 1988. Foundations on expansive soils. Elsevier Publ., Amsterdam.

Cummings DG (1986). Groundnut. The unpredictable legume: Production constraints and

Research needs. Proceedings International Symposium, ICRISAT Sahelian Center,

Niamey, Niger.

Dallas N.L (1999) “ Evaluation Of Structural Properties on Lime Stabilized Soils and

Aggregates” Summary of findings prepared for the national Lime Association. USA.

63
Dallas, N.L and Syam N. (2009) “Recommended Practice For Stabilization Subgrade

Soils and Base Materials” Final Task Report for NCHRP Project 20-07. Texas

Transportation Institute, Texas A & M University College Station, Texas.

Engineering – ASCE. Vol. 43, No. 8, pp. 49-51.

F. M 540 “ Soil Stabilization For roads and Airfields” Chapter 9. Pp 9-81.

www.ijens.org/Vol_11_I_06/111003-06-8484-IJCEE-IJENS.pdf (10 October,2012)

Ferguson, G. 1993. Use of self-cementing fly ashes as a soil stabilization agent. p. 1-14.

In K.D.Sharp (ed.) Fly ash for soil improvement. Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Geotech. Pub.

36.

Fidelis O. O and Ugochukwu. N. O (2009) “ Effect Of Rice Husk on some Geotechnical

properties of Lateritic Soil.” Leonardo Electronic Journal of Practices and

Technologies. ISSN 1583-1078 Issue 15. pp 64-67

Greenfield J. (2004) “ Black Cotton Soil and the Vetiver System” John Greenfeild

presentation, Australia. http://www.vetiver.org/TVN_black_vertisols/index.htm

Haruna S. (2011) “Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Rice Husk Ash” Unpublished

undergraduate project. Department of Civil Engineering. ABU, Zaria

Head, K.H. (1982): Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing. Vol. 1, Pentech Press, London,

Plymouth.

Holtz, W. G. and Gibbs: H. J. (1957) “Engineering Properties of Expansive Clays” Tran-

sactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers. Vol. 121, pp 641-677

Ijimdiya T.S and Osinubi K.J. (2011) “Attenuative Capacity of Compacted Black Cotton

Soil treated with Bagasse Ash” Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,

Bund D. Vol 16.

Jones, D.E. and Holtz, W.G. (1973). Expansive Soils - the hidden disaster. Civil

64
Joseph I. (2011) “Growth and Bioconversion ability of Oyster mushroom (pleurotus

ostreatus) on different agro-wastes” published Msc. Thesis. Dept. of Biochemistry

and Biotechnology, College of Science, Kwame Nkrumah Uni. Of Sci. And Tech.

Kenneth M, Mysore N and Bogdan G.B. (2002) “ Identification and Stabilization

Methods for Problematic Silt Soil.” Paper Project. Civil & Environmental

Engineering Department, University of New Orleans, Louisiana.

Kerr, T.J., W.R., Wirdham, J.H. Woodward, and R. Benner, 1986. Chemical composition

and in-votro digestability of thermochemically treated peanut hull. J. Sci. Food

Agri.37: 632-636.

Malik R, Ramtake D.S and Wate S.R. (2006) “ Physico-chemical and surface

characterization of adsorbent prepared from Groundnut Shell by ZnCl2 activation and

its ability to adsorb colour”. Indian Journal of Chemical Technology. Vol 13. pp 319-

328.

Marthur, SB and Jorgensen, J. (1992). Seed pathology. Proceedings of the CTA seminar

held at Copenhagen, Denmark on 20-25 June, 1988, p. 412.

Mathew, P.K., Rao, S.N., 1997.” Effect of lime on cation exchange capacity of marina

clay”. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenviromental Engineering, 123(2), 183185.

Medubi, A. (1998) Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil using Superphosphate Fertilizer

Processing Residue as Admixture Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis Department of Civil

Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Moses, G. (2007) “stabilization of black cotton soil with ordinary portland cement Using

Bagasse ash as admixture”. Unpublished MSc. Thesis Dept.of Civil engineering

Ahmadu Bello University Zaria.

Nalbantoglu, Z., Gucbilmez, E., 2001. “Improvement of calcareous expansive soils in

semiarid environments” Journal of Arid Environments 47. pp 450-463.

65
National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (2009)“ Groundnut

Production in Nigeria” Extension Bulleting No 2. Ahmadu Bello University. P.M.B

1069 Zaria, Nigeria.

Nautiyal P.C (2002) “Groundnut; Post Harvest Operations” National Research Centre

For Groundnut (ICAR).www.icar.org.in

Nelson, J.D. and D.J. Miller. 1992. Expansive soils: Problems and practice in foundation

and pavement engineering. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Nwofor T.C and Sule S. (2012) “stability of groundnut shell ash (GSA)/ordinary portland

cement (OPC) concrete in Nigeria” Pelagia Research Library. ISSN: 0976-8610

Ola, S. A. (1974) “Need for estimated cement requirement for stabilization of laterite

soils” J.Transp. Engrg. Div., ASCE, Vol. 100, No. 2, pp. 379 – 388

Oriola F. And Moses G. (2010) “Groundnut Shell Ash stabilization of Black cotton Soil”

A publication of Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. 15(E). pp. 415-425

Osinubi K. J. and Eberemu, A. O. (2005). “The use of blast furnance slag treated latrite in

attenuation of ground contaminants.” Proc. Of The Nigeria Marterial Congress 2005

(NIMACON). Nov. 17th – 19th 2005. Zaria, Nigeria. pp. 28-35.

Osinubi, K. J. (1997). 'Soil stabilization using phosphatic waste.' Proceedings 4th

Regional Conference on Geotechnical Engineering, GEOTROPIKA '97, Johor Bahru,

Malaysia, 11 - 12 November, 225 – 244.

Osinubi, K.J. and Stephen, T.A. (2006). “Effect of curing period on bagasse ash stabilized

black cotton soil.” Book of Proc. Bi-monthly Meetings/Workshop, Material Society

of Nigeria., Zaria. pp.1-8.

Osinubi, K.J., Ijimdiya, T. S. and Nmadu, I. (2008). “Lime stabilization of black cotton

soil using bagasse ash as admixture.” Book of Abstracts of the 2nd International

Conference on Engineering Research & Development: Innovations (ICER&D 2008),

66
 Benin City, Nigeria, 15-17 April. Technical Session 9B – Construction and

Structures, Paper ICERD08058, pp. 217.

Pasek JE (1998). Khapra Beetle.Trogoderma granarium Everts: Pestinitiated pest risk

assessment, USDA APHIS, Raleigh, NC, p. 32.

Pillari RN, Ranganakulu G, Padma Raju A, Sankara Reddi GH (1984). Mineral

composition of kernels and shells of four cultivars of groundnut. Andhra Pradesh J.

(India), 31(4):351-352.

Puvvadi P.S, Thallack G.S And Kanakapura S.S. “ Modified Free Swell Index For clays”

Geotechnical testing Journal. GTJODJ. Vol 10, No.2, June 1987, pp, 80-85.

Quirine K, Shaw R and Renuka R. (2007) “Cation Exchange Capacity” Fact sheet.

Agronomy Fact Sheet Series. Dept. Of crop and soil science, College of Agriculture

and life science. Co-operative Extention, Cornell University,

Saiful A.A.T (2009) “Electrokinetic Stabilization of Soft Clay Soils” Research thesis

supervised by Prof CDF Rogers.

Saranjeet R.S, Dahale P.Pand Doballe R.M (2011) “ Disposal of Solid Waste for Black

Cotton Stabilization” International Journal Of Advanced Engineering Sciences And

Technologies. Vol No. 8. Issue No. 1. pp 113 – 120

Singh S. (1954) “ A study of the Black Cotton Soils with special reference to their

colouration” Journal of Soil Science; Vol 5. Issue 2. Pages 289-299 No 2.

State of California (July 2003)“ Guidance for temporary soil stabilization”. A pub. Of

Department of transportation Caltras CT.

Stephen, T.A (2006). Sabilization Potential use of bagasse ash on black cotton soil.

Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis Department of Civil Engineering, Ahmadu Bello

University, Zaria

67
Suat A. And Arasan S. (2010). “ The variation of Cation Exchange Capacity, pH and Zeta

Potential in Expansives soil treated by additives”. Research article of international

Journal civil and structural engineering. Volume 1, No.2 pp139-154.

Suat A. and Seracettin A (2010) “The Variations of Cation Exchange Capacity, pH, and

Zeta Potential in Expansive Soils Treated by Additives” International Journal Of Civil

And Structural Engineering. Vol. 1. No 2, 2010

Szito A (2006). Trogoderma granarium Global Invasive Species. Database Invasive

Species. Specialist Group (ISSG). IUCN Survival Commission.

Thomas P. J. (1998) “ Quantifying properties and Variability of Expansive Soils in

selected Map Units.” Unpublished Dissertation. Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic

Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Udayashankar D and Puranik S.C. (2012) “Stabilisation of Black Cotton Soils Using Fly

Ash, Hubballi-Dharwad Municipal corporation Area, Karnataka, India” Global

Journal of researches in engineering Civil And Structural engineering. Vol 12. Issue

2. Version 1.0 Febuary 2012.

United Republic of Tarzania “Laboratory Testing Manual 2000” ISBN 9987-8891-3-1,

June 2000.

Warren, K.W. And Kirby, T.M. (2004) “Expansive Clay Soil A Wide Spread And Costly

Geohazard”, Geostra, Geoinstitute Of The American Society Of Civil Engineers

68