DESIGN OF A NUCLEAR POWER PLANT TO GENERATE

32,000 MW OF ELECTRICITY USING ENRICHED URANIUM

FINAL YEAR DESIGN PROJECT

BY

NWOSU JOSEPH OKORIE

99/3313

PRESENTED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE BACHELOR OF
ENGINEERING (B. ENG), DEGREE IN CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING.

DECEMBER, 2006
 CERTIFICATION

This design project titled “Design of a Nuclear power Generating Plant

System of 32,000MW of electricity per year using enriched Uranium“ has
been read and certified as meeting the requirement for the award of the
Degree, Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.),chemical Engineering by the
department of chemical Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri.

………………………. ………………………..
Engr. Babagana Gutti, MNSE
(Project Supervisor) Date

………………………. ………………………..
(Engr. Babagana Gutti, MNSE Date
(Head of Department)

………………………. ………………………..
Prof. S. S. Adefila Date
(External Examiner)

ii
 DEDICATION

To Almighty God
To my late brother-Mr. Felix Ugochukwu Nwosu and late Anayo Nwosu.
And to all my friends and well-wishers.

iii
 DECLARATION

I Nwosu, Joseph Okorie (99/3313) hereby declare that all the views
and assertions expressed in this work are solely mine, except where
attributed. I therefore take responsibility for any short coming(s) in this
work.

………………………………. ………………………
Signature of student. Date

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

If you cannot run, walk

If you cannot walk, crawl
But just keep on moving.
- MARTHIN LUTHER KING-
The academic path to do this height has not been attained on a platter
of gold. It is accumulation of patience, endurance, perseverance and hard
work. However, no one man is an island, hence we need people in one way or
the other to accomplish a given objective. First and foremost, I am very
grateful to the Almighty God for his guidance in the course of accomplishing
this task.
Meanwhile, my appreciation goes to my late brother- Mr. Felix
Ugochukwu Nwosu for his financial support and every other members of my
family including my parents and other well meaning individuals who had
assisted me in any form in the course of my academic pursuit. I am also
most grateful to Engr. Alex O. Chima. I also acknowledge the effort of Prof.
Walter C. Ndubuisi and Mr. Daniel O. Chukwu.
I also salute the effort of my project supervisor –Engr. Bitrus Highina. I
acknowledge the humble and noble effort of my present Head of Department-
Engr. Babagana Gutti, as well as the other lecturers of the department-Engr.
Barka A.C, Engr. M.N Idris, Engr. Olagoke A. J. Oladokun, and Mr. Aliyu
Bello for teaching and encouraging me in the study of chemical Engineering.
I also want to thank all my friends and well wishers for their support.
I am also indebted to so many people whom I may not be able to
enumerate their names for want of space. May God replace in many folds
whatever sacrifice they had made to see me through in my studies. Indeed,
my joy for accomplishing this noble goal is boundless. My experience has
consolidated the saying that “a journey of million of miles starts with just s
step in the right direction.

Nwosu Joseph Okorie

December, 2006.

v
 ABSTRACT

A nuclear power generating plant system for the production of 32,

00mw of electricity per annum with 342 days triput was designed in this
project. Local uranium was used as a source of fuel. In this design, the
technology employed is Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity which states that
mass and energy are interconvertible. However, the volume of the reactor is
55.40m3. Meanwhile, the profit forecast showed that the project is viable with
a payback period of three (3) years. The total investment is N 1,398,075,258
and the profit after tax is N43,378,056.95. It is necessary to wear radiation
detectors like film badges and lithium fluoride pads while working in a
radiation/contamination zones in order to ascertain the level of exposure to
radiation.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENT PAGE
TITLE PAGE i
CERTIFICATION ii
DEDICATION iii
DECLARATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
ABSTRACT vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION x
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT 1
1.3 LIMITATION AND SCOPE 2
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 NUCLEAR REACTIONS 3
2.1 NUCLEAR FISSION 3
2.2 NUCLEAR FUSSION
2.3 URANIUM AS ENERGY SOURCE 4
2.3 URANIUM AS ENERGY SOURCE 5
2.4 NUCLEAR FUELS 7
2.4.1 Mining and Milling Ore 8
2.4.2 Refining and Purification 9
2.4.3 Isotope Enrichment 12
2.5 NUCLEAR FUELS SELECTION 12
2.5.1 Mechanical Forming and Element Fabrication 13
2.6 NUCLEAR REACTORS 13
2.7 TYPES OF POWER REACTORS 13
2.7.1 Calder Hall Reactor 14
2.7.2 Magnox Reactor 14
2.7.3 Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGR) 14
2.7.4 Boiling Water Reactor 14
2.7.5 The Pressurized Water Reactor 14
2.7.6 Candu Type Reactor 14
2.7.7 Sodium Graphite Reactor 15
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM (PFD) 16
3.1 GENERAL PROCESS 16
3.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION 16
3.3 REACTION KINETICS 16
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 EQUIPMENT AND BASIC EQUIPMENT LISTING 19

vii
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 KEY PROCESS EQUIPMENT LIST FOR ELECTRICAL POWER
GENERATION USING A PWR 19
4.3 KEY PROCESS EQUIPMENT FOR ELECTRICAL POWER
GENERATION USING A BWR 19
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES 20
5.1 MATERIAL BALANACE 20
5.2 CONSERVATION OF MASS 20
5.3 ENERGY BALANCE
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM 24
6.1 TYPE OF INSTRUMENT 24
6.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS 25
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN 26
7.1 MECHANICAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION 27
7.3 PRESSURIZER DESING SPECIFICATION 28
7.4 TURBINE DESIGN SPECIFICATION 28
7.5 CONDENSER DESIGN SPECIFICATION 28
7.6 FEED WATER PREHEATER SPECIFICATION 29
7.7 DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR PUMP 29
CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL 31
8.1 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL OBJECTIVES 31
8.2 CONTROL SYSTEM 31
8.3 MODULATING CONTROL 33
8.4 CHEMICAL AND VOLUME CONTROL SYSTEM (CVCS) 33
CHAPTER NINE
9.0 ENERGY INTEGRATION SCHEME 34
9.1 RESIDUAL HEAT REMOVAL SYSTEM 34
CHAPTER TEN
10.0 PLANT LAYOUT 36
10.1 GENERAL SITE CONSIDERATION 36
10.2 SITE LAYOUTS 36
10.3 HEATING, VENTILATING AND AIR-CONDITIONING 38
CHAPTER ELEVEN
11.0 PLANT START-UP AND SHUT-DOWN 40
11.1 PLANT START-UP 40
11.2 PLANT SHUT-DOWN 40
CHAPTER TWELVE
12.0 PLANT UTILITIES SCHEDULES 41
12.1 ELECTRICITY SUPPLIES 41
12.2 STEAM SUPPLY 41
12.3 COOLING WATER SUPPLY 41

viii
12.4 REACTOR BUILDING VENTILATION AIR SUPPLY 41

CHAPTER THIRTEEN
13.0 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 43
13.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATION 44
13.2 GASEOUS WASTES 44
13.3 NOISE 44
13.4 EMISSION AND CONTROL 44
13.5 NUCLEAR WASTE DISPOSAL 44
13.6 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 45
13.7 FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (FEPA) 45
13.8 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) 45
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
14.1 HAZOPS ANALYSIS 46
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
15.0 PROFIT FORECAST AND ECONOMIC EVALUATION 51
15.1 TOTAL CAPITAL COST 51
15.2 FIXED AND WORKING CAPITAL 51
15.3 COST ESTIMATES 51
15.4 TABULATED COST OF EQUIPMENTS 52
15.5 OPERATING COST 52
15.6 ECONOMIC EVALUATION 53
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
16.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 55
16.1 CONCLUSION 55
16.2 RECOMMENDATION 55
REFERENCES 56
APPENDICES 57

ix
 LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE

2.0 COST OF FUEL FOR ELECTRICITY GENERATION 1965 TO 1980

(FUEL COST DATA IN CENTS PER GJ = 109J) 6
2.1 U.S URANIUM ENRGY AVAILABLE EXCEEDS OTHER KNOWN
SOURCES. 6
2.2 V.S URANIUM STATISTICS 1970 TO 1980 (IN THOUSANDS OF
METRIC TONS OF U308). 7
5.1 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE SHEET…………………………23
6.1 LETTER CODE FOR INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS (BASE ON BS
1646,1979)……………………………………………………………………24
7.1 REACTOR DESIGN SPECIFICATION SHEET…………………………26
7.2 STEAM DESIGN SPECIFICATION SHEET………………………..…..27
7.3 PRESSURIZER DESIGN SPECIFICATION SHEET………………..…28
7.4 TURBINE DESIGN SPECIFICATION SHEET………………………….28
7.5 CONDENSER DESIGN SPECIFICATION SHEET…………………….28
7.6 FEED WATER PREHEATER SPECIFICATION SHEET…………..…29
8.1 CONTROL SYYTEM SIGNALS…………………………………………...32
15.1 SUMMARY OF COST EQUIPMENT……………………………………..52

x
 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
2.0 CENTRAL OUTLINE OF CHEMICAL FLOW CHART
FROM ORE TO USABLE NUCLEAR MATERIAL 8
2.1 REFINING OF URANIUM; FEED MATERIAL FLOW
CHART SHEET 11
2.2 UO2 PRODUCTION FLOW CHART (UNITED NUCLEAR CORP). 12
5.1 A BLOCK DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR GENERATING PLANT 22

xi
 CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The discovery of nuclear reactions that yield energy, radiation and
radioisotope is generally regarded as one of the most significant contributions
of the twentieth century. Some believe that the discovery of nuclear energy
should somehow been avoided, while others hold that the revelation of
natural phenomenon is inevitable. However, energy production has been a
major problem not only to the developing nation like Nigeria, but also to the
entire globe because of its extensive usefulness, to better the life of human
race. Lack of adequate power generation delays the progress and
development of a nation. Therefore, the construction of long lasting power
station becomes imperative (Diana Schumacher, 1976).
There is energy shortage in many localities of the world at present
because of the difficulty in obtaining sufficient supplies of fuel primarily coal,
oil and gas. Temporarily, the exist a surplus of uranium fuel. Energy
obtained through nuclear fission can greatly reduce the energy shortage. In
Nigeria, nine power generating plants exist which provide electricity to the
entire country. Out of the nine existing power stations, three are
hydroelectric power plants while six are thermal power plants. The electricity
provided by these power stations has been unstable in nature. However, the
Nigeria government is moving a concerted effort to raise the standard of
living of her citizen through improved energy security.
Hence, this project tends to provide an alternative means of power
generation in Nigeria through the use of nuclear fission reactions which
utilize local uranium mined in Bauchi as a source of fuel.
1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim and objectives of this project are as follows:-
- To design a nuclear power generating plant system of standard capacity
using our local uranium as source of fuel.
- To carry out a comparative analysis of the conventional and alternative
forms of power generation.
- To examine the historical sequence of energy consumption in Nigeria,
the availability of supply, cost and the viability of the new energy
source.
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Conventional thermal stations use oil or coal as the source of energy.
The reserves of these fuels are becoming depleted in many countries. Hydro-
electric power plants have to be situated where a sufficient flow and head of
water are available. In view of the above, there is a tendency to seek an
alternative source of energy by designing a model plant capable of processing
our local uranium for power generation and with inherent wider choice of
suitable location.

1
1.4 LIMITATION AND SCOPE
The scope of this work is the design of a model plant capable of
utilizing our local uranium mined in Bauchi State of Nigeria as source of fuel.
However, lack of the financial clout to actually fabricate the reactor and the
time frame within which the project is to be completed constitute the major
limiting factors.

2
 CHAPTER TW0

2.0 NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Nuclear reactions are in two forms- fission and fusion reactions. The
first spontaneously decaying substances discovered were radium and
polonium isolated by Curies in a resounding scientific achievement.
Enormous quantity of heat is evolved during nuclear reactions. There must
be proper control of these nuclear reactions so that their energy could be
harnessed and used.

2.1 NUCLEAR FISSION

In 1939, German scientist brought nuclear fission by bombarding
uranium-235 atoms with neutrons traveling at moderate speeds. The process
resulted in a uranium-235 atom being split up into two fragments of about
equal sizes, accompanied by the evolution of a tremendous amount of energy
and release of two or more fast-moving neutrons. The two large fragments
formed from the fission of each uranium-235 atom are usually unstable
isotopes of some heavy elements
(for example)94 s 139 145 Bu and 88 Kr),
38
54 x e. 56 36
and it is the radioactive disintegration of such atoms that accounts for the
intense radiation (mainly  and -rays) associated with nuclear fission.
235
U+1n
Nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of a heavy element is
split into two nuclei of nearly equal mass with a release of energy and
radiation. In all cases of nuclear fission, the total mass of all the fragments
and neutrons released differ from the total mass of the original atom of the
element and the mass of the bombarding neutron.
Under appropriate conditions, neutrons react with uranium and
thorium to produce new isotopes, some table, others having extremely short
half lives. A 235U atom absorb a thermal neutron, then splits into fragments
of nearly one-half the original atomic weight, gives up neutrons, and an
enormous heat energy release.
235
U + neutron fission product + energy + 233 neutrons (2.01).
Neutrons released by fission are at high energy levels and can react in
fast reactors, however, most reactors require that they be slowed down to
thermal speeds before they can be captured by 235 U. slow down is done by
repeated elastic collisions with moderators, substances such as carbon. H 20
or D20 absorbs few neutrons but allows elastic collisions of the 2.43 neutrons
released. One H20 or D20 is required to continue the chain reaction and
others my lead to other nuclear reactions or be lost through leakage or
capture by elements in the reactor.
Naturally occurring uranium contains only 0.71% 235U, the remainder
being 238U. The 235U content is increased by isotope separation and
concentration in order to sustain the chain reaction and derive usable energy.

3
Unmoderated natural uranium cannot sustain a chain reaction. High
concentration of 235
U reduces reactor size and increases the period between
fuel replacement. The common isotopes of uranium and thorium 235U and
232
Th, do not split on absorbing a neutron, but do form other elements that
undergo rapid spontaneous decay to yield isotopes that are fissionable, so
they are utilized for power production.
235
U + n
1 239
U 239
Np Pu
239 (fissile) (
2.02)
92 0 92 90 91

23mins, 91 days 27days

Isotopes that are not fissile but are convertible to fissile materials are
called fertile materials. The synthesis of such elements and other heavier
ones, the transuranic elements on a large scale is an important scientific
development 239PU has a long half-life (24,000 years) and is quite important
because it has ability to absorb (high cross –section) for fast neutrons and a
low critical mass for fast fissions, desirable properties for military
applications. Fuel –grade plutonium is produced as a by-product of water-
moderated power reactors.

2.2 NUCLEAR FUSION

Another potential source of nuclear energy exists in nuclear fusion, in
which the nuclei of the light atoms are made to combine to form heavier and
more stable nuclei, with an accompanying release of energy. This energy is
due to a slight loss in mass when the heavier nucleus is formed by the
fussion of the lighter nuclei. The amount of energy per unit mass of nuclear
fuel liberated by nuclear fusion is far greater than that liberated by nuclear
fission.. In practice, nuclear fusion occurs only at extremely high
temperatures (At least 1.5x1070C) and is termed as a thermonuclear reaction.
This is because very large energies have to be given to the positively charged
nuclei to overcome the strong repulsion between them.
Nuclear fusion is a process in which two or more light nuclei fuse or
combine to form a heavier nucleus, with a release of energy and radiation.
The high temperatures required for nuclear fusion can be obtained by nuclear
fission. When a mixture of deuterium and tritium (the two heavy isotopes of
hydrogen) is exposed to the heat from a fission bomb explosion, nuclear
fusion occurs.

2 D+3T 4 He + 1n + energy (2.03)

1 1 2 0

This type of reaction is the basis of the hydrogen or fusion bomb. The
lethal power of this bomb is partly (due to a small loss in mass) and partly to
the large quantity of Y-radiation produced by the detonating agent.

4
 The conversion of hydrogen to Helium converts matter into energy. For
example:
1 4
H H e + 26.7mev or 4.3 x10-12) (2.04)
4 2

This reaction (2.03), which takes place continuously in the sun is being
attempted by physicists. Actual nuclear fusion is more complicated than the
simple reaction shown above (2.03). The energy produced is very great 792
x105MJ per kilogram of hydrogen converted. Short bursts of power have been
obtained enough to permit significant power production has not been
achieved. This development appears uncertain while not yet a commercial
part of nuclear technology, fusion of atoms to form more complex ones can be
accompanied by loss of mass with consequent generation of energy. A great
deal of expensive experimentation has as yet failed to discover a fusion
system in which there is a usable net generation of energy. Scientists feel
that real progress is being made, however.
2.3 URANIUM AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
The dwindling availability of reasonably priced fossil fuels has led to
conservation practices which have decreased the energy demand and the
emotional public outcry against reactors following the three mile accident
have reduced the demand for uranium as fuel and created a temporary
surplus. Capital costs for electrical energy made in nuclear-fueled plants are
greater than for traditional fuels, but uranium is the lowest cost fuel available
at present and its price has risen at a lower rate than those of other fuels
during the last 15 years as shown in Table 2.0 At the present electricity
generated by nuclear plants and that from fossil fuels are virtually identical in
total cost. The greater safely and cleanliness of nuclear units should
ultimately make them the more attractive alternative.
The current price of uranium ($70 to $77 per kilogram in 1982) is
depressed by low demand but with present technology, uranium at $110 per
kilogram is cheaper than residual oil at $250 per metric ton. A $1 per
kilogram increase in the price of U3O5 is equivalent to 10 cents per metric ton
increase for coal or 17 cents per metric ton increase for oil. These figures
show that as a base load fuel, uranium is obviously cheaper than oil at the
present time. Waste disposal and decommissioning costs are another crucial
considerations. Solid waste disposal costs for oil have been estimated by the
General Accounting Officer of the US government in 1980 as costing roughly
three times more than that for nuclear waste (coal between 1.0 and
1.2millions, nuclear 0.22 to 0.3mils/MJ). The Co 2 and SO2 in the gaseous
fossil fuel discharge are also objectionable and may ultimately require
limitation.
There exists the virtual certainty that demand for uranium will
continue and increase. The U.S known sources of available energy show
uranium as the major reserves uranium in the United States is found in
Ganda stones of the Colorado Plateau, basins in Wyoming and the gulf coast

5
plains of Texas. It is also present in phosphate rock in Florida and the
Western States and can be recovered as a by-product of processing for the
manufacturing of phosphate fertilizers. Rich area are present in Canada and
Africa. States producing uranium are (in order of production) new Mexico,
Wyoming, Texas, Colorado, Florida, Utah, Washington.
Table 2.0 Cost of Fuel for Electricity Generation 1965 to 1980/ five cost
data in cents per GJ = 109J)
Fuel 1965 1970 1975 1980
Bituminous 1.9.0 26.4 91.5 152.8
Sub bituminous 11.6 13.7 52.4 120.2
Residual oil 36.9 52.7 212.4 451.3
Natural gas 26.4 28.5 79.5 224.6
Nuclear fuel 21.1 23.2 30.6 39.6
Source: C.M Valorie, power plant fuels and their effects on the cost of
Electricity. United Engineers and Constructors.

Table 2.1 U.S Uranium Energy Available Exceeds other

known sources.
Resource Available Energy EJ (1018J)
Uranium 137,500
Coal and Lignite 12,700
Oil shale 6,120
Petroleum and natural gas
liquids 1,160
Natural gas 1,000
Source: U.S Department of Energy

Table 2.2 U.S Uranium statistics 1970 to 1980 (in thousands of metric
tons of U3O8)
1970 1975 1978 1979 1980
Recoverable 11.6 10.9 17.1 14.3 18.2
U3O8
Production, 11.7 10.5 16.5 17.0 19.9
concentrate
Imports, - 0.6 2.4 1.5 1.6
concentrate
Free world 22.0 22.5 40.1 44.9 51.5
production
Source; U.S Department of Energy Statistical Data of the Uranium.

2.4 NUCLEAR FUELS

In the early years of the nuclear industry, South African ores of various
types and Canadian pitchblende were the major sources. In later years,
larger supplies of uranium ore came from domestic sources as shown in table

6
2.2. uranium is widely distributed. It is more abundant in the earth’s crust
than mercury and is present in about the same amount as tin and
molybdenum. Thorium, while less widely used than uranium is a suitable
nuclear fuel Thorium exists with only one natural isotope, 232 Th, and is not
very rare. Most of it is obtained as a by-product of the processing monazite, a
complex phosphate, for the extraction of rare earths. Reserves are large and
hardly utilized yet. Major deposits are found in India, Brazil, Union of South
Africa, Australia, Malaysia and the United States.

2.4.1 Mining And Milling Ore

Mining of ore: The physical mining is done

on a larger scale: the ore (containing 2kg
of
U3O8per to) is shipped to the mill.

Milling: Extraction and concentration to

U3O8
Yellow cake: The usual process is sulfuric acid
Extraction followed by solvent concentration of
hydron Exchange and precipitation with
caustic soda.

Refusing: further concentration and

extreme purification

Tetra fluoride

Umedal production: Hexaflouride production

(a) Natural uranium
(b) Enriched uranium is processed
to Metal or oxides.

Plutonium: made by non- Enrichment: isotope separation

Controlled Synthesis 238U and concentration by gaseous
on fusion centrifusion thermal
diffusion by lasers

Plutonium 239 Uranium 235

FIGURE 2.0. CENTRAL OUTLINE OF CHEMICAL FLOWCHART FROM 235
USABLE NUCLEAR MATERIAL.

7
Figure 2.0 shows the main steps from ore to usable nuclear materials. The
purification utilizes solvent extraction, a difficult isotope separation process,
finally a unique process-the synthesis of an elements, plutonium.
The steps are:
(1) Mining of the Ore: Mined U.S ores carry only a low concentration
(around 0.2% U308) of uranium.
(2) Milling and extraction to produce impure U 308, or yellow cake. Ores
are usually leached with sulfuric acid, then the weak leach solutions
are concentrated by ion-exchange or solvent extraction and finally
yellow cake is precipitated with caustic soda. The tailings contain a
small amount of radioactive material.
(3) Isotope enrichment in 235U, usually by separating 235Uf6 from mixed
isomers of Uf6 using gas diffusion.
(4) Conversion of Uf6 to U02 or U.
(5) Mechanical forming, involving pressing, sintering and grinding to
precise size.
(6) Element fabrication, cladding, sealing, pressuring, and assembling
into units.
(7) Reaction in a nuclear reactor do produce power and/or plutonium.
2.4.2 Refining And Purification
Conversion of crude yellow cake or uranium metal to material pure
enough for reactor use that is free of other elements, particularly neutron
absorbers is required. Boron and Cadmium are particularly troublesome and
must be below 1ppm. The process for accomplishing this was a closely
guarded secret until the end of world war II. Figure 2.1 shows the essential
steps of the process as operated at Savannah River, S. C or Hanford, wash
uranyl nitrate hexahydrate is quite soluble in ethyl either, tributyl phosphate
kerosene, or TBP-hexaane solutions. Contaminants show virtually no
solubility. These extractions make a very clean separation of uranium from
other inorganics possible yielding high purities with few steps. This organic
extraction procedure is also useful in treating irradiated fuel elements from
reactors to separate uranium and plutonium.
The reactions involved are as follows
Dissolving
U306 + 5HNO3 (aq) 2U02 (N03)2 (aq) +2NO2 +4H20
ΔH= -173KJ
Or UO2 + 4HNO3(aq) U02(N03)2 (aq) +2NO2 +2H20
Or U + 5.5HNO3caq) U02(N03)2 (aq) +2.25NO2 +1.25N0
+2.75H20
Solvent extraction then yields very pure uranium nitrate hexahydrate,
which is converted to volatile UF6 by the following reactions.
U02(N03)2 + 6H2 0 heat UO3 + 2No2+ ½ 02 + 6H20
ΔH= +563KJ
U03(q) + H2 UO2(s) + H20(g) ΔH= -106KJ
U02(g) + 4Hf(g) Uf4(X) + 2H20(g) ΔH= -181KJ

8
UF4O3 + 2Mg U + 2Mg F2 ΔH= -350KJ
Uf4(g) + f2(g) UF6(g) ΔH= -251KJ

Digestion: The yellow cake U3O8 is digested

with hot 45% nitric acid to solubilize the uranium
as U02 (N03)2, the hexavalent salt

solvent Extraction: The uranium is selectively and

continuously removed from the acid solution by
the IBP or tributyl phosphate, by a reversible IBP
U02 (N03) complex, in pumped decanters

Reaction from the organic IBP U02 (N03)2

complex in evaporators and finally in stipped
gas-fired pots (or continuous denitractors)

Continuous extraction in pumper decneter-pulse

extraction column denitraction of U03. the aqueous
extract is concentrated in evaporators and finally to
form U02 called “orange oxide”

Hydrogen reduction to U02 is in continuous

flourized bed at 8160c using dissociated NH3.

Hydroflorination to UF4, commonly called “green

salt”Is done in a continuous spral-screw agitated
tubeFurnace with the HF entering counter
current at 820c and rising to about 6000c.

magnesium reduction is in a
thermit type batch furnace lined
with mgf2 (by-product). This is heated florination by reaction
to about 7000c when the charge react Uf4(g) +2F (g) Uf4 (g)
exothermically giving molten uranium ΔH=251KJ
which separates from the slag. The shell
is cooled and metal broken out from
mgf2 slag

Uranium metal enrichment using

the gaseous
diffusion process

9
 depleted

Low in 235
U.
FIG 2.1 REFINING OF URANIUM FEED MATERIAL PLANT FLOW SHEET
2.4.3 Isotope Enrichment
The two major processes used to separate 235U from238U are the
gaseous diffusion process and the gas centrifuge process. The gaseous
diffusion process is based on differences in the diffusion rate between 235UF6
and 238UF6 through porous barriers several means free paths long. The
enrichment per stage is small so thousands of stages are required and the
power consumption of the inter stage pumps is enormous. Enrichment
plants in the United State consumed 4.1 percent of the country’s entire
electrical power output in 1970. maximum enrichment is 94% 235U, with a
waste containing about 0.3% 235U.
The gas centrifuge process depends on centrifuge force for the
separation. Capital expenses is greater than for a diffusion plant, but the
energy requirement is only 1/20th as agreed. The voigt has estimated the
1982 relative cost as $180 per SWU (Separative Work Units-units of capacity)
for the diffusion process with a corresponding cost for the centrifuge process
of $70 to 80 per swu with the probability of a drop of 20 to 50 percent in the
near future. Other exotic processes continue to be suggested and/or tested.
Three such Advanced Isotope Separation (AIS) processes are currently being
developed in the United States by the Department of Energy (DOE). These
are known as the Plasma Separation Process (PSP) the atomic vapor laser
isotope Separation (AVLI) process, and the molecular laser isotope separation
(MLIS) process. As nuclear power becomes increasingly important, the
expensive separation process will require much expansion, and it is hoped
that processes can reduce costs dramatically, UF 6 can be converted to UO2. a
high degree of protection against even minor contamination is essential if the
necessary purity is to be obtained.

2.5 NUCLEAR FUELS SELECTION

The three fissionable isotopes, 238U, 235U and 239PU, have a higher
probability of fission than capture when absorbing a neutron.
These are the only common materials which can sustain a nuclear
fission reaction, and therefore they are the nuclear fuels. Of these isotopes,
only 235U occurs in nature. The other two are reactor-synthesized and extend
the amount of fissionable material far beyond that which occurs naturally.
Fuels for reactor use must have suitable physical as well as nuclear
properties. Solids are usually preferred, so U0 2, Th02, Pv02 and mixtures in
the form of sintered, high-density pellets are commonly used. Other
combinations that have been used are uranium-aluminum alloys and
cermets. U02 enriched to varying percentages of 235U is widely preferred
because of its high melting point (2176 0c), good thermal conductivity, high
density and resistance to the effects of radiation.

10
2.5.1 Mechanical Forming And Element
Fabrication.
To form fabricated fuel elements, fuels are pressed, sintered; ground to
exact size, inserted in a sheath of stainless steel, zirconium or one of
zircalloys, pressurized with holmium , carefully welded shut; then assembled
into convenient sized groups for handling. Some work must be done by
remote control or in glove boxes. Preparation is tedious and exacting, and
quality control is of the utmost importance.
Figure 3.0 Uo2 production flow chart (United Nuclear corp)

2.6 NUCLEAR REACTORS

Nuclear reactors have been defined as devices containing fissionable
material in sufficient quantity and so arranged as to be capable of
maintaining a controlled, self-sustaining nuclear fission chain reaction.
There are three major types of reactors now operating: burners, breeders and
converters. In addition, many other classifications and subgroups are
possible.

2.7 TYPES OF POWER REACTOR

The main types of reactor are thermal reactors and fast reactors. In
thermal reactors, moderators are used to slow down the neutrons to a speed
at which they can react readily with 235U and cause fission. The energy of the
neutrons causing fission corresponds to the ambient temperature inside the
reactor. In fast reactors, the neutron energies are very nearly at a level at
which they emerge as fragments from the fissile material during fission. In
the thermal type, most of the neutrons have energies of about 0.3ev; in fast
reactors, most of the neutrons have energies of above 1,000ev.
Another method of classifying reactors is to consider the physical
arrangement of fissile material, moderator and colorant, etc. for example,
(1) Type of fuel: Natural uranium or enriched uranium.
(2) Type of moderator: Graphite, heavy water or ordinary water.
(3) Type of coolant: Gas, water, heavy water or liquid metal.
Some commercial types of reactor are described below.

2.7.1 Colder Hall Reactor

This type of reactor uses natural uranium 0.3 fuel, is graphite
moderated and gas cooled.

2.7.2 Magnex Reactor

This reactor uses natural uranium as fuel, graphite as moderator and
CO2 gas as coolant. The reactor pressure vessel is surrounded by a thick

11
concrete biological shield, which attenuates the gamma and neutron
radiation from the core. With concrete vessels, it is possible to have boilers
accommodated inside the vessel and eliminate the cooling ducts. The steam
pressure and temperature of the plant with this type of reactor are rather low.

2.7.3 Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGR)

The Advanced gas cooled reactor is a development from magnox and
uses the same technology. It uses uranium oxide (U0 2) as fuel material
enriched by a small percentage of U 235 and C02 gas as coolant. But the
coolant temperatures are higher. This enables generation of steam at higher
temperature and pressure. Different fuel geometry is used in AGR. Another
difference between the magnox type reactor and AGR is that the core
temperature in AGR is much higher. Special measures are therefore, needed
to be taken to cool the graphite moderator in order to build the rate at which
it reacts with C02.

2.7.4 Boiling Water Reactor

The fuel is enriched uranium,, water is used as both the moderator
and coolant. The uranium elements are arranged in a particular little form
inside a pressure vessel containing water. The heat released by the nuclear
reaction is absorbed by the water and the steam is generated inside the vessel
itself. Feed water enters the reactor tank below to pass through the fuel
elements in the core as coolant and also as moderator. In the boiling water
reactor the cooling system of the pressurized water reactor is eliminated.

2.7.5 The Pressurized Water Reactor

The fuel is enriched uranium and water under pressure is used as
both moderator and coolant. This type of reactor is designed to prevent the
boiling of the water coolant in the uranium core. A pump circulates water of
high pressure round the core so that the water in the liquid state absorbs
heat from the uranium and transfers it to the secondary loop, the boiler. The
boiler has a heat exchanger and a steam drum. A pressurized tank tapped
into the pipe loop maintains pressure in the water system.

2.7.6 Candu Type Reactor

This was first developed by Canadians. Heavy water is used as
moderator, in order to get maximum neutron economy, the coolant used is
also heavy water. Hence the name (CANDU/Canadian Deuterium Uranium).
With this combination and strict attention to minimizing absorption in core
structural materials, high burn up with natural uranium fuel is obtained.
The primary circuit passes through heat exchangers and pumps in the
same way as a PWR raising steam from natural water in the secondary
circuit. Control of the reactor is achieved by varying the moderator level. For
rapid shut down, moderator can be dumped through a very large area
multiple trap into a tank below the reactor. The disadvantage of the CANDU

12
type reactor is that it uses heavy water at high pressure and temperature in
the coolant circuit. Heavy water is very expensive.

2.7.7 Sodium Graphite Reactor

Graphite is used as the moderator, and liquid sodium (Na) as the
coolant. This coolant can reach high temperature at a moderate pressure of
only 7kgkm2. An intermediate heat exchanger is necessary between the
reactor and the boiler. This intermediate heat exchanger uses liquid Nak, an
alloy of sodium and potassium, to carry heat to the boiler.

13
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM (PFD)

3.1 GENERAL PROCESS
Process Flow Diagram (PFD) is a sketch of a plant using conventional symbols to
represent the various units of operation and arrow lines to depict the nature of interaction
between units and materials in process. The process flow diagram of a chemical process plant
gives an overview of the plant. On the PFD, Codes may be used to name or identify the various
units. Material flow on the other hand is represented by arrows showing the direction of flow.
Refer to page 80 for Process Flow Diagram.

3.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The developed process design for the reactor to produce 32,000 MW of electricity for
342days per annum is as illustrated below, showing the main stages.
The fuel is essentially pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) arranged in tubes to form fuel
rods. The rod are arrange into fuel assemblies in the reactor core (01)
A PWR has fuel assemblies of 200-300 rods each, arranged vertically in the core, and a
large reactor would have about 150-250 fuel assemblies with 80-100 tones of Uranium.
Water in the reactor core reaches about 325fc, hence it must be kept under about 150 times
atmospheric pressure to prevent it from boiling. Pressure is maintain by steam in a pressurizer
(see diagram below)
In the primary cooling circuit, the water is also the moderator, and if any of it turned to
steam the fission reaction would slow down. This negative feedback effect is one of the safety
features of the PWR.
The secondary circuit is under less pressure and the water here boils in the heat
exchanges which are this steam generators. The steam drives the turbine to produce electricity,
and is then condensed and returned to the heat exchanges in contact with the primary circuit.

3.3 REACTION KINETICS

The kinetics of a chemical reaction gives a brighter understanding and more technical
details of the reaction than stoichiometry of the reaction.
Most research groups that have studied the development of a nuclear chain reaction
have agreed that it can be measured by the multiplication constant (or reproduction factor)
which is defined ask = (number of neutrons arising from the chain reaction in one
generation)/(number of neutrons arising from the chain reactor in the previous generation).
The symbol K is now used for the multiplication constant, the subscript infinity 
being the presumption that there is no less of neutrons out of the system, that is, the system-the
nuclear reactor is assumed to be of infinite size. From the definition of the multiplication
constant, it is clear that:
(1) If K>1, the chain reaction is diverging and the nuclear reactor is said to be “supercritical”
as the power produced is related to the number of fission of events taking place, this is the
condition for power raising. The large the value of K, he quiker is the rate of power rise.
(2) If K=1 the chain reaction is self-sustaining and the reactor is said to be ‘critical’. A
nuclear power station producing power at a steady rate for perhaps months or years – a base
lead power station – is therefore critical.

14
(3) If K<1, the chain reaction is converging and the reactor power is decreasing. The rate of
power decrease is determined by how much less than unity is the value of K
To keep the reactor critical, about 40.5 of each 100 fission neutrons must ultimately
engage in fission. However, only about 84% of the neutrons that get observed in 235U cause
fission. The remaining 16% neutrons reacting with it produce 236U, an isotope of no particular
importance therefore, a total of about 40.5/0.84 or 48 neutrons must be absorbed in 235U to
cause fission. Thus, a minimum of about 52 neutrons may be allowed to leak out of the core
and absorbed in other core materials.
From the material and energy balance (see chapter five) the number of neutrons
fissioning 235U
= 7.59 x 1022/day
 The neutron flux
 = 759 x 1022
Area day
But area
= 2rh = Dh
=  x 8.19 x 103 x 11.905 x 110-2
= 4.9015 x 10-4 m2
1 day = 86,400s
 = 7.59 x 1022

4.9015 x 10-4m2 86,400s 1 day

1 day

= 1.7923 x 1021/m2.s
The number of neutrons/m2s, o (fission; non-fission and leaking) = 100 x 48
1.7923 x 1021
21 2
= 3.7339 x 10 /M .5
Now,  = o cos (L) Jo (2.405 R)
LI RI
=> Cos (L) = 
L I
.J. (2.405RI)
But R = 2.01875m

and R1 = R = 0.201875m
10

let  = 2.405R
R1
= 2.405 x 2.01875
0.201875
= 24.05
Jo () = Jo (24.05)
= 0.8971 (from Bessel function table)
cos (L) = 533506 x 10-1
LI

15
 L = Cos-1 0.5351

L = cos-1 0.5351
LI 
Multiplying through by a scaling factor of 48.05,
L = 03203 x 403
LI
Now LI = 2RI = 2 x 0.201875m
LI = 0.402375m
 L = LI x 03203 x 40.3
= 0.40375 x 0.3203 x48.05
= 6. 21m
=> Volume of reactor = r2h
=  x (3.37)2 x 6.21
2
= 55.40 m3

16
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 EQUIPMENT AND BASIC EQUIPMENT LISTING

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The process flow-sheet shows the arrangement of the major pieces of equipment and
their interconnection. It is a description of the nature of the process. This chapter covers the
lists of equipments, pipes, pumps, values and fittings used in nuclear power generation, using a
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), or the Boiling Water Reactor (BWR). These process
equipments are divided into key process equipments and the auxiliary equipments.

4.2 KEY PROCESS EQUIPMENT LIST FOR ELECTRICAL POWER

GENERATION USING A PWR
1. The Feed Water Heater (pre-heater)
2. The Steam Generator (Boiler)
3. The Reactor Unity
4. The Pressurizer
5. The Turbine
6. The Condenser
7. The Power Generator

4.2.1 The Auxiliary Units/Equipments for a PWR

1. The Feed Water Pump
2. The Primary Coolant Pump
3. The Coolant Pump
4. The Condenser Pump
5. The Control Valves
6. The Pipes and Fittings

4.3 KEY PROCESS EQUIPMENT LISTS FOR ELECTRICAL POWER

GENERATION USING A BWR
1. The Feed Water Heater (Pre-heater)
2. The Reactor Unit (with steam separators and dryers)
3. The Turbine
4. The Condenser
5. The Power Generator

4.3.1 Auxiliary Units/Equipments for a BWR

1. The Cooling Water Pump
2. Condensate Pump
3. The Feed Pump
4. The Control Valves
5. The Pipes and Fittings

17
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES

5.1 MATERIAL BALANCE
Material balance are the basis of process design. A material balance taken over the
complete process will determine the quantities of raw materials required and product produced.
Balances over individual process units set the process stream flows and composition material
balances are also useful tools for the study of plant operation and trouble shooting (Sinnot,
2000). They can be used to check performance against design, to check instrument calibrations,
and to locate sources of material.

5.2 CONSERVATION OF MASS

The general conservation equation for any process system can be written as;
Material out = material in + Generation-Consumption-Accumulation. 5.1
For a steady-state process, the accumulation term will be zero. Except in nuclear processes,
mass is neither generated nor consumed; but if a chemical reaction takes place a particular
chemical species may be formed or consumed in the process. If there is no chemical reaction
the steady-state balance reduces to
Material in = material out 5.2

4.3.2 THE EQUIPMENT OF MASS AND ENERGY

Einstein showed that mass and energy are equivalent. Energy can be converted into
mass, and mass into energy they are related by Einstein’s equation:
E  mc 2 5.3

Where E = Energy, J
m = Mass, kg
c = the speed of light in vacuum, 3 x 108m/s
The loss of mass associated with the production of energy is significant only in nuclear
reactions. Energy and matter are always considered to be separately conserved in chemical
reactions.

4.3.3 Choice of System Boundary

The conservation law holds for the complete process and any sub-division of the
process. The system boundary defines the part of the process being considered. The flows into
and out of the system are those crossing the boundary and must balance with material
generated or consumed within the boundary.
Any process can be divided up in an arbitrary way to facilitate the material balance
calculations. The judicious choice of the system boundaries can often greatly simplify what
would otherwise be difficult and tortuous calculation.

4.3.4 Scale Up Factor

It is usually easiest to carry out the sequence of flow-sheet calculations in the same
order as the process steps; starting with the raw-material feeds and progressing stage by stage,
where possible, through the process to the final product flow. The required production rate will

18
usually be specified in terms of the product, not the raw-material feeds, so it will be necessary
to select at arbitrary basis for the calculations, say 100k mol/hr of the principal raw material.
The actual flow required can then be calculated by multiplying each flow by a scaling factor
determined from. The actual production rate required.
Scaling factor = mols product per hour specified 5.4
mols product produced per 100kmol
of the principal raw material

4.4 ENERGY BALANCES

As with mass, energy can be considered to be separately conserved in all but nuclear
process.
The conservation of energy, however, differs from that of mass in that energy can be
generated (or consumed) in a chemical process. Material can change form, new molecular
species can be formed by chemical reactions, but the total mass flow into a process unit must
be equal to the flow out at the steady state. The same is not true of energy. The total enthalpy
of the outlet streams will not equal that of the inlet streams if energy is generated or consumed
in the processes; such as that due to heat of reaction.
In process design, energy balances are made to determine the energy requirements of
the process: the hating, cooling and power required. In plant operation, an energy usage, and
suggest areas for conservation and savings.

4.4.1 Conservation Of Energy

As for material, a general section can be written for the conservation of energy:
Energy out = Energy in + generation – consumption – accumulation
For unit mass of material,

U 21 U2
H 1  zg  Q  H 2  2  zg  w 5.5
2 2

Where H = enthalpy
U2 = kinetic energy term
Zg = potential energy term
Q = Heat
W = Work
The specific heat capacity could be evaluated from power series.
Cp  a  bT  CT 2  dT 3 5.6
Where T is in K or (oC)
The average Cp, Cpm between two temperatures t1 and t2 are given (Sinnott, 2000) as.
t2 t2
Cpm  cpdt   dt 5.7
t1 t1

19
The block diagram for nuclear power generation using a pressurized boiler reactor is given as:

1 2 4 6
SG-01 T-01 G-01
R-01

5 7
3

10
PH-01 C-01 8

Key:
Unit R-01: Reactor
9
Unite ST-01: Steam generator
Unite T-01: Turbine Fig 5.1: A block diagram of a
nuclear generating plant
Unite G-01: Generator
Unite C-01: Condenser
Unit PH-01: Preheater

Unit 6: Preheater

20
Table V is a summary of the material and energy balances while the datailed calculation is given in Appendix A.
Table V: MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE SHEET
STREAMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
COMPONENT
WATER (kg/s) - 149.7 - - 15.34 2.758 11.0312 149.796
Steam (kg/s) - - 149.7 2.75 - - - - -
-5
Uranium (kg/s) 1.157x10 - - - - - - - - -
Temperature (oc) - 324.4 262 - 33 12 22 33 56 293.4

X 48.05

Table VI: Scale-up of material and Energy Balance Sheet

STREAMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
COMPONENT
WATER (kg/s) - 6036.8- - - - - 6421.4 11.1 444.56 6036.8
STEAM (kg/s) - - 6036.8 - 111.14 - - - - -
URANIUM 4.664 x10-4 - - - - - - - - -
TEMPERATURE 293.4 324.4 - 33 - 22 33 56 293.4

21
 CHAPTER SIX

6.0 PIPING AND INSTRUMENT DIAGRAM

The piping and instrumentation diagram (P and I D) shows the engineering
details of the equipments, instruments, piping, values and fittings: and their
arrangement. It is often called the engineering line diagram.
The chapter covers the preparation of the preliminary P and I diagrams at the
process design stage of the project (complete profile process model plant of standard
capacity that is capable of processing raw uranium for power generation).
The P and I diagrams show the arrangement of the process equipment
including;
1. All process equipment identified by an equipment number.
2. All pipes identified by a line number. The pipe size and material of
construction is shown. The material may be included as part of the line
identification number.
3. All values, control and block valves, with an identification number. The
type and size should be shown. They may be shown by the symbol used for the
value or included in the symbol used for the valve or included in the code used for
the value number.
4. Auxiliary fittings that are part of the piping system, such as whine sight-
glass, strainers and stream traps, with an identification number.
5. Pumps, identified by a suitable code number.
6. All control loops and instruments, with an identification number.
Refer to page 81 for piping and instrumentation diagram.

S6.1 TYPE OF INSTRUMENT

The type of instruments used in indicated on the circle representing the
instrument-controller by a letter code as shown in table 6.1 below
TABLE VII: LETTER CODE FOR INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS
(BASED ON BS 1646, 1979)
Property First Indicating Recoding Indicating and
measured letter Only Only controllined
Flow rate F F1 FR FC
Level L LI LR LC
Pressure P PI PR PC
Quantity Q Q1 QR QC
Analysis
Radiation R RI RR PC
Temperature T TI TR TC
Weight W WI WR WC
(Sinnott; R.K; 1999)

The first letter indicates the property measured; for example, F = flow
subsequent letter indicate the function, for example, 1 = indicating, RC = recorder
controller. The suffixes E and A can be added to indicate emergency action and/or
alarm functions.

22
 The instrument connecting lines from the main process lines, dotted or cross-
hatched lines are normally used.

6.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

6.2.1 Wall Thickness: Pipe Schedule
The pipe wall thickness is selected to resist the internal pressure, with an
allowance for corrosion. Process pipes can normally be considered as thin cylinders;
only high-pressure pipes, such as high-pressure steam lines, are likely to be classified
as thick cylinders and must be given special consideration.
The British standard 5500 gives the following formula for piping thickness:
pd
t P 6.1
206 d

where P = Internal pressure, bar

d = pipe outer diameters, mm
6d = design stress at working temperature, N/mm2
Pipes are often specified by a schedule number is given as
Schedule number = Ps x 1000 6.2
6s
where Ps = Safe working pressure, (N/mm2)
6s = safe working stress, (N/mm2)
Schedule 40 pipe is commonly used for general purpose.

6.2.2 Pipe Size Selection

If the driving force for the flow of fluid is gravitational from one vessel to
another, or if there were sufficient head for gravitational flow, the smallest pipe
diameter that gives the required flow rate would be normally used.
If the fluid has to be pumped through the pipe the size should be selected to
give the least annual operating cost.

6.2.3 Economic Pipe Diameter

The capital cost of pipe run increase with diameter, whereas the pumping cost
decreases with increasing diameter. The most economic pipe diameter all will be the
one, which gives the lowest annual operating cost.
The optimum pipe diameter is calculated from the following equation.
Optimum diameter = 366G0.53 U0.03 P-0.37 6.3
Because the exponent of the viscosity term is small, its value will change very
little over a wide range of viscosity.
At m = 10-5 N/m2s (0.01Cp), m0.03 = 0.71 and 6.4
At U = 10 n/m S (1OCP), m = 0.88
-2 2 0.03
6.5
Taking mean value of 0.8, gives the following equation equations for optimum
diameter, for turbulent flow:
Carbon steel pipe = d, optimum = 293G0.53 r-0.37 6.6
Stainless steel pipe = d, optimum = 260G r 0.57 0.37
6.7

23
 Equations 6.4 and 6.5 can be used to make an approximate estimate of the
economic pipe diameter for normal pipe runs.

24
 CHAPTER SEVEN

7.0 REACTOR DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION

This chapter gives the details of the design specification for the equipment
used in Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) system for electrical power generation.
1) Reactor power = 32,000 MW (given)
2) Electric power = 1 of reactor power
3
= 1 x 32,000
3
= 10,667 MW
3) Specific power = Reactor power in kW
Total kg of Uranium
= 32,000 x 103 kW
13255.83kg
2414 kW/kg
4) Power density = Reactor power
Volume of reactor
Now, assume cylindrical volume,
Volume of reactor = r2h
= 22 (3.37)2 x 4.17
7 2
= 46.49 m3
=> Power density = 32,000 MW
46.49 m3
= 688.32 MW/m3
-4
fuel loading = 4.46x10 kg/605/60min/24hr/342days
5 1min 1hr 1day 1yr
= 13255.83kg/yr
The table below shows the summary

Tables VIII: Reactor Design Specification Sheet

ITEM REACTOR UNIT
Identification No. R –01
Function Generation of heat for electricity
Reactor power 32,000 MW
Electric power 9,000
Specific power 194.82 kW/kg
Power density 580.77 MW/m3
Reactor core length 5.21m
Reactor code diameter 3.37m
Reactor inlet piping
Pipe ID 7.11 x10-3 m
Minimum thickness 0.572 x 10-3m
Reactor outlet piping
Pipe OD 9.14 x 10-3 m

25
 Minimum thickness 0.7303 x 10-3 m
Rod OD 9.5 x10-3m
Clad thickness 0.57 x 10-3 m
Pellet diameter 8-19 x 10-3m
Rod Lattice Pitch 12-6 x 10-3 m
Assembly width 214 x 110-3 m
Rods per assembly 264 (17 x 17 array)
Assemblies 193
Fuel loading, UO2 1.38592 x 105
Fuel enrichment 3%
Coolant
Pressure 1150 bar
Inlet temperature 293.4oC
Outlet temperature 324.9oC
Flow rate S 305.77 kg/s
Maximum rod surface heat 8.3906 MW/m2
flux
Linear heat rate coverage 32.468 kW/m
Rod cluster elements 25 per assembly
Control assemblies 61 fuel length, 8 part length
Material of construction for Carbon steel
vessel

7.1 MECHANICAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION

This section deals with the design/mechanical specification of the other units
other than the reactor. However, the chemical engineer will be responsible for
developing and specifying the basic information for a particular vessel, and needs to
have a general appreciation of pressure, temperature, flow etc. design to work
effectively with the specialist designer.

26
7.2 STEAM GENERATOR DESIGN SPECIFICATION
Table IX: Steam Generator Design Specification Sheet
ITEM STEAM GENERATOR
Identification No. 5 G – 01
Function To generate steam
Steam flow rate 111.15 kg/s
Feed water flow rate 6421.4 kg/s
Coolant temperature 324.4oC
Exist steam temperature 262oC
Feed water inlet temperature 56oC
Coolant flow rate 603.8 kg/s
DIMENSIONS (TUBE SIDE)
OD 17.48 x 10-3 m
Wall thickness 1.016 x 10-3m
Total length of tubes 100 x103m
Number of U-Tubes 56226
Material of construction Incond 600 material

Dimensions (shell side)

OD 4.190 m
Tube sheet thickness 0.610 m
Material of construction Low alloy steel.

7.3 PRESSURIZER DESIGN SPECIFICATION

27
Table X: Pressurizer Design Specification Sheet
ITEM PRESSURISER
Identification No. Ps –01
Function To maintain coolant pressure within
permissible limits
REACTOR TRIP
High pressure trip 172 bar
Low pressure trip 162 bar
Set point pressure 150 bar
Vessel height 16 m
Internal volume of vessel 51m3
Surge pipe size 0.254 m
Number of heaters 78
Total power rating of heaters 1800 kW

7.4 TURBINE DESIGN SPECIFICATION

Table XI: Turbine Design Specification Sheet
ITEM STEAM TURBINE
Identification ST – 01
To convert shaft work into mechanical
Function energy to produce electrical energy.
Steam flow rate 6036.8 kg/s
Steam inlet pressure 4848.5 kPa
Efficiency 0.75

7.5 CONDENSER DESIGN SPECIFICATION

Table XII: Condenser Design Specification Sheet
ITEM CONDENSER

Identification No. CO - 01
Function To condense or convert steams to
liquid.
Steam flow rate 111.15 kg/s

Cooling water flow rate 6421.4 kg/s

Cooling water inlet temperature 12oC

Cooling water exit temperature 22oC

Operating temperature 33oC

Operating 5.00 kPa

7.6 FEED WATER PREHEATER SPECIFICATION

28
Table XIII: Feed Water Preheater Specification Sheet
ITEM Feed water preheater
Identification No. PH –01, Number Required:2
Function Generation of heat for electricity
Function: To preheat the feed water to about 56.c

UNIT DATA SHELL SIDE TUBE SIDE

Fluid handled Water Steam
Flow rate (kg/s) 444.6 111.11115
Inlet temp (oC) 32 324.4
Outlet temp. (oC) 56 262
Number of pauses 1 2
(Nuclear Power Station Volume,2002)

7.7 DESIGN SPECIFICATION FOR PUMPS

The power outlet of the pump depends on the total head developed by the
pump and the mass of liquid pumped per time;
I COOLANT FEED PUMP = (CP=-01)
Mass Flow of Coolants = 6036.8 7 kg/s
Density of coolant = 958.38 kg/m3
The reaction gives the power,
P= 2.725 x 10-6 HQ3

Where
H = Dynamic heed in meters
Q = volumetric flow rate in m3/s
ò = Density of coolant in kg/ms
Hence, for a single centrifugal pump with volumetric flow rate of 6.30 m 3/s,
the developed head is about 84.5 m

Therefore:
P = (2-725 x 10-6) (6.30) (95 8. 38) = 1.39 kW
So, a centrifugal pump of 1.39 kW will be selected note four (4) coolant
pump; are required.

II – FEED WATER PUMP (FWP-01)

Mass flow rate of feed water = 6421.4 kg/s
Density feed water = 998.23 kg/m3
Volumetric flow rate = 6421.4
= 998.23

= 6.4 33 m3/s.

29
 P = 2.72 x 10-6 HQP
= (2.725 x 10-6) (82.41) (6.433) (998.23)
= 1.552 kW
Therefore, a centrifugal pump of 1.552 kW will be selected.

30
 CHAPTER EIGHT

8.0 PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

From an operational view point it is important that adequate information is
provided to keep the operator fully aware of current plant conditions, with the ability
to rapidly detect and control any change from the required state. Sufficient
redundancy is built into the system to give independent information regardless of
equipment facilities, at the same time avoiding excessive data which may cause
confession.
Two aspects are important in the context of operations”:
 Instrumentation accuracy limitations
 Availability of instrumentation.

8.1 CONTROL OBJECTIVES

The primary objectives of the designers when specifying instrumentation and
control schemes for any process such as nuclear plant are:
The primary objectives of the designers when specifying instrumentation and
control schemes for any process such as nuclear plant are:
(1) Safe plant operation:
(2) To achieve the design product output
(3) To maintain the product composition with a specified quality control
standards.
(4) To operate at the lowest production cost commensurate with the other objectives
(5) To optimize plant operation

8.2 CONTROL SYSTEM

During normal operations, the role of the station automatic control system is
to maintain plant conditions within defined units in response to changes in process
variable manual inputs and demanded station load. In addition, its operation
maintains the major plant components within their design bases such that their fatigue
life is not exceeded during the station life time.
The following functions are applied to the system:
 Adjust control rod positions to maintain reactor coolant average temperature
within limits defined by turbine power demand.
 Provide the facility to set the power out put of the station and as a selectable
facility to enable the station out put to be varied in response to grid frequency
variations within defined limits.
 Control the reactor pressuriser pressure and maintain the pressuriser level
within defined limits, to maintain the mass inventory of the reactor coolant system
according to the reactor coolant temperature so that the coolant in surges and out-
surges which occurs during load changes may be accommodated without loss
from or make-up to the reactor coolant system or a reactor trip.
 Control an alternative heat sink for the reactor steam in the event of large load
rejections, which are the trip of one turbine-generator unit and loss of grid.
 Control the feed water flow, in order to maintain steam generator level within
satisfactory units.

31
 Control the steam/feed healed differential pressure to optimize feed water
pump operation.
 Maintain the water inventory in the feed system of each of the two turbines by
the avoidance of an excessive mismatch of the levels of water in the de-aerators.
 Protect the station against loss of generation by avoiding situations likely to
cause abnormal power conditions.
Input signals for the control system are from two sources, directly from the
plant via the primary protection system [PPS], these are summarized in Table.

Table XIV: Control System Signals

S/N SIGNAL REDUNDANC VIA PPS CONTROL
Y SUBSYSTEM
1. Turbine power Three per turbine - Cold leg temp-power
mismatch load rejection
plant trip turbine load
2. N-16 power 4-fold - Pressuriser level
3. Power 4-fold - Power mismatch
steams generator level
load rejection plant trip
4. Steam flow Three per SG - Steam generator level
feed pump speed.
5. Steam header 3-fold - Feed pump speed steam
pressure header pressure
6. Steam line Two peer SG - Steam generator
pressure POEVs
7. Feed water Four peer SG - Steam generator level
flow
8. Feed header 3-fold - Feed pump speed
pressure
9. Gold leg temp Four per loop - Cold leg temperature
pressuriser level load
rejection plant trip
10. Pressuriser 4-fold - Pressuriser pressured
11. Pressurized 4-fold - Pressurizer level
level
12. Steam Four per SG - Steam generator levels.
generator level
13. Deaerator level Three per SG - Feed Pump speed
14. Grid frequency Per TG - Turbine load

(Nuclear power generation, volume 11, Pergamon Press 1992)

32
8.3 MODULATING CONTROL
The complete reactor/turbine-generator unit is automatically controlled by a
set of closed loops are intended to operate over a range of 30 to 100% maximum
continuous rating and to match the load demanded from the turbine-generator with
power produced by the reactor/turbine. Further more, the control is required to be
effective under steady-state and transient condition to be stable to operator or grid
frequency demands and specified plant fault conditions.
The earlier nuclear power stations closed loop control employed
ANALOGUE CONTROLLERS. But for present nuclear power station control
employed the use of DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL (DDC).
The main advantage of DDC over analogue controllers includes:
 The opportunity to use more complex algorithms than is conveniently possible
with analogues methods.
 Greater flexibility in making changes and optimization.
 More efficient incorporation of the large number of digital inputs associated with
auto/manual interface and sequence control, which is closely associated with
closed loop ‘modulating’ control.

8.4 CHEMICAL AND VOLUME CONTROL SYSTEM (CVCS)

The chemical and volume control system is one of the principal auxiliary
systems connected to the reactor coolant circuit and is essential to normal operation
of the reactor. It comprises mechanical plant and equipment located mainly on the
lower floors of the auxiliary building.
Careful control of the primary coolant chemistry in the PWR is necessary
because of the potentially severe corrosive effect of the high temperature water
environment on the materials of construction of the rector circuit and on the fuel.
Corrosion rates must be minimized for two main reasons:
 To prevent under degradation in the structural integrity of the primary circuit
pressure boundary.
 To limit the rate of formation radioactive ‘crud’ which, then deposited around
the circuit, contributes so the radioactive dose received by plant operators.
Refer to page 84 for process control diagram.

33
 CHAPTER NINE

9.0 ENERGY INTEGRATION SCHEME

Process steams at high pressure or temperature, and those containing
combustible materials, contain energy that can be usefully recovered. The cost of
recovery will be reduced if the streams are located conveniently close. The amount of
energy that can be recovered will depend on the temperature, flow, heat capacity and
temperature change possible in each stream (Sinnott, 2000).

9.1 RESIDUAL HEAT-REMOVAL SYSTEM

Because the process of fussion product delay lead to the generation of
significant quantities of heat, even when the reactor were is required in order to
achieve and temperatures (well below 100oC) required for refueling, maintenance or
repair of the reactor and its coolant system. This cooling is achieved by the residual
heat removal system (RHRS) when the reactor coolant temperature is about 177 oc or
less.
The RHRS comprises two parallel heat transfer loops, each contain a
centrifugal pump and a vertical shall and U-tube heat exchange. The pumps each
draw rector coolant leaving the core form one of the RCS hot legs and pass it through
the heat exchanger shell before returning it to a pair of RSC cold legs. The pumps and
heat exchangers are located on the lower floors of the auxiliary building and the
suction and delivery pipe work therefore penetrates the wall of the reactor
containment building. All RHRS component and pipe work are constructed from
austenitic stainless steel and the design pressure is approximately 50 bar.
The RHRS equipment is sized so that with both loops operating, the primary
circuit can be cooled from 177oC to 60oc (the temperature at which reactor
dismantling can commence) over a period of about 16hours, this representing an
acceptably small impact on the critical part of the refueling and maintenance
operations planned during the shut down period whilst loading to reasonable
equipment sizes. To maximize system reliability each RHRS loop uses separate
services and supplies of electrical power and cooling water. Further more, two
additional identical pumps normally serving as containment spray pumps are provide
with cross-connecting pipe work, which enables either to be used in place of an
RHRS pump if necessary. All electrical and control equipment is diesel-backed.
Because the RHRS equipment is located outside the containment and has a
relatively low design pressure, very stringent precautions are taken against
inadvertent exposure of the RHRS to the primary circuit when the later is at high
contains three motorized gate values in series and any one remaining closed will
isolate the RHRS from the primary circuit.
Heat exchange performance is dependent on the coolant flow rate and the
temperature difference before the primary coolant and the component cooling water
to avoid too rapid cooling, which could increase thermal stress in reactor components,
the heat exchanger flow rate can be throttled using a manually controlled butterfly
valve. A by pass line, containing an automatic butterfly valve, ensures that the pump
flow rate remains roughly constant at 800m3/h per RHRS loop.

34
 Reactor cooling via the RHRS would also be needed in the event of a fault
which necessitates repairs to the reactor itself, the primary and secondary circuits or
equipment inside the reactor building. One RHRS loop has sufficient cooling capacity
to match the decay heat production rate about 4 hours after reactor trip or shutdown,
to prevent reactor temperature rising above 93oC within a further 12hours period. This
enables the circuit to be completely depressurized and cold shutdown conditions to be
reached. The RHRS equipment is designed to withstand Dr be protected from all
significant external and internal plant hazards, including a safe shutdown earth quake
and rigorous fire segregation is provided, between the two equipment loops.
In the special case of a loss of coolant accident (LOCA) causing rapid
emptying and depressurization of the primary circuit, the RHRS pumps act as part of
the emergency core cooling systems.

35
 CHAPTER TEN

10.0 PLANT LAYOUT

10.1 GENERAL SITE CONSIDERATION
In the discussion of process and equipment design given in the previous
chapters, no reference was made to the plant site. A suitable site must be found for a
new project, and the site and equipment layout planned. Provision must be made for
the ancillary building and services made for the operation and for the environmentally
acceptable disposal of effluent. These are discussed here:

10.1.1 Plant Location and Site Selection

However, the plant location can affect the total operation of a company. It has
a direct effect on production efficiency and economies of the operation, the moral of
employees and physical health of their operations. The factors considered are those
already considered by the Nigerian Power Holding Company(NPHC).
This design to expansion of the existing plant of the company area 1 to the
new nuclear power generating plant area 2. These factors already considered are:
1. Raw material supply
2. Availability of labour
3. Availability of utilities, water
4. Environmental impact and effluent disposal
5. Availability of suitable land
6. Climatic condition
7. Local community consideration

10.2 SITE LAYOUTS

The process units and ancillary buildings are laid out to give the most
economical flow of materials and personnel around the site. Hazardous processes
must also be given to the future expansion of the site as in this case, in addition to the
main processing units is the initial plant manual;
1. Strong of raw materials
2. Maintenance workshop
3. Stores for maintenance and operating supplies
4. Laboratories for process control
5. Fire station and other emergency services
6. Effluent disposal site
7. General administrative offices
8. Canteens
9. Medical clinic
10. Car parks
When roughing out the preliminary site layout, the process units will normally
be sited first and arranged to give a smooth flow of materials through the various
processing storages. Process units are normally spaced at least 30m apart. Greater
spacing may be needed for hazardous process. The location of the principal ancillary
buildings should then be divided. They should be arranged so as to minimize the time
spent by personnel in traveling between buildings. Administrative offices and control

36
rooms, in which a relatively large number of people will be working, should be
located well away from potentially hazardous processes. Control rooms will normally
be located adjacent to processing units, but with potentially hazardous processes may
have to be sited at a far distance.
The sitting of the main process units will determine the layout of the plant
road, pipe alloys and drums. Access roads will be needed to each building and for
operation and maintenance. Utility buildings should be sited so that most economical
run of pipes to and from the process units is achieved. Cooling towards should be
sited so that under the prevailing wind, the phone of condensate spray drift away from
plant area and adjacent to properties. The main storage area should be placed between
the loading and unloading facilities and the process units they serve. Storage tanks
containing hazardous materials should be sited at least 70m from the site boundary.
Refer to page 82 for Site Layout Diagram.

10.2.1 Building Arrangements

With the exception of the mechanical annex and turbine house, the buildings
of the main power block are all designed to remain structural intact leak tight (in the
case of pressure-retaining parts) and functionally operable to the extent required by
their safety role, despite the occurrence of defined hazards including a safe shutdown
earthquake.
Other buildings designed to withstand seismic loading are the reserve ultimate
heat sink auxiliary shutdown and diesel building, essential diesel buildings and the
radioactive waste process and storage building. The last mentioned building is
designed to retain liquid and solid waste that may be spilled under the specified
earthquake conditions.
The buildings of the main power block are constructed of reinforced concrete with
some internal steal framing. The reactor building comprises the are stressed concrete
primary containment vessel and its internal structures supporting the primary coolant
system components. For leak tightness the concrete containment structure has a 6mm
thick steel liner attached to its internal surfaces. There is an equipment hatch for
bringing large plant components into and out of the containment; this is provided for
plant construction, repair and replacement purposes. The containment internal height
is 64, its internal diameter is 45.7m and its wall thickness is 1.3m.

10.3 PLANT LAYOUTS

The principal factors to be considered in plant layout are:
1. The process requirement
2. Convenience of maintenance
3. Convenience of operation
4. Safety and hazard procedure
5. Future expansion
6. Modular construction
7. Economic consideration; construction and operation cost.
The auxiliary building houses the bulk of the equipment for reaction auxiliary
and safety systems including the chemical and volume control system (CVS), the
residual heat removal system (RHRS), the high pressure coolant injection system

37
(HPCIS) and the containment spray system. The auxiliary building interfaces directly
with the reactor building to allow direct passage of pipes and cables between the two
buildings.
The fuel building contains the spent storage pond and also interfaces directly
with the reactor building to allow fuel to be passed between the reactor and the fuel
storage pond. It is the reception point for new fuel and also contain the spent fuel
flasking facility and loading bay for transporting spent fuel from site.
The control building houses the main control room, data processing room, the
primary protection system, the component cooling water system (CCWS) plant and
heating and ventilation plant.
The mechanical annex interfaces with the steam and fuel cell building to allow
the optimum passage of the main steam and feed pipe work between the reactor
building and the mechanical annex/turbine house.
The following major principles have been adopted for the layout of plant and
service within buildings;
i) Redundant safety classified equipment is located within different segregated
principal fire areas, in accordance with the principles agreed with the Nuclear
installation inspection, particularly those concerning penetrations through
principal fire buriers and are allocated to electrical separation groups in an
appropriate manner to maintain redundancy and hazard protection.
ii) As far as practicable, cables are routed away from corridors or plant rooms.
iii) Some vent stacks with pressure actuated dampers are installed to facilitate heat
and smoke removal from the control and auxiliary buildings
iv) The design and layout of other systems significant to safety (including cabling)
incorporates segregation and other means of hazard protection commensurate
with their safety role.

10.3.1 Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Each building contains a HVAC system to provide a suitable environment for
personnel and equipment and to control the speed of air borne contamination under
normal and faulted conditions. The design of each HVAC system is dictated by the
functional requirement of the buildings and equipment which is serves.
Typically, there are four roles of the HVAC systems;
1. Cooling of important plant items
2. Control of radioactive release post-fault
3. Personnel comfort and safety (including smoke control following fires)
4. Control of contamination spread.
The cooling of safety classified plant is generally accomplished by
independent room coolers served by the component cooling water system or by
closed loop air conditioning systems. Radiological releases are controlled by the use
of filters and charcoal beds. Personnel comfort is maintained by fans, air conditioning
and steam/electric heating system as appropriate. Fire dampers are used to isolate
designated fixes areas; fans are provided to pressurize stair ways following a fire and
are also available for smoke removal following fires.

38
10.3.2 Personnel Protection
Other major considerations in the layout include the provision of safe escape
routes fro operators in the event of fires, and the radiological protection of operators.
Features of this layout which contribute to radiological protection include the
provision of adequate shielding: good personnel access to minimize the time spent in
high radiation areas; the application wherever practicable of remotely controlled
and/or automatic equipment (e.g. the multi-stud tensioner (MST) for monitoring and
replacing the reactor pressure vessel head studs); and the means used to control
radioactive contamination. Refer to page 83 for plant lay out.

39
 CHARTER ELEVEN

11.0 PLANT START-UP AND SHUT-DOWN

11.1 PLANT START-UP
Prior to any start-up, checks will be carried out to ensure that the minimum
plant required for safe operation at power is available and that safety circuits are
healthy. Minimum requirements are set out in operating rules. A checklist is provided
in operating instructions to assist the operating staff Minimum plant requirements
include, appropriate reactor instrumentation, reactor gas pressure, the number of
boilers to be available and their associated gas flow from running circulators,
availability of water flow into boilers and means of steam generated. Safety circuits
are checked to ensure that the correct protective devices, appropriate to the shutdown
and start-up conditions are in service. Where the start-up follows a longer short down
period in which maintenance has been carried out, then the maintained equipment
may be subject to functional checks prior to startup-, particularly if the equipment is
associated with the safety systems on the reactor.

11.2 PLANT SHUT DOWN

The method by which the reactor is shutdown from operation at power
depends on the reason for which it is being shut down, it may be a trip initiated by the
safety systems or by the reactor control engineer, or it may be a controlled shutdown
on a time scale determined by the rector control engineer.
A reactor trip may be initiated automatically by the safety systems when a
fault condition or plant abnormality is detected. It may be a problem on the reactor
itself, or a problem on the boiler, main turbine or boiler feed system which requires a
prompt reactor trip.
A controlled shutdown occurs when it is clear that the reactor must be shut
down but the severity of the problem does not require any consideration when the
reactor is shut down is to ensure that the fuel and graphite are adequately cooled. A
considerable amount of heat is contained within the graphite; also heat will continue
to be generated in the fuel after shutdown because of:
 The release of delayed neutrons capable of causing fission.
 The decay of fission products
 The decay of heavy isotopes

40
 CHAPTER TWELVE

12.0 THE PLANT UTILITIES SCHEDULES

Auxiliary services needed generally in the operation of a nuclear power
generation plant for electricity is termed utilities. These services will normally be
supplied from a central site facility; and will include;
1. Electricity
2. Steam supply
3. Cooling water (CW)

12.1 ELECTRICITY SUPPLIES

The plant power requirement for both the main and essential electrical
systems should be provided from the grid supply operating in parallel with the
turbine-generators. In normal operation, this arrangement ensures on 11kv power
supply to the station based on multiple redundant paths. Although the essential
electrical system is usually supplied by the 11kv main power system, it has an
independent integral power supply capability based on four-way redundant 7mw
diesel generators and two-way redundant small battery charging diesels. A step-down
transformer should also be provided to step down the supplied voltage required on the
site.

12.2 STEAM SUPPLY

The steam that will be used in the plant may be generated in a steam
generator. The steam is distributed at a relatively high pressure to be able to drive the
generator. Electricity and water are utilized for steam production.

12.3 COOLING WATER (CW) SUPPLY

Cooling in this manner allows the reactor to be kept in a stable and safe
condition for an indefinite period, albeit in a hot and pressurized state. The cooling
water is obtained from the main condensers which cools the steam from the turbine
and the water required by the condenser will be supplied from a near-by steam or a
cooling tower.

12.4 RECTOR BUILDING VENTILATION AIR SUPPLY

During power operation and hot shutdown, the reactor containment is closed.
Access is permitted only through the personnel airlocks provided under strict
administrative surveillance. The ventilation of equipment is performed by the
containment from coolers and hydrogen mixing fans, the reactor vessel cavity cooling
fans and the control rods drive mechanism ventilation system. These systems
continuously re-circulate, cool and filter the air within the containment.
Purge systems are provide which introduce fresh air into the containment from
outside and exhaust air from inside the containment through fitters to the atmosphere.
Finally, water cooling systems are installed in concrete pressure vessels to
maintain the concrete at a temperature below about 60oc. the system consists of
cooling water pipes attached to ribs welded to the steel liner. Water passing through
these pipes extracts heat from the liner and the surrounding concrete.

41
 CHAPTER THIRTEEN

13.0 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

In the plant design, safety forms an important consideration. It is vital that
other chemical plant be designed in a way to ensure the safest possible mode of
operations. Safe operations ensure efficient operations which is very important if the
aim of designing and establishing process plant is to be achieved. Process can be
divided into those that are inherently safe and others from which the safety has been
engineered in.
Inherently safe process are those in which safe operations are embedded in the
nature of the process, the process cause no one negligible danger under all foreseeable
circumstances. Clearly the designer should always select a process that is inherently
safe whenever it is practical, and economic to do so. However, most chemical
manufacturing processes are, to a greater or lesser extent, inherently unsafe and
dangerous situations form the design values.
For a process, such as power generation using uranium, there is risk of
explosion during the bornbardment of the uranium. In such cases, safety is
“engineered in” the plant design. Engineered safety covers the provision in the design
control systems, alarms, trips, pressure relieve devices, automatic shut down systems,
duplication of key equipment services and fire fighting equipments, sprinkle systems
and blast walls, to contain any fire or explosion.
In general, in design of a chemical process plant, the following are considered:
(1) Substitution: the processing route may be replaced with one using less
harzardous material with non-toxic materials.
(2) Containment: In plant design, there must be the sound design of equipment and
piping to avoid leaks. Also, the proper specification of equipment must be made. The
typical containment building consists of a steel shell surrounded by a reinforced
concrete
(3) Ventilation: There must be provision of adequate ventilation system, use of open
structures, allows for good ventilation.
(4) Waste Disposal: the design should make provision of effective vent stacks to
disperse materials vented from pressure relief devices or use vent scrubbers. Disposal
of low-level radioactive wastes, from power plant is usually done by dry burial in a
dedicated site. High level waste in the form of solid spent fuel containing high level
fission products can be disposed of in mined geological repository to ensure long-
term isolation of the waste from the environment. The spent fuel is stored in spent
fuel storage pools.
(5) Emergency Equipment: The plant design must include escape routes, rescuer
equipment, respirations, safety showers and eye baths.
(6) Reactor Protection System: The purpose of this is to check high temperatures in
the reactor coolant system or the core indicates the possibility of a loss of coolant or
loss of flow through the core. The reactor protection system process the various input
signals and compares them to predetermined set points. If a set point is reached or
exceeded, the system is designed automatically insert the control rods into the reactor.
This rapidly drops the power level in the reactor and aids in prevention of damage to
the fuel.

42
(7) Emergency Core Cooling System: These are designed to permit inject of
damage to high reactor coolant system pressures that exists during small ruptures or
large breakage.
(8) Emergency power Supply: The power requirements for auxiliary systems within
a power plant are normally supplied from the reactor output itself through the main
electrical generator and auxiliary station transformer. In the event of an accident, the
reactor will not be available to produce useful power; thus the preferred power
sources for supplying emergency electrical loads is from transmission lines from
other power plants. At least two off-site power supplies are required.
Protection is provided not only for events originating in the plant but also for
external events. Plants are designed to withstand anticipated earthquakes, floods and
winds.
Along with adequate safety devices and measures in addition there should be good
plant operating practice, which include:
a) Proper maintenance of all plant equipment
b) Adequate training of all plant personnel.
c) Proper labeling and within instrumentation in the handling, use and storage of the
hazardous substances and the risks involved.
d) Provision of protective clothing
e) Good house keeping and personal hygiene
f) Regular medical check-ups on employees.
g) Maintaining of the level of emission in the environments to check exposure
levels.

(9) Substitution: The processing route may be replaced with one using less
hazardous material with non-toxic materials.
(10) Containment: In plant design, there must be the sound design of equipment and
piping to avoid leaks. Also, the proper specification of equipment must be made.
(11) Ventilation: There must be provision of adequate ventilation system, use of
open structures, allows for good ventilation.
(12) Disposal: The design should make provision of effective vent stacks to disperse
materials vented from pressure relief devices or use vent scrubbers.
(12) Emergency equipment: The plant design must include escape routes, rescuer
equipment, respirations, safety showers and eye baths.
Along with adequate safety devices and measures in addition there should be
good plant operating practice, which include:

13.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATION

All individual and companies have a duty of care of their neighbors and to the
environmental in general. Vigilance is required in both the design and operation of
process plant to ensure that legal standards are met and that no harm is done to the
environment.

13.2 GASEOUS WASTES

Gaseous waste effluents, which contains toxic or noxious substances, will
need treatment before discharge into the atmosphere. The practice of relying on

43
dispersion from tall stack is seldom entirely satisfactory. Gaseous pollutants can be
removed by absorption or adsorption, finely dispersed solids can be removed by
scrubbing, using electrostatic precipitation while flammable gases can be burnt.

13.3 NOISE
Noise can cause a serious nuisance in the neighborhood of a process plant.
Apart from the noise generated from the main equipment, excessive noise can also be
produced when venting though steam and other relief values and from flare stacks,
such equipments should be fitted with silencers. Vendor’s specifications should be
checked to ensure that Equipment complies with statuary noise levels. Noisy
equipments should as for as practicable, be sited well away from the site boundary.

13.4 EMISSION AND CONTROLS

The operation of all ventilation system is controlled by the control instrument
and automatic services and the quantity of inflow and exhaust air by the monitoring
service. From the exhaust ventilation center the air is expelled into the atmosphere
through ventilation chimneys at least 100meaters high for nuclear reactions with
thermal capacity of 3300mw and more.
Air ducts are made of steel and covered inside with anticorrosive varnish.
Their diameter may be up to 1500mm. To reduce the cost of construction, it is
expedient to as prefabricated concrete structures for the biological shielding of the
exhaust air dusts. Since the exhaust air ducts issue from the station buildings and
enter the ventilation chimney above the ground level, it is rational to mount them on
overhead construction. In this way the total length of the air ducts is reduced, the cost
of construction the repair work facilitated.

13.5 NUCLEAR WASTE DISPOSAL

It is very important in a nuclear power station to take care to dispose of the
waste which is likely to have radioactivity. The main sources of gaseous discharge
and any liquid effluent are sample and records are kept of the radio-activity
discharged from such sources. Gaseous wastes required no treatment other than
filtration before being discharged at high level to assist in dispersion in the extremely
unlikely event of a fire in a reactor fuel channel; the gaseous fission products would
be released. The gas should be passed through a clean up plant to remove radioactive
iodine which constitutes the major gaseous hazard.

13.6 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

There must be means of confirming that disposals of radioactive waste do not
result in members of the public receiving radiation doses in excess of KRP
recommended limit. It is rarely practicable to measure doses to individuals by direct
means and in most cases they can only be estimated from the information gained
through environmental monitoring programmes. Environmental monitoring must
begin before any new major installation comes into operation.
The purposes of environmental monitoring may be defined as follows:

44
(a) To assess the radiation exposure of the public
(b) To confirm control measures
(c) To contribute to research
(d) To provide public information and assurance
(e) To establish pre-operational ambient level of radiation
(f) To help decide on the action required during an emergency.

13.7 FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (FEPA)

Decree 58, established by the Federal Environmental Protection Agency
(FEPA), in 1988 with the responsibility for conservation and pollution control and
prevention. The agency had set national guidelines and standards for industrial
effluent gaseous emissions and hazardous wastes, which insist be applied by
managers and operators of manufacturing industries to improve the quality of the
environment and to limit pollution and other hazards. The guidelines and standards
for environmental pollution control in Nigeria, issued by FEPA in 1991.
 Interim guidelines and standards for industrial effluents, gaseous emissions
and noise limitations.
 Guidelines for the management of solid hazardous substances.
 An exclusive list of hazardous/dangerous chemicals.

13.8 ENVIRONMENTALIMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) LEGISLATION

The federal government of Nigeria has implemented further environment
requirements through the EIA. Decree of December 1992. The Decree makes it
mandatory for all new major development activities to be subjected to EIA.
Following this decree, FEPA has published natural EIA procedure in August
1994.

45
 CHAPTER FOUTEEN

14.1 HAZOPS ANALYSIS

Hazop study is the systematic study of design vessel by vessel, and line by
line, using “guide words” to help generate thought about the way deviations from
intended operating conditions can cause hazardous situations. These guide words are:
NO/NOT, MORE or LESS, AS WELL, REVERSE, OTHER THAN, etc.
In this analysis, preliminary examination of the design is made at the flow
sheet stage. A written record is not made of each step in the study; only those
deviations that lead to a potentials hazard are recorded.
In this analysis, preliminary examination of the design is mode at the flow
sheet stage. A written record is not made of each step in the study; only those
deviations that lead to a potential hazard are recorded.

VESSEL: PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR (REACTOR CORE)

INTENTION: MAINTAIN A CONTROLLED SELF-SUSTAINING NUCLEAR
FISSION CHAIN REACTION. UNIT 1.
GUIDE WORD DEVIATION COURSE CONSEQUENCES
AND ACTIONS

NO/NONE Flow Failure of Rector coolant

Excessive heat
pump (RCP), feed watergeneration in the
pump, mechanical faultcore with increased
from steam generator, stresses on the
reactor electrical supply
pressure vessel, core
system fault. blow down resulting
to release of
radiation. Proper
maintenance of
reactor and
auxiliaries,
inspection, sound
emergency core
cooling system
(ECCS)
LESS OF Flow Rupture on the piping Leads to a loss of
system of the primary coolant accident
coolant pipe (RCP). (LDCA). Regular
inspection and
maintenance of
piping systems and
pumps.

46
MORE OF Flow RCP/FWP failure Leading to loss of
coolant accident
(LOCA):
Maintenance and
inspection of Pumps
REVERSE Flow Steam generator, reactor, Leads to loss of
RCP/FWP failure. coolant accident
(LOCA); good
inspection and
maintenance of
pumps, steam
generator and
reactor

VESSEL: STEAM GENERATOR

INTENTION: GENERATE STEAM TO DRIVE THE TURBINE. UNIT 2.
GUIDE WORD DEVIATION COURSE CONSEQUENCES
AND ACTIONS
NO/NONE Flow RCP failure, No steam
steam generator generation,
failure, reactor excessive heat,
pipe blockage steam generator
blow down. Proper
maintenance and
high temperature
alarm.
LESS OF Flow RCP failure, Low steam
partially blocked generation,
pipe, steam excessive heat.
generator failure. Proper inspection
and low steam
generation trip.
MORE OF Flow Pump valve Flooding of steam
failure, generator leading to
mechanical fault wet steam
from steam generation. Proper
generator maintenance and
inspection of
pump/valve.

47
VESSEL: PUMPS
INTENSION: CIRCULATE COOLANT BETWEEN STEAM GENERATOR
AND THE REACTOR CORE. UNIT 3.
GUIDE WORD DEVIATION COURSE CONSEQUENCES
AND ACTIONS

NO/NONE Flow Cavitation Excessive heating of

motor. High
temperature trip.
LESS OF Flow Reactor or steam Excessive heat and
generator failure pressure in the
and pipe rupture reactor core. Core
melting. Good
maintenance and
high temperature
trip.
MORE OF Flow RCP failure, Steam generator
mechanical fault flooding. Pipe and
from steam steam generator
generator inspection.

VESSEL: PRESSURIZER
INTENTION: CONTROL REACTOR COOLANT PRESSURE. UNIT 4.
GUIDE WORD DEVIATION COURSE CONSEQUENCES
AND ACTIONS
NO/NONE Flow No flow of No water, flow into
coolant from the the pressurizer, low
reactor, pipe steam at the turbine.
blockage. Low steam trip,
proper maintenance
and inspection.
LESS OF Flow Pipe blockage, No or less of water
valve failure. spray through the
pressurizer leading
to high temperature.
Relief valve fixed.
MORE OF Flow Pressurizer Could lead to
failure damage to the
presurizer and
malfunctioning

48
VESSEL: TURBINE
INTENSION: GENERATE MECHANICAL ENERGY THAT DRIVE THE
GENERATION. UNIT 5.
GUIDE WORD DEVIATION COURSE CONSEQUENCES
AND ACTIONS
NO/NONE Flow Pipe rupture, Turbine blow down,
turbine failure no electricity
generation. Proper
maintenance and
inspection.
LESS OF Flow Pipe leakage, Turbine blow down.
low expansion in Good maintenance
nozzle. and proper valve
inspection.
MORE OF Flow Failure of Poor and ineffective
thruttle valve turbine performance.
and turbine. Proper inspection and
maintenance
REVERSE Flow Turbine and Low pressure, leading
thruttle failure to mechanical fault.
Good inspection and
low pressure trips.

VESSEL: CONDENSER
INTENSION: CONDENSES THE STEAM FROM THE TURBINE AT 33 OC
AND PRESSURE OF 5 kPa. UNIT 6.
GUIDE DEVIATION COURSES CONSEQUENCES
WORD AND ACTIONS

NO/NONE Flow Failure of Low pressure steam.

turbine Flow pressure alarm
to shut down
condenser
LESS OF Flow Turbine failure, Shortage of steam
line breakage supply to condenser,
leading to increased
reactor temperature.
Low steam trip.
MORE OF Flow Valve failure Low coolant supply
to feed water pump,
reactor blowdown.
Proper inspection
and maintenance.

49
REVERSE Flow Fall in line Explosion hazard,
pressure, high fit no-return valve.
pressure at
steam generator

50
 CHAPTER FIFTEEN

15.0 PROFIT FORECAST AND ECONOMIC EVALUATION

Chemical plants are built to make investment required and the cost of
production is needed before the profitability of a project can be assessed
(Sinnott, 2000)

15.1 TOTAL CAPITAL COST

The installed cost of the fixed capital investment is obviously on essential
item, which must be forecast before an investment decision can be made. The fixed-
capital investment is usually regarded as the depreciable facilities. It is sometimes
divided into two classes by defining battery limits and auxiliary facilities for the
project (Perry and Green, 1993).

15.2 FIXED AND WORKING CAPITAL

Fixed capital is the total cost of the plant ready for start-up. It is the cost paid
to the contractors. It includes the cost of:
1) Design, and other engineering and construction supervision.
2) All items, of equipment and their installation.
3) All piping, instrumentation and control systems.
4) Buildings and structures.
5) Auxiliary facilities.
Working capitals is recovered at the end of the project. The total investment
needed for a project is the sum of the fixed and working capital (Sinnott, 2000).

15.3 COST ESTIMATES

Rapid capital-cost estimates can be made by existing cost data of a company
or drawn from published correlations (Perry and Green, 1998). This method can be
used prior to the preparation of the flow-sheets to get a quick estimate of the
investment likely to be required.
If the cost of a piece of equipment or plant of size or capital S 1 is C1; then the
cost of a similar piece of equipment or plant of size or capacity S 2 can be calculated
from:
(S 2 ) n
C 2 C 15.1
1
S1
Where:
C1 = Capital cost of the equipment with capacity S1
C2 = Capital cost of the equipment with capacity S2.
And where the value of the exponent n depends on the type of equipment or
plant. This is commonly known as the exponential method of cost estimation
(Coulson, 2000).

15.4 TABULATED COST OF EQUIPMENTS

The cost calculated are tabulated below, firstly in dollars, then converted to
naira for convenience, the detailed calculations is given in Appendix B. The cost of
uranium ($95/kg) is given as at May, 2006.

51
TABLE XV: SUMMARY OF COST OF EQUIPMENT
S/NO EQUIPMENT CAPACITY COST (N)
1 PW Reactor 46.48 m3 8,847,109.56
2 Steam generator 564.52 m2 103,088,647
3 Pressurizer 212.12 m2 17,439,806.37
4 Steam Turbine 2,007.37 kW 31,090,260.27
5 Condense 7000 m2 137,235,464.7
6 Feedwater preheater 1521.8 m2 223,429,169.6
7 Coolant pump 1.2217 kW 35,546.03
8. Feed water pump 1.2626 kW 36,338.51

Total cost = $ 4103955.45

Of equipment =N554033985.6
Fixed capital (FC) =$19, 889, 128 = 2, 685, 032,280.
The working capital (wc) is estimated as 20% of fixed capital (FC) =
$3,977,835.6
= N537,006,456
Hence; total project investment = Wc + FC
= $ 233, 866,953.7
= N 3, 222, 038, 750
operating time = 342days = 8356 h/yrs.

15.5 OPERATING COST

An estimate of the operating cost, the cost of producing the products
(electrical power), is needed to judge the viability of a project, and to make choices
between alternative reactor types. This is usually done on an annual basis (Sinott,
2000).
We have the fixed cost and the variable cost:
1: Fixed Cost
i) Maintenance cost: 8% of FC
= $1,91, 130.24
ii) Operating labour cost = $ 2, 214,300
iii) Supervision: 2% of operating labour cost
= $44,286
iv) Plant overhead cost: 50% of operating labour
= $1, 107,150
v) Capital charges (bank rate): 15% of FC
=$2,983,369.2

vi) Insurance (1% of Fe)

=$198,891.28
vii) Royalties: 1% of FC
= 198,891.28
viii) Tax rates: 2% of FC

52
 = $397, 782.56
Total fixed cost = $8,735, 800.56.
= N1,179,33.076

2. VARIABLE COST
i) Raw Materials (3% enriched uranium)
$95/kg x 13863.2skg = $ 1317004
= N177795540
ii) Miscellaneous =10% of maintenance cost
= $19113.024
= N2580258.24
total variable cost = $ 1336117.024
= N1803.7598.2.
The total operating cost = FC +VC
= 8,735,800.56 + 1336117024
= $ 10071917.58
= N1359708874

15.6 ECONOMIC EVALUATION

As the purpose of investing money in chemical engineering plants is to make
profit, some means of comparing the economic performance of projects is needed.
For this evaluation, the break-even analysis and discounting cash flow technique were
employed to find the economic viability of the project.

BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS:
This gives the break-even volume (BEV), the pay back time and profit to be
realized.
BEV = Total project investment
Price/unit – variable cost/unit
Total amount of electrical power output in 342 days
= 677.6256MW.
Selling price of
Electrical power per MW = $ 17,248.80/ MW
= N2,328,587.96/ MW
Total project investment = N23,866,953.7
= N3,222,028,750
variable cost/MW = Variable cost
Total amount of power output
= $1, 598,90.24
677.6256 MW
= $ 2,358.37/ MW
Hence;
BEV = $23,866,953.7
$ 14,890.43/MW
= 1,602.84 MW

53
Assuming 85% electrical power distribution sale per 342 days.
= 0.85 x 677.6256 MW/year
= 575.9818 MW/year.
Pay back period = BEV
Amount distributed/year
= 1602.84 MW
575.18 MW/year
= 2.78 years.
From the analysis carried out, project or return on investment (ROI) will not accrue
till the 3rd year.

Expected profit/year from the 3rd year

= 17,2438.80 x 575.9818
= $9,934,994.872
= N1,341,224,308.
This value signifies or shows that the nuclear power plant proposed for 32000
MW of 342 days triput per annum is highly viable.

54
 CHAPTER SIXTEEN
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
16.0 CONCLUSION
The total investment is N1, 398,075, 258. The profit after tax
is N43, 378, 056.95. The payback period is 3 years. However, a
project is considered economically viable if the payback period is
between two (2) to five(5) years. (Coulson and Richardson, vol.6,
1999). Hence, the project is economically attractive. The project will
be able to attract investors.
16.1 RECOMMENDATION:
The design of the nuclear power plant had been successfully
completed. However, the following recommendations are pertinent;
- The reactor should be operated with due regard to the Internal
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) requirements.
- The radiation and contamination zones within the nuclear station
should be clearly marked out.
- Workers within the nuclear station should be subjected to routine
medical check-up.
- Radiation indicators like film badge and lithium fluoride pad
should be worn by personnel while working within a
contamination/radiation zones so as to ascertain the level of
exposure.
- The reactor should be operated in conformity with safety
regulations.
- The use shield like barytes concrete is highly recommended.

55
 REFERENCES
Anon, (1969): Chem. Eng. NY 76 (June 2nd)136. process
Instrument elements 136.
Bhaba, H. J. and Dayal, M; “Some Economic aspects of
Nuclear power in India”, Sixth World power
conference, Australia , paper 194 vilis (1962).
Central Electricity Generation Board, Modern power station
Practice, vol.8, 1971.
Considine, D.M. (1957): Process Instruments and Control
Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York
1984, page 238-239.
Eugene, A.A and Theodore B. (1997): “Mark’s Standard
Hand book for Mechanical Engineers” 10th edition
Mc Graw-Hill New York pp. 537-600.
Foster and Bright Basic Nuclear Engineering 3rd edition
Allyn and Bacon mass 1977.
McGraw-Hill Enclopaedia of Science and Technology vol. 12,
NY, 1986 9th edition.
Perry R.H. and Green D.W. (1984): Perry’s Chemical
Engineers’ Hand Book, 6th edition, McGraw-Hill
New York pp.258-340.
Schultz, M.A, Control of Nuclear Reactors and power plants
(McGraw-Hill, 1955).
Stephenson. R., Introduction to Nuclear Engineering
(McGraw-Hill, 1954).

56
 APPENDIX A

293.4oC

DT1 =81oC

210.5oC

T 1 T 2
Tm 
T 1
ln
T 2

82.9  62.9

82.9
ln
62.9
 74.62 oC

I. BALANCE OVER THE REACTOR UNIT

1 2

3
Fig. A: Reactor Unit
Basis: one batch process of 1kg per day of 3% 235U was fed to the reactor
The following reactions occur in the reactor:
235
U  01n 
 92 Kr  141Ba 301 n (4.5)

The energy released from this reaction is given by equation (4.1)

57
E  mc 2
 (3.57 x10 28 )(9 x1016 )
 3.2 x1011 J
atom
238
Thus; the number of atoms in one kilogram of U is
1
x 6.022404 x10 26
238
 2.53x10 24 atoms

Reactor: Feed uranium to neutron ratio= 50:1

Number of atoms in one kilogram of 3% 235U is:
3
 2.53 10 24
100
 7.59  10 23 atoms

Therefore, the total energy release per fission of 1 kg of 235U is:

 7.59 10    3.2  10 
22 11

 2.49  1012 J

Thus; the energy released per –day by one Kg of 3% enriched uranium is

2.429  1012
86400
 2.8  10 7 J / s
 2.8MW / day

The number of atoms of non-fissionable material is:

2.53  10 24  0.97

 2.4541  10 24 atoms

kg mole of 235U is
0.03
 1.28 104 kgmole
235
Mass of bombarded neutron
 1.28 10 4 kg
From the stoichiometry we can see that 1.28 x10 -4 Kg mole of uranium fuel will produce 1
mole of Kr and 1 mole of Ba plus 3 mole of neutron. Therefore,
Mass of 92 Kr produce  1.28  104  92  1.18  102 kg

Mass of 141
Ba produce  1.28  104  141  1.08 x102 kg

Mass of 3 01n produce  1.28  104  3  3.84  10 4 kg

58
According to Einstein, the mass defect is given by
Mass defect   Masses of reac tan ts   Masses of products

 { (0.03  1.28 x 10-4 ) (1.18 x 10-2  1.8048 x 10-2  3.84 x 10-4 )}

 1.04  104 kg
- Coolant mass flow rate
Cited from the literature are;
- Coolant inlet temperature =293.4 oC
- Coolant outlet temperature = 324.4 oC
- Average specific heat capacity of water = 5934 J/kgoC
Assuming that the thermal efficiency of the reactor is 100%. Then; energy
from fission is equal to the energy absorb by the coolant. Thus;
100
P  28 
100
 28MW  day

but P  MCpT

Therefore,
 P
m
CpT

28  106

5934(324.9  293.4)


 m  149.796kg / s

Hence, the mass flow rate of the coolant, m is 149.796 Kg/s

II. BALANCE OVER THE STEAM GENERATOR

3

2
5
59
Fig. B: Steam Generator Unit

The temperatures for the coolant and feedwater inlet and outlet conditions can be
cited from the literature as ;
- Coolant inlet temperature (TC1 ) = 324.9oC
- Coolant outlet temperature (TC2) = 293.4 oC
- Feed water inlet temperature (TF1) = 56.0 oC
- Feed water outlet temperature (TF2) = 262 oC
Thus, the quantity of heat dissipated by the coolant is

QC  M c C p Tc

 (149.796)(5934)(324.9  293.4)

 2.8  10 7 J

But, Heat loss by coolant = Heat gained by feed water

Where Heat gained by feed water = M F CP (TF 2  TF 1 )  M F LV
262  56
Thus, film temperature =  159 0 C
2

Hence, the mass flow rate (MF) of the feed water is 11.3012 kg/s
It is reported from literature, Litter (1992) that only 25% of the feed water is
converted to steam, therefore;
Mass of steam generated = 0.25 11.0312  2.7578kg / s
Mass of feed water recycled = 0.75 11.0312  8.2734kg / s

III. BALANCE OVER THE TURBINE

The steam turbine operates under the following conditions:

 Turbine inlet conditions are 4848.8 kPa and 262oC
 Turbine exit pressure = 5 kPa
 Turbine efficiency = 75%
Thus; the expansion to 5 kpa is isentropic

4 6

60
Fig. C: Turbine Unit
At the inlet conditions of 4848.8 kPa and 262oC , the following are taking from the steam table
 Inlet enthalpy H1 = 2795.3 kJ/kg
 Inlet entropy S1 = 5.9869 kJ/kg. K
Since the expansion to 5KPa is isentropic, then;

S 2'  S1  5.9869kJ / kg .K
The steam with this entropy at 5 kPa is wet, hence,
X V  X 2' ; yields that;

S 2'  S 2L  X 2' S 2V  S 2L 
Also from the steam table;
S L  0.4777
S V  8.3939
 5.9869  0.4777  X 2'  8.3939  0.4777 
 X 2'  0.6959

This is the quantity (fraction vapour) of the discharge stream at point 2. The enthalpy (
H 2' ) is also calculated as;
H 2'  H 2L '  X 2' ( H 2V  H 2L )
Thus, from the steam table;
H 2L  138.2
H 2V  2561.8
Therefore;

H 2'  138.2  (0.6959)  2561.8  138.2 

Recall that;
 1824.7832kJ / kg
Also;
 H  S  H 2'  H1
 1824.7832  2795.3
 970.5168kJ / kg

H   (H ) S

 0.75   970.5168 
 727.8876kJ / kg

61
Hence the turbine shaft work is given by equation (*) below
 
W S  M H
*

But
H  H 2  H1
 H 2  H  H1
 2795.3  727.8876

 2067.4124kJ / kg

Therefore,

WS  2.7578  2067.4124  2795.3

 2007.3684kJ / kg
Therefore the turbine rating is 2.0074 kW

IV BALANCE OVER THE CONDENSER

10 8

Fig. D: Condenser Unit

From literature, the condenser is operating at a saturated temperature of 33 oC
and a pressure of 5 kPa.
 Inlet temperature of cooling water (TCW1) = 12oC
 Outlet temperature of cooling water (TCW2)= 22oC
To calculate the heat rejected by the steam, we make an energy balance around the
condenser.
Thus;

mS S  mCW CpCW (TCW 2  TCW 1 )

mCW  71.31 103 (22  12)
2.7578  2423.6  10  3
62
17
 mCW  159.34kg / s
V BALANCE OVER THE PRE-HEATER

5
10

Fig. E: Pre-heater Unit

Cited from the literature are;
 Pre-heater inlet temperature (TFin) = 33oC
 Pre-heater exit temperature (TFout) = 56oC
Therefore, the quantity of heat added to the condensate is calculated using
Q  mCpF (TFout  TFin )
188.4 103
 2.7578  (56  33)
45
 265.56kW

VI BALANCE OVER THE ELECTRICAL GENERATOR

The efficiency of the generator is the ratio of the electrical power output to the
mechanical power input. It is reported by Litter (1992) that; the efficiency of a
large generator can reach as high as 97%.
electrical power output
e 
mechanical power input
We   0.97  2007.3684
 1.9472 MWe

Therefore, the quantity of energy generated by 1kg of 3% enriched uranium (235-U)

per day is 1.9472 MWe.

SCALE UP FACTOR

63
The required plant power generation rate is 24,000MW of 348 days triput per annum.
Thus, the produce per day is
32,000
MWe-day 
342
 93.57We
Therefore,
93.75
Scale –up factor 
1.9472
 48.05

APPENDIX B

1: COST OF PWR REACTOR

C e  CS n
Where C e  $15,000
S = 46.48 m3
n = 0.4
 C e = 15, 00 x (46.48)0.4
= $69662.28
= N9404408.28

2: COST OF STEAM GENERATOR (HEAT EXCHANGER)

Heat duty = 28 MJ/S = 28 MW = 28 x103 kW
To calculate for the cost of the equipment, the Newton’s low of cooling was
adopted to the heat engines, to calculate the area of heat exchange for:
Q  UAT
Where:
Q = heat duty
U = heat transfer coefficient
T =Temperature change
Approximate value of U for this heat
Exchange is 800 W/M2oC (Sinnott, 2000)
T = 324 – 262 = 62oC
Q = 28000 kW

64
 Q 28, 000, 000
A = 
U t (800 X 62)
= 564.52 m2
The cost is thus calculated:
S2 = 564.52 m2
S1 = 9.3 m2
C1 = $33,000
n = 0.78
C2 = 33,000 (564.52)078
9.30
= $ 811, 721.63 x 135
= N 109, 582,420.30

3: COST OF PRESSURIZER
Heat duty (Q) = 28,000,000 W
T = 324-159
= 165oC
U= 800 W/m2oC

Q
A
U T
23, 000, 000

(800 X 165)
= 212.12m2
The calculated cost is thus:
S 2 = 212.12 m2
S 1 = 9.3m2
C 1 = $21,700
n = 0.59
(212.12) 0.59
C 2 = 21, 700
9.30
= $137,321.31 x 135
= N18, 538,377.33

4: COST PF STEAM, TURBINE

S 2 = 2,007.3684 kW
S 1 = 7.5 kW
C 1 = $10,700
n = 0.55

65
 (2, 007.3684) 0.56
C 2 = 10, 700
7.5
= $244,805.199 x 135
= N33, 048,701.86

5: COST OF CONDENSER
Approximate value of
U = 400 W/M20C
Q 28, 000, 000W
=
T 22  12  10 0C
Q
A
U T
= 28,000,000
(400 X10)
The cost is thus calculated:
S 2 = 7000 m2
S 1 = 9.3 m2
C 1 = $21,700
n = 0.59
(7000) 0.59
C 2  21, 700
9.3
= $ 1,080, 594.21 x 135
= N145, 880,218.9

6: COST OF FEED WATER PREHEATER

Approximate value of
U = 800 W/m2oC
Q = 28,000.000 W
T = 56-33 = 23oC
A = Q = 28,000.000
U T = (800 x 23)
= 11521.8 m2
The cost is thus calculated as:
S 2 = 1521.8 m2
S 1 = 9.3 m2
C 1 = $33,000
n = 0.78
(1,521.8) 0.78
C 2  33, 000
9.3
= $ 1, 759.284.8 x 135
= N 237, 503,449

66
7: COST OF COOLANT PUMP
S 2 = 1.2217 kW
S 1 = 74.6 kW
C 1 = $4,400
n = 0.67
(1, 221.7) 0.67
C 2  44, 000
74.6
= $ 279.89 x 135
= N 37, 784,85

8: COST OF FEEDWATER PUMP

S 2 = 1.2626 kW
S 1 = 74.6 kW
C 1 = $4400
n = 0.67

(1, 262.6) 0.67

C 2  44, 000
9.30
= $ 286, 13 x 135
= N38,627,76
Physical Cost Estimates (PCE) = $4103955.45 = N554033985.6

9.0 ESTIMATION OF FIXED CAPITAL COST (FC)

The long factor for fluid process plants was used in determining the estimated
fixed capital cost for direct cost estimation for fluid process plant is presented below:
1: Major equipment:
Equipment erection f1 0.4
Piping f2 0.70
Electrical f3 0.10
Instrumentation f4 0.20
Buildings and land f5 0.15
Utilities f6 0.50
Storage f7 0.15
Site development f8 0.05
Auxiliary buildings f9 0.15
Total f 2.4

2: Total physical plant cost (PPC)

PPC = PCE (1+f1+ …+ f9)
= 4103955.45 (3.4)
= $13953448.53 = N1883715551

Design and engineering f10 0.30

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Contractor’s fee f11 0.05
Contingency f12 0.10
Total f 0.45

3: Fixed Capital Cost (FCC)

FC = PPC (1+ f10 +fu + f12)
= PPC (1.45)
= 13953448.53 (1.45)
= $19,889,128 (lang factor for fluid process plant)
= N27313187549

9.1 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT (TCI)

TCI = WC + FC
But WC = 20% FC
= 0.2 x 20232500.36
= $ 4046500. 073
 TCI = $ 4046500.073+ 2202232500.336
= $2427900.43
= N3277665058
9.2 ESTIMATION OF ANNUAL PRODUCTION COST
The cost of materials were based on prevailing average market price:
i) Cost of uranium = $95/kg
= 95x13863.2kg
= $1317004
= N177795540
9.3 OPERATING LABOUR COST
POSITION NUMBER SALARY PER TOTAL
REQUIRED INDIVIDUAL (N) SALARY (N)
General manager 1 895,350 895,350
Shift manager 1 762,000 762,000
Officer in-charge 4 7,239,000 28956000
Department Head 5 508,000 2,540,000
Supervisors 7 384,175 2,689,225
Operators 25 355,600 8,890,000
Technicians 10 381,000 3,810,000
Administrative and
finance staffs 5 190,500 952,500
Total 58 10715625 23,434,675

Total operating labour cost per year

= $184,525x12 = $ 2, 214,300
= N298,930,500

9.4 ESTIMATION OF VARIABLE COST

Maintenance cost = 8% of FC

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 = 0.08 x 20232500.36
= $1618600.029
= N218511003.9
Cost of miscellaneous (Raw Material)
= $6,960
= N939, 600
Total variable cost =>
= $1,598, 090.24
= N215, 742,182.4
9.5 ESTIMATION OF UNITY COST
Unity cost (UC) = 15% of total variable cost
= 0.15 x 2935604.029
= $440340..6043
= N59445981.58
9.6 FIXED COST
These include the following:
i) Maintenance =$1618600.029
ii) Operating labour cost = $2,214,300
iii) Supervisor (20% of operating labour cost)
= $442860
vi) Plant over head (50% of operating labour cost)
= $1,107,1150
v) Capital Charges (15% of fixed capital cost)
= $303487.054
vi) Insurance (1% of fixed capital cost)
= $20234850.054
vii) Royalties (1%of fixed capital cost)
= $2023232.50.036
viii) Tax rates (2% of fixed capital cost)
= $ 4046500.072
Total fixed capital cost:
= $16510785.49
= N222896041

9.7 DIRECT PRODUCTION COST

Direct production cost (DPC)
DPC = TVC + TFC
= $2935604.029+16510785.449
= $1944638952
= N262 5262585

9.8 OTHER COSTS

These include:
i. Sales expenses (Grid distribution expenses)
ii. Generalized overhead
Hence,

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 Other costs = 10% DPC
= $1944638.952
= N26256258.5

9.9 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL ANNUAL PRODUCTION COST (APC)

APC = TFC + TVC + Other cost
= $1651785.49 + 2935604
= $1944638.952
= $2139102.8.47
= N2887788844
Annual Production Rate (APR)
32,000 MW/yr
APC
Now, production cost 
APR
$

MW
= 21391028.47
32,000 MW
= $ 668.47/ MW

SELLING PRICE
Total amount of electrical power output in 342 days
= 1.9472 MW x 342 day
= 665.9424 MW

Selling or cost of electrical power per MW

APC
  PC
665.9424M
211391028.47
=  792.26
665.9424
= $318223.66/ MW
= N40414404.83/ MW

9.10 Annual production sales (APS)

APS = 665.942 x 32726.95
= $ 21794250.54
= N2767869818

Annual profit = APS - APC

= $21794250.54-$21391028.47
= $403222.07
= N51209202.89

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9.1 DEPRECIATION
Depreciation = FC – Salvage value
Number of years
Recall,
FC= 2023500.36
Let salvage value after 10yrs = $47531
 D = 20232500336- 47531
10
= $2018496.9/yr
= N256348992/ yr

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