QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF COMMERCIAL SANDCRETE BLOCKS IN MINNA

METROPOLIS, NIGER STATE

BY

OMOTORIOGUN, Victor Femi

2014/1/49618EC

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING, IN PARTIAL FUFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG) DEGREE IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY MINNA.

NOVEMBER, 2019
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis titled: Quality Assessment of Commercial Sandcrete Blocks in

Minna Metropolis, Niger State is a collection of my original research work and it has not been

presented for any other qualification anywhere. Information from other sources (published or

unpublished) has been duly acknowledged.

OMOTORIOGUN, Victor Femi ---------------------------

2014/1/49618EC Signature & Date
Federal University of Technology,
Minna, Nigeria.

ii
 CERTIFICATION

The thesis titled: Quality Assessment of Commercial Sandcrete Blocks in Minna Metropolis,

Niger State by OMOTORIOGUN Victor Femi with Matriculation Number: 2014/1/49618EC

meets the regulations governing the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) of the

Federal University of Technology, Minna and it is approved for its contribution to scientific

knowledge and literary presentation.

Engr. M. Abubakar ---------------------------

Project Supervisor Signature & Date

Engr. Dr. M.M Alhaji ---------------------------

HEAD, Civil Engineering Department Signature & Date

----------------------------
External Examiner Signature & Date

iii
 DEDIDATION

This thesis is dedicated to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Ade Omotoriogun for their

encouragement, commitments and dedication on my quest for knowledge.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor Engr. M Abubakar for his continued

guidance, advise and intellectual insight throughout the period of this thesis development. I also

acknowledge the support of the Dean of School of Infrastructure and Process Engineering Prof.

O.K Abubakre, Head of Civil Engineering Department Engr. Dr. M.M. Alhaji and also my course

lecturers, Engr. Prof. S. Sadiku, Engr. Prof. O.D. Jimoh, Engr. Prof. J.I. Aguwa, Engr. Prof A.A.

Amadi, Engr. Prof. M. Abdullahi, Engr. Prof T.Y. Tsado, Engr. Dr. S.S. Kolo, Engr. Dr. S.M Auta,

Engr. Dr T.W.E. Adejumo, Engr. Dr. B. Alhaji, Engr. Dr. A.R. Adesiji, Engr. Dr M. Alhassan,

Engr. Dr. A.O. Busari, Engr. Dr M. Saidu, Engr. Dr S.F. Oritola, Engr. J. Olayemi, Engr. A. Yusuf,

Engr. D.N. Kolo, Engr. H.O. Aminulai, Engr. E.O. Asogwa, Engr. Mrs. E.A. Gbadebo, Engr. A.

Aliyu, Mallam M. Shehu, Mrs H.N Adamu, and the entire staff of the department for their various

contributions throughout the course of my degree programme.

I wish to express my sincere appreciations to my mentor Engr. Patrick B. Umoh for his guidance

and intellectual insights which was extremely valuable for my study both theoretically and

practically. I am forever indebted to him.

This acknowledgement is not complete without acknowledging the assistance and contributions of

my friends and colleagues into the various sections of this research work. I am grateful to this

excellent group of enthusiasts who proof read my drafts.

I also appreciate my family members for their patience, moral and financial support,

encouragement, and guidance during the course of this programme. Finally, I am grateful to the

Almighty God for providing me with wisdom, knowledge and sound health throughout the period

of this research work.

v
 ABSTRACT

The current spate of building collapse across the country has raised questions about the quality of
building materials and the need to investigate their suitability for construction. The Sandcrete
blocks are of interest been the most popular masonry unit widely employed in construction of
walling units for building structures, hoardings of construction sites and foundations, in Nigeria.
The aim of this study is to assess the quality of commercial Sandcrete blocks produced in Minna
metropolis for compliance with existing standards: Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS: 87 2007)
and Nigerian Building Code (NBC: 2006). The research was appraised through field surveys
methods, sampling and laboratory experiments conducted on sixteen (16) selected block factories
in Minna metropolis. A total of eighty (80) nine-inch blocks, five (5) each were sampled from each
factory and subjected to density, water absorption and compressive strength tests and the
dimensions measured as well. The result obtained from the laboratory analysis showed that the
dimensions of the block samples for all factories slightly deviated from the standard values but
was within acceptable limits in terms of length, width and height only. The web thickness of all
block samples however, were below the standard value of 50mm recommended by (NIS 87:2007)
and (NBC:2006) for nine-inch blocks except from two factories. The densities of the sampled
blocks were consistent with the provision of the standard indicating adequate compaction. The
result of the water absorption test showed that majority of the blocks had high water absorption
capacity ranging between 8.61-16.44% and only 25% of the block factories produced blocks with
water absorption capacity less than 12% conforming to the specification of (NIS: 87 2007) for
water absorption. The mean compressive strength of the blocks was however within the range of
0.27-1.12N/mm2. These values are far below the recommended values of 3.45N/mm2 for load
bearing blocks. The highlight of the field survey result showed that mix ratio utilized in all the
factories ranged between 1:14 - 1:19 against the recommended values of 1:6 and 1:8. Curing was
improperly and inadequately done in all the considered factories and none of them conducts any
form of quality assurance test on the quality of the constituent materials nor the finished products.
Consequently, it was recommended that blocks produced in Minna should not be used for load
bearing walls.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE i
DECLARATION ii
CERTIFICATION iii
DEDIDATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
ABSTRACT vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xii
LIST OF APPENDICES xiii
CHAPTER ONE 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background to the Study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study 4
1.3.1 Aim 4
1.3.2 Objectives 4
1.4 Scope of Study 5
1.5 Justification of the Study 5
CHAPTER TWO 7
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Overview 7
2.2 Theoretical Review 7
2.2.1 Blocks 7
2.2.2 Sandcrete Blocks 7
2.2.3 Composition of Sandcrete Blocks 10
2.2.4 Manufacture of Sandcrete Blocks 16
2.2.5 Standard Specification of Sandcrete Blocks 18
2.3 Empirical Review 19
2.3.1 Factors Affecting the Properties of Sandcrete Blocks 20

vii
2.3.2 Quality Assessment of Sandcrete Blocks 21
2.3.2 Properties of Non-Conventional Sandcrete Blocks 27
2.4 Summary 31
CHAPTER THREE 32
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 32
3.1 Materials 32
3.2 Methods 32
3.2.1 Field Survey 32
3.2.2 Laboratory Experiments 33
CHAPTER FOUR 36
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36
4.1 Overview 36
4.2 Field Survey 36
4.3 Laboratory Experiments 40
4.3.1 Block Dimensions 40
4.3.2 Bulk density 41
4.3.3 Water Absorption Capacity 42
4.3.4 Compressive Strength 43
4.4 Summary 45
CHAPTER FIVE 46
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 46
5.1 Conclusions 46
5.2 Recommendations 48
REFERENCES
APPENDICES

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

2.1: Types of Sandcrete Blocks and their Usage 9

2.2: Dimension Tolerance of Sandcrete Block 10

2.3: Main Compound of Portland Cement 11

2.4: Chemical Composition of Portland Cement 12

4.1: Observed Operations and Response from Block Factories 37

4.2: Composition of fine aggregates used in selected industries 40

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page

2.1: Solid-filled and hollow Sandcrete blocks 9

4.1: Source of Water Used in Selected Factories 40

4.2: Mean Bulk Density of Sampled Blocks 42

4.3: Mean Water Absorption Capacity of Collected Blocks 44

4.4: Compressive Strength of Collected Sandcrete Blocks 45

x
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ASTM – American Society for Testing Materials

BS – British Standard

BGSA – Bambara Groundnut Ash

NIS – Nigerian Industrial Standard

NBC – Nigerian Building Code

OPC – Ordinary Portland Cement

RHA – Rice Husk Ash

SON – Standard Organization of Nigeria

WA – Wood Ash

W/C – Ratio of Water to Cement

xii
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Title Page

A: Materials and Equipment used 55

B: Dimensions of collected Sandcrete blocks 57

C: Density and water absorption capacity of collected blocks 60

D: Compressive Strength of Blocks 62

xiii
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The growth in the economy of the West African countries particularly Nigeria has led to an

increase in activities within the construction sector, due to the continuous demand for

infrastructure in these countries. The demand for affordable housing is high and the ambition of

people to own or access shelter is never a luxury but a necessity, to address this issue attention has

been drawn towards low-cost building materials. In Nigeria, Sandcrete blocks are the most popular

and frequently used masonry material for constructing walling units in residential, commercial and

industrial buildings.

Sandcrete blocks are known as composite mixtures comprising of water, fine aggregates and

cement, made into diverse forms (Barry, 1999). It is widely popular in Nigeria and practically used

all African nations as walling units, for constructing drainages including works below ground

level. They are available in Nigeria in different sizes and could be solid-filled or rectangular hollow

piece, the hollow blocks are readily available and commonly used in Nigeria (Ewa and Upkata,

2013). They could be utilized for building load bearing and non-load bearing structures, also

suitable for making partitions in buildings, hoarding of construction sites, fencing and creating

barriers.

Sandcrete blocks provides thermal, airborne and sound insulation in building and are better

alternatives to the clay bricks, by virtue of their lightweight larger units for building structures can

be made easily, thus making the operation and erection of building structures faster as they can be

1
readily cut and shaped and also permit the ease of driving in screws and nails into them (Oyekan

and Kamiyo, 2011).

Oyekan and Kamiyo (2008) were the first to spot and report the fact that blocks have been

produced in major parts of Nigeria with no standard reference document or specifications tailored

to ensure provincial building specifications or good quality work. Sandcrete blocks being the most

common masonry walling unit in West Africa, account for over 90% of physical infrastructure in

Nigeria (Anosike and Oyebade, 2012). However, great improvement is supposed to have been

made with the introduction of the Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS 87-2000) specification for the

manufacture, use and testing of Sandcrete blocks, published by the Standard Organization of

Nigeria (SON). The objects of the NIS for Sandcrete block document are to ensure that all block

producers meet the minimum stipulated requirement and to control the quality of commercial

blocks. The first standard for Sandcrete blocks was published in 2000 and was known as NIS 87-

2000. By 2004 the second review was conducted and the document was known as (NIS 87-2004),

the last re-evaluation was carried out in the year 2007 and it’s known as (NIS 87-2007). It is the

current standard document for Sandcrete blocks in Nigeria.

The current wave of the building collapse recorded in Nigeria has raised questions about the quality

of generally used building materials and the need to investigate their suitability for construction

purposes. The quality of Sandcrete blocks is an important area of interest especially when utilized

in the erection of load bearing buildings. The strength requirement by (NIS:87-2007) suggest the

values of 2.5N/mm2 and 3.45N/mm2 for non-loadbearing blocks and minimum of 5 load bearing

blocks respectively. The quality of Sandcrete blocks however, differs for each manufacturer and

is influenced by many factors. These factors include those related to the mode of production and

2
those related to the composition of constituent. Omopariola (2014) postulated that the precipitous

rise in the demand and cost of binders used for producing blocks has numerous impacts on the

quality of commercial blocks. This has invariably resulted in the production of poor-quality blocks

in an attempt to minimize the cost of production and produce affordable blocks

Most of the problems in the construction industry in Nigeria today can be linked to this masonry

unit, being a major construction material. In Nigeria, studies have shown that the constant use of

inferior materials, non-implementation and disregard for building codes and construction

regulations are the major factors responsible for persistent building collapse in the country. It is

therefore essential that the production of blocks and bricks and other construction materials are

not only standardized but regulated and adequately supervised to ensure full compliance with the

relevant codes and standard.

1.2 Problem Statement

The block manufacturing factories is one of the largest divisions in the construction industry in

Nigeria. Virtually every Local Government area in Nigeria has at least one or more small to large-

scale block production factories. The acceptance and extensive application of sandcrete blocks for

walling units amongst the West African Nations cannot be exaggerated. The high production of

Sandcrete blocks has therefore been forced due to it prevalent use and high demand in Nigeria.

More block factories are been borne on a daily basis to cater for the continuous demand for

infrastructure as there are no pre-qualifications or requirements for start-up.

The frequency of building collapse recorded in the country has raised suspicion on the quality of

Sandcrete blocks employed in construction because they account for over 90% of the physical

3
infrastructure in Nigeria (Baiden and Tuuli, 2004). The consequence of using sub-standard blocks

in construction could manifest in form of crack development in buildings especially when

employed in construction of load bearing units. In cases of high inundation, the porosity of blocks

increases, consequently becoming weakened and eventually fail.

One of the greatest challenges in Nigerian construction industry is the attitude towards material

testing to ascertain strength and performance of construction material under applied loads. The

poverty level of the West African countries particularly Nigeria has made the use of substandard

materials widely acceptable among the populace in order to minimize construction cost (Anthony

et al, 2015). Consequently, the need to periodically and consistently assess and re-assess the

quality of commercially produced blocks can never be over emphasised.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study

1.3.1 Aim

The aim of the research is to evaluate the quality of commercial Sandcrete blocks in Minna

metropolis, Niger State.

1.3.2 Objectives

The objectives of this research are; to

i. Examine the mode of production and practices of the block factories

ii. determine the physical properties of the blocks

iii. determine the compressive strength of the blocks.

4
1.4 Scope of Study

The research is limited to the physical properties and compressive strength of nine-inch

commercial Sandcrete blocks produced in sixteen (16) selected factories in Minna metropolis,

Niger state, for conformity with the (NIS:587 2007) and the NBCi (2006). Field surveys, sampling

and laboratory experiments were conducted and used in appraising the aim of the study. The field

survey involved an investigation into the mode of production including batching method, moulding

method, mix proportion, curing practice, source of constituent materials, composition of materials

and quality assurance on the finished blocks. The laboratory experimented conducted on the blocks

are dimension checks, density, water absorption capacity and compressive strength tests.

1.5 Justification of the Study

The construction industry in Nigeria has continuously witnessed the never-ending issue of building

collapse in various part of the nation. The acute challenge is the constant abuse and use of

substandard materials by unqualified, untrained and even trained personnel. The constant increase

in the cost of Sandcrete production particularly (cost of cement) has made most block producers

compromise the quality and typical production methods in an effort to provide affordable blocks

and also to maximize profit. The use of low-quality blocks in construction is the primary cause of

building defects such as crack development and formation of damps which consequently leads to

building collapse.

Bearing in mind these issues, it is essential to carry out constant checks on Sandcrete blocks to

ensure constant and full compliance to standard specifications and requirements in order to

determine their quality and suitability for construction purposes to forestall future failures, through

5
the creation of awareness, proper documentation and dissemination of information gathered from

investigations on block industries which will also serve as a data bank for designers, researchers,

policy makers and those involved in code formulations.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview

This chapter is focused on reviewing the literatures relevant to the study of the properties,

performance and quality of Sandcrete blocks. This chapter gazes at the theoretical review and the

empirical studies by previous researchers on Sandcrete blocks.

2.2 Theoretical Review

2.2.1 Blocks

The British Standard (BS6073: Part 1, 1981) describes a block as a multifaction structural material

having all its dimension greater than those of a brick, but having none of dimensions larger than

650mm and also having its length greater than it height and six times less than it web thickness in

the case of a hollow block. Blocks can be categorized into three distinct groupings. Type A: Dense

blocks, Type B: Lightweight aggregate blocks for load bearing walls and Type C: Lightweight

aggregate blocks for non-load bearing walls. The grouping is based on requisite properties and

uses rather than material or mode of production. The distinction between the three categories is

therefore based on density. The density of dense blocks should be 1500kg/m3 or more and

lightweight aggregate blocks have densities between 625-1500kg/m3.

2.2.2 Sandcrete Blocks

(NIS:587, 2007) defines a Sandcrete block as a composite material made up of water, cement and

sand, moulded into distinct forms which surpass the conventional dimension of bricks. They are
7
usually produced using a mix proportion of 1:6 binder (cement) and fine aggregates with the

slightest water content (Yahya, 2015). They are either solid filled or hollow rectangular piece

manufactured for use in construction of walling units (non-load bearing and load bearing).

The importance of sandcrete blocks in prevailing construction industry cannot be overemphasized.

They are economical and superior substitute for the clay bricks by virtue of their, fire resistance,

partial resistance to sound, thermal insulation, small dead load, high speed of construction, good

durability, and thermal insulation (Morenikeji et al, 2015). They are generally made with zero

slump concrete which allows the blocks to be demoulded immediately after compaction so that the

block is able to maintain it shape.

According to Oyetola and Abdullahi (2011) Sandcrete blocks- have gained huge acceptance in the

West African countries for over 5 decades, it is the most common building material for preparing

building blocks, mostly utilized for wall partitioning and suitable for non-load bearing and load

bearing walls, and also suitable for constructing foundations. Baiden and Tuuli (2004) claimed

that 90% of physical infrastructure in Nigeria were produced and made using Sandcrete blocks.

This makes them very important construction materials in the built environment.

The (NIS 587: 2007) listed two distinct sorts of Sandcrete blocks, type A- (load bearing) and type

B- (non-loadbearing) which could be either solid-filled or rectangular hollow piece. Figure 2.1

illustrates a solid-filled and hollow Sandcrete block. Other types of non-load bearing blocks have

been developed and also available for aesthetics or ventilation purposes. The accepted dimensions

for Sandcrete blocks as specified in the (NIS587: 2007) is presented as Table 2.1 and the

dimensional tolerances as provided is shown in Table 2.2.

8
Table 2.1: Usage of Sandcrete Blocks and their Types
Type Size (mm) Web Thickness Usage
(mm)
Solid Blocks 450 x 225 x 100 - Non-load bearing and partition walls

Hollow 450 x 225 x 113 25.0 Non-load bearing and partition walls

Hollow 450 x 225 x 150 37.5 Load bearing walls

Hollow 450 x 225 x 225 50.0 Load bearing walls

Source: (NIS 87, 2007)

(a) Solid-Filled Sandcrete block. (b) Hollow Sandcrete blocks.

Figure 2.1: Solid-filled and hollow Sandcrete blocks

The (NIS: 587 2007) recommends that the compressive strength for non-load bearing and load

bearing blocks shall not be less than 2.5N/mm2 and 3.5N/mm2 load bearing blocks and also water

absorption capacity shall not exceed 12%.

9
Table 2.2: Dimension tolerance of Sandcrete block
Block width Web thickness (mm)

NIS Manufactured Lab. Produced

225mm 50 30-38 30-38

150mm 37.5 30-38 30-38

Source: (NIS 587, 2007)

2.2.3 Composition of Sandcrete Blocks

Sandcrete block embraces the fusion of water, fine aggregates (sharp sand) and binders (cement)

particularly river sand as prescribed by (NIS 87: 2007). However, the use of admixtures such as

laterite, saw dust granite fines and agro based wastes have been incorporated recently into

Sandcrete production to improve the strength characteristics and overall quality of Sandcrete

blocks.

1 Binder Material

Cement is basically the binding material used in manufacturing Sandcrete blocks. Cement can be

defined as any adhesive material which is capable of bonding pieces or masses of solid matter to

a compacted entity (Ghosh, 1983). Fredrick (2018) considered cements as any material that

possesses cohesive and adhesive properties and is capable of bonding together particles of solid

matter into a complete compacted entity. Different types of cements exist for various uses such as

Portland cement, White cement, rapid hardening cement and pozzolanic cement.

10
In Nigeria the Ordinary Portland cement is the mostly used type of cement. It is usually obtained

from pulverization of clinker and calcination to incipient fusion a properly balanced mixture of

argillaceous and calcareous materials (Duggal, 2003). Marine shell, chalk marl are examples of

natural calcareous materials while furnace slag and silicates occurring in clay soils are typical

examples of argillaceous materials. OPC is made-up of four major compounds namely Alite,

Belite, Aluminate and Aluminoferrite. These compounds control the properties of the cement and

have a huge influence on the strength characteristics of the ensuing concrete because 90% of the

total proportion of the OPC is from these compounds (Zhige, 2005).

There may be variation in the chemical proportion of Portland cement usually reflected by an

increased lime content and a reduced silica content than otherwise should exist. (Mindess, 2003).

When the free lime present in the cement is greater than certain percentages, it becomes almost

impossible to have the compounds fuse together, and the result is a cement that is unsound. On the

contrary if the reverse is the case, and the silica content is increased it becomes difficult for the

clinker to be obtained. Tables 2.3 and 2.4 presents the compounds present in OPC and their

approximate limits.

Table 2.3: Core Compound of Portland Cement

Chemical name Chemical Notation Weight
Formulae Percentage
Tricalcium Silicate (Alite) 3CaO.SiO2 C3 S 55

Dicalcium Silicate (Belite) 2CaO.SiO2 C2 S 18

Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C3 A 10

Tetra-calcium alumino-ferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O C4AF 8

Calcium sulphate didydrate CaSO4.2H2O CSH2 6

Source: (Mindess, 2003)

11
Table 2.4: Chemical composition of Portland Cement
Oxide Function Composition (%)
Cao Has a lot of influence on the strength and setting time
of cements. Its deficiency is bad for the concrete 60-65

SiO2 Imparts strength but when excessive slows down

setting time 17-25
Al2O3 Important and useful for early strength gain. But
excess may also slow down setting. 3-8
Fe2O3
It’s the compound behind the colour of cements. But
the cement may become unsound if in excess 0.5-6
MgO
Imparts colour and hardness. If in excess may cause
0.5-4
cracks in concrete and unsoundness.
Na2O + K2O, TiO2, P2O5
These are deposits from the breakdown of the clinker 0.7-1.9
and it excess may cause efflorescence and cracks.
SO3
Responsible for soundness 1-2

Source: (Duggal, 2013)

By modifying the composition of the existing compounds present in the OPC, different types of

cement have been developed to cater for varying requirements of different concrete works.

Ordinary Portland cement of grade 42.5 is suitable and generally utilized for making blocks in

Nigeria due to it high crushing strength. ASTM 150 gives some specifications for cement based

on it constituent and these properties are capable of affecting it performance as a binder. They

include time of setting, heat from hydration of cement, ignition loss, cement soundness,

consistency and crushing strength. It is expected that any cement used for manufacturing Sandcrete

blocks in Nigeria must conform with the requirements of the Nigerian Industrial Standard and

British standard.

12
Pozzolana mixed with Portland cement could also be used as binder material in the production of

Sandcrete. Pozzolana can be described as any material with no bonding properties but can react

with water and lime either in processed or unprocessed form at normal room temperature to

produce compounds which are almost insoluble with cementitious characteristics (Oluremi, 1990).

They can be categorized into two distinct types: Natural and Artificial sources. Calcinated clay,

shale, pulmecite, volcanic tuff are examples of natural pozzolanas, good blast furnace and flys ash

are artificial sources.

Pozzolanic cement are mixtures of OPC and pozzolanic sources. These cements have the following

advantages over the conventional cements (OPC), these include, reduction of bleeding of the

concrete, resistance to chemical attack, low rate of heat of hydration evolution, improved

workability. Its major disadvantage is the increased shrinkage and slow rate of strength

development (Dashan and Kamang, 1999). In developing countries like Nigeria, the most common

and readily available material that can be used as pozzolana without any economic implications

are agro based wastes (Mahmoud et al, 2012), this include Rice husk ash (RHA), Bambara

groundnut shell (BGSA) and Wood ash (WA).

The advantages of using pozzolanas as replacement for traditional cements are promotion of waste

management,low capital cost per tonne of production compared to cement, reduction in

environmental pollution and increase in economy base of farmers, when such wastes are sold

thereby encouraging more production conservation of limestone deposits and a reduction in carbon

dioxide emission (Mahmoud et al, 2012; Mbiminah, 1992).

13
2 Aggregates

Aggregates are formed from the artificial crushing of rocks and minerals. According to the british

standards BS812 and BS 882. They can be categorized into two distinct classification: Coarse and

Fine aggregates. Aggregates that are coarse are those capable of passing through the 75mm sieve

and having a minimum diameter of 5mm. Fine aggregates are smaller size aggregate usually

smaller than 5mm and passes through the 4.75mm sieve. They occur naturally, deposited on river

beds and could also be obtained as crushed gravel from eroded areas.

Sandcrete blocks require no coarse aggregates, and are therefore produced using fine aggregates

or sand which forms the largest volume of the blocks. Neville (1997) defined a sand as a natural

aggregate that can be separated by such gentle mechanical means as agitation in water which

implies that a sand is a cohesionless aggregate of rounded, angular or subangular fragments of

more or less unaltered rocks or minerals. (Mohammed and Anwar. 2014).

(Wikipedia, 2007) classifies sand into five categories, these include:

i. Very fine sand (0.0625mm – 0.125mm).

ii. Fine sand (0.125mm – 0.25mm).

iii. Medium sand (0.25mm – 0.5mm).

iv. Coarse sand (0.5mm – 1mm).

v. Very coarse sand (1mm – 2mm)

River sand is the conventional aggregate for producing Sandcrete blocks in Nigeria. According to

(Anosike and Oyebade, 2012), river sands are composed mostly of fine particles but may vary in

size and are suitable for plastering work. Sand obtained from eroded areas are similar to river sand

14
but contain more coarse material than river sand, hence have higher crushing value because of its

coarse nature. Generally, the grading of an aggregate determines it properties in relation to size,

hence it has a considerable effect on the workability and stability of the mix (Fredrick, 2018). In

the manufacture of Sandcrete blocks coarse sand is more preferable due to it high crushing value

which contribute to the strength of the block mass, however fines are a necessity to fill up voids

created by the coarse aggregation in order to achieve a compact block.

The use of low cost non- conventional materials such as laterite, granite fines, quarry dust and saw

dust as replacement for sand have been added in the production of Sandcrete. These materials have

the advantage of producing blocks with improved properties, for example laterite when replaced

with sand have been shown to require less cement content to produce blocks of adequate

compressive strength (Aguwa, 2010)

The Nigerian Industrial Standard requires that any fine aggregate used in Sandcrete production

must be clean, well graded and free from clayish and organic matter, clay shale or iron pyrite, coal.

These materials are very detrimental to the ensuing concrete because they hinder the development

of sufficient bond between the sand and the binder. Neville (1994) postulated that strength, particle

size and shape(grading), specific gravity, void ratio, bulking, moisture content and bulk density

are the most important parameters in the selection of an aggregate for any concrete work.

3 Water

The purpose of using water in Sandcrete production is to cause hydration of the cement and also

for curing. Water acts as a lubricant between the cement and the fine aggregates and makes the

ensuing mixture workable with zero slump value. The volume of water required in concrete or

15
Sandcrete production is often expressed as a function of water: cement ratio. The water: cement

ratio is very important and must be adequately controlled as it has a very huge influence on the

properties of the concrete (Duggal, 2013). If the (W/C) is very high, the excess water makes it

impossible to have a mixture with zero slump in the case of Sandcrete, the excess water also could

leak through the moulds or form thereby leading to a honeycombed mass. Very low (W/C) ratio

will cause the mixture to have low workability and because of non-uniform mixing the resultant

mixture is weaker in strength. The quantity of water must therefore be controlled to produce a

mixture that would meet the desired quality.

The quality of the water used in the production of any type of concrete may also affect the strength

properties of the concrete. Presence of impurities in excess has adverse effects on properties of

concrete such as setting time, strength, and durability of concrete. The (NIS87:2007) recommends

that water used for Sandcrete production must be potable, with no pronounced taste, colour or

odour. Water requirements for curing concrete is less severe. However, it should not contain

impurities.

2.2.4 Manufacture of Sandcrete Blocks

Batching: The process of measuring the components or materials for Sandcrete production is

termed batching. Batching is generally done by two methods, volume batching and mass batching.

In volume batching materials are measured on the basis of volume, it is a less accurate method of

batching and it’s the most common mode of batching amongst block producers in Nigeria. It is

done by measuring into a head pan, wheel barrows and gauge boxes of known volume. Batching

by mass involves measuring the materials on the basis of weight. It is a more accurate method of

16
batching because it is difficult to determine the exact volume of granular materials using the

volume batching due to the presence of voids.

Mixing: Mixing of materials is carried out after the batching. It could be done either manually

using (shovels or spades) or mechanically using concrete mixers. Mechanical mixing is prevalent

with large-scale producers of Sandcrete blocks, while manual mixing is usually practiced by low-

scale block producers. Adequate mixing is necessary irrespective of the method adopted in order

to achieve good quality and durable blocks.

Compaction: After mixing, machine moulds are filled, the material is compacted to expel voids

Three different machines are used for moulding blocks in Nigeria these are (i) Egg laying machine

(ii) Electric vibrating machine (iii) Hand press machine. The type of machine employed in the

production process has a great consequence on the quality of the blocks because of differences in

degree of compaction. The electric vibrating machine has a higher degree of compaction compared

to egg laying and manual hand press machine as a result produces blocks of better quality in terms

of density and compressive strength. After compaction the blocks are demoulded and placed on a

flat surface with pallets.

Curing: Curing of Sandcrete blocks is usually done by spurting the blocks with water in order to

achieve a proper and complete hydration of the cement thereby increasing the hardening of the

block mass toward achieving full strength. The water is usually applied using watering can, rubber

hose of from buckets by sprinkling the water on the blocks and then covering with polythene bags

or wet sacks in order to avoid the effect of adverse weather conditions on the blocks.

Storage: Cured blocks are removed and stored by stacking them on top of the other, to be sold or

for use.

17
2.2.5 Standard Specification of Sandcrete Blocks

The National Building Code Nigeria (NBC, 2006) stipulates that the use of all construction

materials and components must be such that will achieve aesthetics, durability, functionality,

character and affordability (Afolayan et al. 2008; Oyekan and Kamiyo, 2011; Anthony et al, 2015).

The National building code stipulates as follows:

Sandcrete blocks: shall denote a composite mixture consisting of water, cement and sand, and

shall be produced with metal or wooden moulds

Sand: Shall be aggregates that pass through the 4.70mm sieve and shall be certified clean, sharp,

fresh -water or pit sands, free from clayish particles, loam, dirt, and organic or saline water. The

supervisor must certify the use of lagoon sand after thorough washing, if available.

Strength Requirements: Sandcrete Blocks shall have a minimum compressive strength on the

28th day: for an average of 6 load bearing blocks in a 2-3 story buildings 2.0N/mm2 and 1.75N/mm2

for individual blocks. The specifications given above must be complied with and must agree with

the existing specifications of the Nigerian Industrial Standard.

Production/Processing: Sandcrete Blocks shall be made using a mix ratio of 1:6 by volume and

shall be produced using a suitable machine. The materials shall be mixed thoroughly until a

uniform colour and consistency is achieved. The measure is mixed further and water added in

sufficient quantity in order to ensure secure adhesion of the mix. The mixture shall finally be

poured into moulds, compacted and a steel face tool used to smooth off.

Curing: Subsequently the blocks are removed from the machine and shall be left on pallets under

cover and shall be arranged not more than one block high and a space left between the blocks for

18
at least 24hours. The blocks shall be kept wet by spurting the blocks with water at least twice daily.

The blocks shall then be removed from the pallets after 24hours and stacked not more than 5

courses during which the blocks shall be kept wet throughout for a period of 7 days under cover

before use subsequent to the preceding period.

Physical Requirement: Distinct types of Sandcrete blocks or bricks having thickness of 11.25mm

(i.e. 4½) or less shall be solid-filled with grooves and tongue joints. Blocks that have their thickness

greater than 11.25mm (i.e. 4½) shall be made hollow blocks and shall be suitable for damp-proof

course. Hollow sandcrete blocks shall have a web and shell thickness of 50mm and shall be used

only where vertical reinforcement is required or used

Blocks manufactured according to standard specification and requirements possess high

compressive strength, low shrinkage, low moisture apprehension, denseness and durability. This

is best achieved through compliance with the recommendations on mix proportion, quality of

composition materials and curing

19
2.3 Empirical Review

2.3.1 Factors Affecting the Properties of Sandcrete Blocks

Several studies have been carried out on the factors affecting the quality and properties of

Sandcrete blocks, these factors can be subdivided into those related to the properties of the

principal materials and those related to the mode of manufacturing blocks.

Adewole et al. (2015) investigated the effect of Portland cement grades on the compressive

strength of Sandcrete blocks. The study was conducted using two grades of cement, 42.5N and

32.5N using five different mix ratios. The test result showed that the compressive strength of

blocks produced from grade 42.5N was greater than those produced with a cement grade of 32.5N

irrespective of the mix ratio. This is because the compressive strength of grade 42.5N cement is

greater than that of grade 32.5N. Thus, more quantity of cement of grade 32.5N will be required

to produce blocks with equal compressive strength. The authors concluded by recommending the

use of grade 42.5N cement to produce Sandcrete block of standard quality with less cement

content.

Rasheed and Akinleye (2016) examined the effects of Sandcrete block mode of production on the

properties of hollow Sandcrete blocks. The research assessed three local method of producing

blocks viz a viz, (i) manual compaction, (ii) hand ramming (iii) vibrating machine. Using mix ratio

of 1:9 cement: sand. The blocks were cured and tested for compressive strength on the 7, 14, 21

and 28th day. The study showed that blocks produced using vibrating machines recorded the

highest compressive strength for all curing ages. The authors opined that the vibrating machine

has a higher degree of compaction on the blocks compared to the other methods leading to an

improvement in the compressive strength of blocks produced through this method. The authors

20
concluded by recommending the use of the vibrating machine to produce blocks with adequate

compaction.

Ameh and Nwaigwe (2017) studied the influence of variation in the composition of fine aggregates

on the properties of Sandcrete blocks. Sandcrete blocks were produced with a mix ratio of 1:6 and

1:8 as well as mixes containing replacement of sharp sand with fine sand and granite fines at 1:6:2,

1:5:3 and 1:4:4 by volume. The result showed that the compressive strength of blocks containing

cement sharp sand and granite fines in the composition of 1:6:2 had the highest strength. The

authors however noticed that the samples with granite fines had high water absorption capacity

compared to those produced from a mixture of fine sand. This is due to an increase in the void

between particles created by the coarse nature of granites. The authors concluded by

recommending a mix ratio of 1:4:4 for plaster sand and a mix ratio of 1:6:2 for granite fines to

produce blocks of standard quality.

2.3.2 Quality Assessment of Sandcrete Blocks

Quality is defined as fitness for purpose or compliance with specification (Anthony et al, 2015;

Anosike, 2011; Taylor, 2002). It is the total uniqueness required by a material or facility to fulfil

specified requirements. According to Ogunsami et al. (2011) quality is one of the important factors

for developing risk classification model for design and built projects. Quality is therefore an

important factor that cannot be compromised in the built environment.

The Nigerian industrial standard (NIS) are documents developed by the Standard Organisation of

Nigeria (SON) for controlling and regulating the quality of all products used or manufactured in

Nigeria. The current standard for Sandcrete blocks in Nigeria is (NIS 87: 2007). Compressive

21
strength and water absorption capacity are the major characteristics used in evaluating the quality

of Sandcrete blocks.

Abdullahi (2005) examined the crushing property of commercial blocks produced in Bosso and

Shiroro areas of Minna, Nigeria. The study discovered that the sand used for the production was

suitable for block production as specified in the NIS and BS standards. However, the crushing

strength of the blocks was below the minimum standard. Crushing strength of individual blocks

was within the range of 0.11N/mm2 and 0.75N/mm2 while the average compressive strength of

five blocks selected randomly were between 0.14N/mm2 and 0.66N/mm2. These values were

below the prescribed standard for load bearing blocks as specified in the (NIS 87: 2000). The

author postulated that lack of adequate curing and poor-quality control practice amongst the

manufacturers was responsible for the poor crushing strength values obtained, considering the fact

that there was huge variation in the strength property of blocks within the same stock. The study

suggested improvements in the choice of constituent materials and curing methods.

Afolayan et al. (2008) carried out a study to determine the strength property of commercial blocks

produced in Ondo State, Nigeria. Five block manufacturing factories in five towns, Owo,

Akungba, Akoko Akure, Ondo, Ore was visited and three samples of 9inches and 6inches blocks

were collected and used for the study. The result of the crushing test carried out revealed that, the

mean crushing strength of the blocks collected from twenty-five factories to be 0.549N/mm2 and

the standard deviation was 0.316N/mm2. The mix ratio used for manufacturing these blocks was

within the range of 1:8 and 1:28. The study stressed that, the crushing strength of the blocks made

in Ondo state, Nigeria was very poor and concluded that poor quality control practices amongst

the manufactures and improper mix proportion was responsible for the poor-quality blocks

22
produced. The authors recommended use of proper mix ratio, proper curing procedures and use of

well graded aggregates for production of Sandcrete blocks.

Anosike and Oyebade (2012) investigated the quality of Sandcrete blocks and its management in

Nigeria’s construction industry The investigation adopted field surveys and laboratory

experiments to carry out the study. Samples of Sandcrete blocks was collected from Abuja (FCT),

Ogun (Ota), Abia (Umuahia) representing the northern, western, and eastern part of Nigeria

respectively. The study results of the field survey conducted showed that all the block

manufactures batched by volume using a wheel barrow, only 20% of the factories used standard

mix of of 1:8 cement-sand recommended in the standard document while 80% used mix ratios up

to 1:10. Laboratory experiment conducted revealed that the water absorption values was very

considerably much, much huger than 12% recommended by NIS and the compressive strength of

the blocks lower than the recommended values of 2.5N/mm2 and 3.45N/mm2 for blocks that are

non-loadbearing and those that are, respectively. The authors concluded that poor quality control,

inadequate curing period and inconsistency in mix proportion are responsible for the low strength

properties and huge-water absorption values of the blocks.

Mahmoud et al. (2010) examined the compressive strength of marketed Sandcrete blocks in Yola,

Nigeria. The research used two types of blocks (450x225x225) and (450x225x150) 9inches and

6inches to achieve the object of the study. The investigation carried out on the strength of block

samples obtained indicated values ranging between 0.12N/mm2 - 1.46N/mm2 and the mean

crushing strength of five blocks selected at random was between 0.18N/mm2 – 1.38N/mm2. These

values were very poor when compared to the specification of the NIS. The authors stressed that

the poor quality of the blocks is due to poor quality control practices as there was significant

23
variation in strength even within the stock of a single manufacturer. They also posited that the

blocks may not have undergone proper curing. The study concluded that, the manufactures do not

conduct any form of testing on these blocks to ascertain the strength and that the blocks are not

adequately cured before been sold out.

Omopariola (2014) studied the durability of Sandcrete blocks produced in Illaro, Nigeria. Block

samples were collected from commercial manufacturing factories together with control samples

produced in the laboratory in accordance with the (NIS587: 2007). The study focused on the bulk

density, water absorption rate, and wet and dry compressive strength properties of the Sandcrete

blocks. The test result showed that the properties of the control samples conformed with

requirements of the NIS while those collected from the commercial factories do not meet the

recommended values. The author opined that market block makers are ill-informed of the existence

of any relevant code or specifications governing the production of blocks as well as its

recommended properties, hence their neglect for quality control process and adequate curing

period.

Yusuf et al. (2017) in their conference paper assessed the compliance levels of block on

dimensioning and crushing strength in Minna, Niger State. They assessed on the dimensions, water

absorption and crushing strength of blocks made in Minna. The study revealed that the aggregates

utilized in producting blocks in all the factories was not within the acceptable region.). They

further showed that the block factories don’t meet the terms of the standard block dimensions

recommended by (NIS 87: 2007). The authors opined that these blocks could cause building

defects such as cracks on walling units. The crushing strength of blocks ranged between

0.21N/mm2 and 1.11N/mm2 which was far below the standard requirement. The authors concluded

24
that the reduction in the net area required to resist the load as a result of dimension non-compliance

coupled with other sharp practices amongst manufacturers was responsible for the poor quality of

the blocks.

Ikechukwu and Ezeokwonko (2016) explored ways of improving quality of Sandcrete blocks

produced in warm humid climatic zone of Nigeria. To achieve the objectives of the study, the

authors conducted density, rate of water absorption and crushing strength tests on block samples

from 52 factories in Owerri, Imo state. The results showed that the compressive strength and

density of mechanically produced blocks are higher than those of manually compacted ones and

also that the crushing strength of the blocks showed steady increase with curing age irrespective

of the production method. The authors concluded from the study by stating that, mix ration, mode

of compaction and curing age had significant implications on the properties of blocks produced in

the study area and should be taken seriously.

Ojo (2016) examined the production practices of small-scale block manufactures in Osun state,

Nigeria. The study revealed that there was about 650 small scale registered Sandcrete block firms

located in the study area. The study also showed that the number of male respondents outnumbered

their female counterpart (95.8% against 4.2%), majority of the respondent highest qualification

was a secondary school leaving certificate or Teachers grade 2. The study further disclosed that

the batching process employed by all the firms was by volume, in which 83.2% of the respondent

used block making machines while 16.8% used hand mould. A feel of the strength of the blocks

was determined through a height drop test of which 59.44% of the blocks failed while 40.56%

passed the test. The study resolved that the percentage of low-quality blocks produced was higher

25
than the good quality ones, this was attributed to irregularities in the block dimension and

inconsistent mix proportioning.

Yahya (2015) explored the level of compliance of Sandcrete block manufacturers to standard

dimensions in Ibadan, Nigeria. The investigation exposed the level of compromise on the standard

of commercial Sandcrete blocks in relation to size. The study showed that a high percentage of the

blocks do not conform with the standard dimension as specified in Nigeria’s reference document

for Sandcrete blocks. Hence the structural and hydrothermal properties of the blocks is reduced

when used for walling units.

Odeyemi et al. (2018) examined the compressive strength of manual and machined compacted

Sandcrete blocks produced from brands of cement in Nigeria. The experiment was conducted using

the Elephant and Dangote cement brand to carry out the study. The results from the study showed

the crushing strength of Sandcrete blocks produced through machine efforts and from Dangote

cement to be within the range of 2.23N/mm2 – 2.96N/mm2 and those produced manually to be

within the range of 2.22N/mm2 – 2.83N/mm2 while those produced manually and mechanically

from Elephant cement had 2.61N/mm2 – 2.89N/mm2 and 2.26N/mm2 – 3.03N/mm2 respectively.

According to the author the values were within the required range and consistent with standard

recommendation by the NIS for blocks for non-load bearing blocks as well as load bearing blocks.

The authors drew two major conclusion from the study, that the crushing strength of blocks

produced from mechanical efforts is greater than those produced manually due to the high

vibration impacts on blocks, and also that the Elephant cement brand produces blocks of higher

quality in terms if crushing property than the Dangote cement brand.

26
2.3.2 Properties of Non-Conventional Sandcrete Blocks

Several studies have been conducted in recent times on Sandcrete blocks by partially replacing it

conventional materials with alternatives. For example, partly replacing fine aggregates with saw

dust or laterite, replacing cement with pozzolanic materials and other admixtures have been found

to improve the quality and optimize the cost of Sandcrete blocks. The continuous growth in the

cost of conventional Sandcrete material coupled with the problems of depletion has led to a shift

in attention to low cost alternative materials (Aguwa, 2010).

Oyekan and Kamiyo (2011) studied the engineering properties of Sandcrete blocks produced with

rice husk ash (RHA) blended with cement. Blocks of size 225mm x 225mm were produced using

the standard mix ratio of 1:6 with a vibrating machine. Four percentage of cement replacement

was made with rice husk ash, that is (5, 10, 15, 20%) by volume. The result of the study conducted

on the engineering properties of the blocks showed that with increase in RHA content, density,

compressive strength decreases. The authors argued that the RHA content doesn’t appreciably

enhance the crushing property or density of the blocks as partial replacement of cement by RHA

led to a decrease in the quantity of cement available for the hydration process. However, the study

showed that irrespective of the percentage of replacement there is a steady gain in density and

crushing strength with curing age. The results of the hydrothermal tests conducted on the blocks

showed that 10% rice husk ash would be the optimum content to replace cement in order to achieve

a very compact block with good strength.

Aguwa (2010) Compared the performance of a mixture of laterite and cement blocks with

conventional sandcrete blocks as walling units. The research was carried out by producing mixes

of laterite and cement up to a replacement of 10% cement content at steps of 2%. The blocks

27
produced from the mixes were cured up to 28day and tested at intervals of 7days for crushing

strength. The author reported that Sandcrete block gained no strength at 0% for all curing ages.

However, the lateritic blocks did due to it cohesive nature. The author further revealed that the

lateritic blocks constantly gained strength with increase in binder content and with curing age. The

author drew the conclusion that blocks made from mixtures of cement and laterite will always

possess higher strength than the traditional Sandcrete blocks at percentages below 10%, also that

the optimum replacement for producing blocks that are load bearing is 6%.

Tyagher (2011) examined the suitability of saw dust ash-lime mixture for production of Sandcrete

hollow blocks. The experiment involved moulding 9inches and 6inches blocks mechanically for

each replacement of cement with saw dust ash-lime in proportion of 100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30

and 60:40 (cement: saw dust ash-lime) by weight. The blocks were cured by immersion and tested

for density and crushing strength at ages of 7, 14, 21, 28 days respectively. The results from the

experiments conducted showed density and compressive strength decreases with increase in saw

dust ash-lime content and curing age. The author posited that the decrease in the strength properties

are as a result of the light weight of the saw dust ash-lime for mixture, while the consistent increase

in strength with curing age accounts for more hydration of the cement and saw dust ash-lime paste

in the presence of moisture. The study settled that saw dust ash-lime has a fairly insignificant effect

on the density and crushing strength of Sandcrete blocks. Hence not suitable for load bearing

blocks, but can be exercised for making non-load bearing structures with a maximum replacement

of 10% using a mix design of 1:8.

Joshua and Lawal (2011) explored ways of optimizing the cost of Sandcrete blocks through the

partial replacement of sand with laterite soil. Sandcrete blocks were produced with a partial

28
replacement of the fine aggregates with laterite in varying proportions of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%,

40% up to 100%. The blocks were cured for 28days and compressive test was done on the blocks

at 7, 14, 21, 28 days for conformity with the Nigerian Building Code (2006) with the aim of

verifying the acceptable percentage of replacement required to produce a block within the NBC

standard. The study revealed that a replacement of 10% gave the highest compressive strength

value using the standard mix proportion of 1:6 cement to fine aggregates. The authors

recommended the use of lateritic soils in manufacturing Sandcrete blocks using a maximum of

10% replacement of sand with laterite.

Boob (2012) studied the performance of saw dust in low cost Sandcrete production. The study

produced 100mm sized blocks with various mix proportion of 1:4, 1:6, 1:8 and replacement of 0,

5, 10, 15 and 20%. The specimens were cured up to 28days to ascertain the maximum density and

compressive strength possible. The study showed that as the percentage of saw dust increased,

density and compressive strength decreased, the author opined that this result is due to the very

low specific gravity of the saw dust. However, at 15% replacement under a mix proportion of 1:4

it was observed that the strength characteristics of the block is within the range specified for load

bearing walls. Hence the author resolved that saw dust can be replaced up to 15% under a mix

ratio of 1:4 to produce load bearing Sandcrete blocks.

Opeyemi et al. (2013) explored ways of using recycled fine Sandcrete block waste as aggregate in

the production of Sandcrete blocks. Blocks were produced using cement-fine aggregate mx

proportion of 1:6 with the partial replacement of sand with recycled Sandcrete blocks in the

proportion of 10% up to 90% in steps of 10%. The study revealed that with increase in the recycled

waste blocks the density and crushing property of the Sandcrete blocks decreased. According to

29
the author this signifies that the recycled waste blocks contained more fines and its lighter than

conventional sand used for block production. The study recommends that to produce a standard

Sandcrete block which would meet the minimum requirement as specified in the NIS document,

the tolerable percentage replacement of conventional fines aggregates with recycled Sandcrete

waste blocks is 50% beyond which the crushing strength of blocks will go below the standard

strength of 3.5N/mm2 for load bearing blocks.

Afolayan (2017) examined the properties of Sandcrete blocks when cement is partially replaced

with egg shell dust. The study was conducted by producing blocks using a mix proportion of

one:six and partial replacement of cement with egg shell dust at intervals of 5% up to 40%. The

blocks were cured and tested for crushing at 7, 14, 21, 28 days respectively. The results from the

study showed an initial decline in the crushing property with rise in percentage of replacement

between 5 and 10% and thereafter increases to a peak value at 30% replacement beyond which a

sharp decline in the crushing strength is noticed at 7 days of testing. The author submitted that the

eggshell content was responsible for the early strength gain as due to the presence of high calcium

oxide (CaO) of 46.69% present in the eggshell. The study resolved that egg shell ash can be used

as an accelerator and that the greater the percentage of the egg shell dust replaced the higher the

accelerating effect. The compressive strength obtained at different percentage of replacement was

satisfactory and hence suitable for non-1oad bearing and 1oad bearing blocks.

Musa and Abubakar (2018) analysed the effect of steel fibre reinforcement on Sandcrete blocks.

The authors produced Sandcrete blocks of size 225mm x 225mm x 450mm using mix ratio of one:

eight at 1, 2 and 3% of tyre fibre contents. The study showed that the crushing characteristis and

water absorption rate of blocks were enhanced with rise in the fibre content. The authors opined

30
that the tyre fibre content improves the properties of the blocks by providing a better bonding

within the mortar matrix. The study concluded that addition of steel fibres to Sandcrete blocks

could improve the performance of Sandcrete blocks but should be limited to a maximum

replacement of 3% beyond which there will be formation of cracks on blocks.

2.4 Summary

The relevant literatures related to the physical and structural properties as well as the quality of

Sandcrete blocks in terms of compressive strength, bulk density, dimensions, water absorption

capacity has been reviewed. The literatures showed how these properties are dependent on the mix

proportioning, quality of constituent materials, process adopted for manufacture, style and period

of curing and also the size(dimensioning) and shape of the blocks. Empirical research on the use

of unconventional ingredients as replacement for conventional materials in Sandcrete production

has been discussed. The empirical studies showed how the use of non-conventional materials could

improve the quality and optimize the cost in Sandcrete production.

31
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

The materials employed in carrying out this research work are commercial Sandcrete blocks made

in selected factories of Minna Metropolis, Niger State.

3.2 Methods

The method adopted for carrying out this study include field survey and laboratory experiments.

The analysis of the result obtained from the field survey and laboratory experiment was compared

with the standard specifications of the Nigerian standard for Sandcrete blocks (NIS: 87 2007) and

the Nigerian Building Code (2006). The correlations and discrepancies observed informed the

conclusion of the study.

3.2.1 Field Survey

The field survey involved collection of a total of eighty (80) nine inches hollow Sandcrete blocks

five (5) each from sixteen (16) randomly selected manufacturing factories in Minna metropolis of

Niger State, Nigeria. The field survey was also conducted by directly observing the processes and

techniques engaged amongst manufacturers in the production process. Observed operation include,

batching method, mix proportion, curing method as well as sizing of the blocks. Inquiries were

made from the manufacturers by oral interview as regards to source and composition of materials,

curing period, age of blocks and quality assurance on the blocks.

32
3.2.2 Laboratory Experiments

The laboratory experiment conducted on the block samples include block measurement, density,

water absorption capacity and compressive strength tests. The procedures adopted in conducting

these experiments are detailed as follows.

1 Block Measurement

The standard measuring procedure as specified in (NIS 87: 2007) was observed to obtain the

dimensions of the sampled blocks. The samples were prepared by scraping off outcrops and

redundant materials adhering to the surface before the length, width, and depth was measured using

a measuring tape. The thickness of shells and web was measured by means of a Vernier calliper.

The block dimensions obtained were compared with the standard specification for dimensions as

provided by the (NIS 87:2007) and (NBC, 2006).

2 Bulk density Test

The bulk density test was conducted using a standard weighing balance of 50kg capacity having

200g graduations. The block samples acquired from the manufacturing factories for the purpose

of the tests were numbered. The blocks were weighed and the mass of each block unit read and

recorded. The dimensions of the blocks were also taken using a measuring tape and used to

compute the volume. The volume of the blocks was determined by deducting the volume of the

void from the product of the block dimensions. The bulk density is calculated from Equation 1

𝑀
𝜌= (1)
𝑉

33
Where: 𝑀 = Mass of individual block unit (kg).
V = Volume of individual block unit (m3).

𝜌= Bulk density of block (Kg/m3).

The mean value of three (3) blocks was obtained and was regarded as the bulk density for each

factory and shall not be less than 1500kg/m3 (NIS:87 2007).

3 Water Absorption Test

The water absorption value of blocks is the degree of the extent to which a block will absorb water

and is also a major property of the NIS for examining and assessing the quality of blocks. The test

was conducted by first finding the weight of the block mass in its dry condition 𝑀1 . The blocks

were then fully plunged completely into water under normal circumstances for a 24hour period

after which the blocks were reweighed to obtain the wet mass 𝑀2 . The water absorption capacity

id finally worked out from equation 2 given below

𝑀2 −𝑀1
𝑊𝑐 (%) = × 100 (2)
𝑀1

Where: 𝑊𝑐 = Water absorption capacity

𝑀1 = Mass of block before plunging
𝑀2 = Mass of block after plunging

The mean value of three (3) blocks obtained for each factory was regarded as the water absorption

capacity and shall not exceed 12% (NIS: 87 2007).

34
4 Compressive Strength Test

The crushing test was handled using an electrical compressive machine and in accordance with the

procedure as specified in the NIS 587:2007.

The crushing property of the block samples was obtained from crushing the blocks, this was carried

out on all blocks obtained from different factories. The blocks were placed into the machine and a

metal plate was paced beneath the blocks, another plate was also placed on the cork of the block,

thus to make sure that the pressure distribution over the block surface area is u varying. The engine

was switched on and load was applied at a continuous degree up-to break down. The maximum

load at which failure occurred was read and recorded. The maximum load can be deduced from

the machine when the needle refuses to foster an extra reading on the engine. The crushing strength

of each block sample in N/mm2 was calculated from Equation 3.

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑁)

Compressive Strength (N/mm2) = (3)
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 (𝑚𝑚2 )

The mean crushing strength for each block from each factory was worked out and taken as the

crushing strength of blocks from the factory, and shall not be less than the standard requirements

for blocks produced mechanically. (NIS: 87 2007).

35
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Overview

This chapter is focused on the presentation and analysis of the results obtained from the qualitative

survey and laboratory experiment conducted on the collected blocks from the selected factories in

Minna metropolis of Niger State.

4.2 Field Survey

The results obtained from the field survey include, batching method, mix proportion, mode of

production, source and composition of materials, mixing method, curing method, age of blocks

and quality assurance. These results are presented in Table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1: Observed Operations and Response from Block Factories

Factory Batching Mix Blocks Curing Period Age Test on
Method Proportion Per Bag (days) (days) Materials
A Volume 1:19 46 3 3 No

B Volume 1:18 42 3 3 No

C Volume 1:16 42 3 4 No

D Volume 1:16 40 3 4 No

E Volume 1:18 45 2 3 No

F Volume 1:16 42 2 3 No

G Volume 1:16 40 3 3 No

H Volume 1:14 36 3 3 No

36
 I Volume 1:18 45 3 4 No

J Volume 1:18 45 3 3 No

K Volume 1:16 42 3 3 No

L Volume 1:18 45 2 3 No

Q Volume 1:16 42 3 4 No

R Volume 1:16 40 2 4 No

S Volume 1:16 40 3 3 No

U Volume 1:16 40 4 4 No

i. Moulding method

All the block manufacturing factory visited produced Sandcrete blocks mechanically using the

typical electrical vibrating machine of the Rosacommetta type.

ii. Batching Method

Batching by volume was utilized in all sixteen (16) manufacturing factories visited. Batching was

done using the wheel barrow to measure the required volume of sand depending on the mix ratio

adopted in each factory.

iii. Mix Proportion

It was observed that none of the manufacturing factories used the standard mix ratio of 1:8

specified by the NIS 87:2007. The mix ratio adopted in all the factories visited ranged between

37
1:14 -1:18 to produce 38-45 nine-inch blocks per bag of cement. None of the block factories used

the endorsed water-cement ratio of 0.4. Application of water was moderated by the factory operator

to achieve a workable mix without any compensation for bulking.

iv. Mixing Method

Mixing was done manually in all the selected manufacturing factories using shovels and spades. It

was observed that the volume of materials mixed is usually very large, resulting in inconsistent

mixing. This leads to a reduction in quality of the blocks as cracks soon appear on some of the

fresh blocks. The use of a mechanical mixer is advisable to achieve a consistent, uniform and

homogenous mixture.

v. Source and composition of materials

Ordinary Portland Cement of grade 42.5 was observed to be utilized in the selected factories for

producing blocks. Majority of the factories used the sharp sand obtained from rivers and streams

only as fine aggregates while the rest combined fine sand with granite fines in varying proportion

to produce the blocks. Table 4.2 presents the proportion of fine aggregates utilized in the selected

factories for producing blocks. Potable water from boreholes and taps was used to produce and

cure the blocks. Figure 4.1 illustrates the source of water utilized in proportion.

38
Table 4.2 Composition of Fine Aggregates used in Selected Factories.
Composition of Fine Aggregates (%)
Block Factory Sharp Sand Fine Sand Granite Fines
A 100 0 0
B 60 40 0
C 100 0 0
D 100 0 0
E 100 0 0
F 80 20 0
G 100 0 0
H 40 20 40
I 100 0 0
J 100 0 0
K 60 20 20
L 100 0 0
Q 60 0 40
R 60 0 40
S 80 20 0
U 100 0 0

Sources of water

19%
Drilled Borehole
44%
Tap
Both
37%

Figure 4.1: Source of Water in Selected Factories.

39
 vi. Curing Method and Period

Curing was done in all the block manufacturing factories by spurting the blocks with water twice

daily in an open area and for a period of 2-3 days. None of the manufacturing factories complied

with the 7days curing period in a covered area as recommended by NIS 87:2007.

vii. Quality Assurance

None of the factories were owned or operated by professionals and as a result do not conduct any

quality assurance test on the composition materials or the finished products. Personnel were

untrained and there was no supervision or regulation of their activities resulting in unwholesome

practices amongst the workers in the production process.

4.3 Laboratory Experiments

4.3.1 Block Dimensions

The result of the dimension test conducted on the Sandcrete blocks is presented as Appendix B.

The results showed that the minimum dimensions in terms of length, width and depth of all block

factories are within the specified dimensional tolerance by (NIS:87 2007). The recommended

minimum dimensions as specified is shown in Table 2.1. However, none of the factories met the

minimum required web thickness of 50mm as specified except factory L and R recording a mean

web thickness of 53.88 and 54.43mm respectively. Use of deteriorated moulds and improper

tuning of the machine moulds are the primary causes of reduced web thickness. Reducing the web

thickness may save material and cost but the volume and effective area available for resisting loads

is essentially reduced consequently decreasing the density and compressive strength of the blocks.

40
4.3.2 Bulk Density

The bulk density of sampled blocks from the selected factories is presented as Appendix C. The

mean density of the sampled blocks is summarized in Figure 4.2. The mean density of the blocks

was between the range of 1607.26kg/m3-1904.84kg/m3 which is consistent with the specification

of NIS:87 2007 standard value of 1500kg/m3 for an average of three (3) blocks. Blocks from

factory H recorded the highest mean density of 1904.84kg/m3 whilst blocks from factory R

recorded the least mean density with a value of 1607.26kg/m3. The compressive strength of blocks

is a function of the density and depends on the degree of compaction, mix proportion, curing period

and composition of fine aggregates.

2500

2000
Density (kg/m3)

1500

1000

500

0
A B C D E F G H I J K L Q R S U
Block Factory

Density of sandcrete blocks Standard density of sandcrete blocks

Figure 4.2: Mean Bulk Density of Sampled Blocks

Blocks produced in factories where sharp sand was partly replaced with fine sand and granite fines

recorded higher densities compared to those produced from sharp sand only. This is because the

specific gravity of granite fines and fine sand are higher than that of sharp sand. The electric

41
vibrating block-making machine utilized in the selected factories has a higher degree of

compaction compared to those produced using hand-pressed machines and manual tamping. Hence

the satisfactory values obtained.

4.3.3 Water Absorption Capacity

Appendix C presents the water absorption capacities of the sampled blocks. The mean water

absorption capacity of blocks from the selected factories is summarized in Figure 4.3. The mean

water absorption capacities of all sampled blocks exceeded the standard value of 12% specified by

(NIS: 87 2007) except those from block-factory B, H, K and U. The mean water absorption

capacity of the blocks ranged between 8.61-16.44%, blocks from D recording the highest water

absorption capacity of 16.44% and K recording the least value of 8.61%. Poor mix ratio,

inadequate curing, inadequate compaction and poor aggregate gradation have been highlighted in

the literature review as the causes of high-water absorption capacity of blocks.

18
16
Water Absorption

14
Capacity (%)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
A B C D E F G H I J K L Q R S U
Block Factory
Water Absorption Capacity of Blocks Maximum Water Absorption Capacity

Figure 4.3: Mean Water Absorption Capacity of Collected Blocks.

42
Blocks produced in factories where fine sand was partly replaced with sharp sand had lower water

absorption capacities because of the reduction in the void between particles due to presence of

fines thereby making the blocks more compact and less porous. Those produced from granite fines

however, had higher water absorption capacities because of the increase in the void between

particles as a result of the coarse nature of granite fines.

The effects of high-water absorption capacity of blocks include formation of damps in buildings

during rainy days and in the event of persistent inundation the rate of permeability of porous blocks

becomes high, consequently becomes weakened and eventually fails.

4.3.4 Compressive Strength

The compressive strength characteristics of the collected Sandcrete blocks is presented as

Appendix D and the mean compressive strength of five (5) blocks from each factory is summarized

in Figure 4.4

4
Compressive Strength

3.5
3
(N/mm2)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
A B C D E F G H I J K L Q R S U

Block Factory
Compressive strenght of blocks
Standard Compressive Strenght for non- load bearing blocks
Standard compressive strenght of load bearing blocks

Figure 4.4: Compressive Strength of Collected Sandcrete Blocks

43
The compressive strength of individual blocks ranged between 0.18- 1.26N/mm2 and the mean

compressive strength of five (5) blocks for each factory ranged between 0.27-1.12N/mm2. Blocks

from factory H recorded the highest mean compressive strength of 1.12N/mm2 while those from

factory A recorded the least value of 0.27N/mm2. Granite fines was observed to be partly replaced

for sharp sand in factory H, K, Q and R, hence blocks from these factories had better compressive

strength than those produced from mixture of sharp sand and plaster sand only. This is due to the

strong bonds that forms between granite and cement. However, these values are far below the

standard specification of the (NIS: 87 2007) which stipulates that the lowest compressive strength

of individual non-load bearing Sandcrete blocks shall not be less than 2.5N/mm2 and average

compressive strength of five (5) blocks shall not be less than 3.45N/mm2. These values are also

below the requirement of the Nigerian Building Code (NBC, 2006) which recommends a minimum

compressive strength of 2.0N/mm2 for individual blocks.

The results indicate poor quality control practices amongst the manufactures as the compressive

strength of the blocks were not just below the standard value for load bearing and non-load bearing

blocks but also there was a huge variation in the compressive strength of blocks within the same

collection of a single manufacturer. This could be attributed to inconsistent mixing due to the

manual mode of mixing employed in all the factories considering the large volume of materials

involved. The result also indicates non-adherence to the stipulated mix proportion of (1:8) as

blocks produced in factory H with the strongest mix of (1:14) had the highest compressive strength

against those produced from factory A with the weakest mix of (1:19). Curing, a mechanism for

continuous hydration of cement essential for strength development was improperly and

inadequately done, the blocks were only cured for 2-3 days in an open area against the stipulated

44
7 days in a covered area. The reduction in the web thickness of the blocks also contributed to the

poor compressive strength of the blocks as the area available for resisting load was effectively

reduced in the process.

None of the blocks from the selected factories met the strength requirement for load bearings

blocks hence are not suitable for load bearing purposes.

4.4 Summary

This chapter presented the outcome of the qualitative field survey and laboratory experiments

conducted on Sandcrete blocks in the study area. The results from the field survey indicated the

production practices engaged amongst the selected factories in the production process such as

moulding method, mixing method, batching method, mix proportion, source and material

composition, curing period and quality assurance. The results from the laboratory experiments

showed that all factories complied with the minimum dimension in terms of length, width and

height but only two factories L and R complied with standard dimension for web thickness. The

bulk densities of the blocks were all within the specified limits thus indicating sufficient

compaction. Four factories B, H, K and U met the requirement for water absorption and none met

the strength requirement for load bearing blocks.

45
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

From the investigations conducted through the qualitative field survey and laboratory experiments

on the sampled blocks obtained from the selected block factories. The following conclusions were

drawn.

Block manufacturers in the study area are ill-informed of the presence of any standard

specifications for Sandcrete blocks. This resulted in unwholesome practices amongst the

manufacturers in the production process. All the selected block factories in the study area batched

by volume without considering the moisture condition of the sand hence there was no

compensation for bulking. The mix proportion used in all factories were weak ranging between

1:14-1:19 against the standard mix ratio of 1:8. None of the factories cured the blocks properly

before supplying them to customers for use in construction. Quality assurance on the blocks could

not be guaranteed in any of the factories as none of the factory conducted any test on the

composition materials or the finished product also the management of the factories were left in the

hands of untrained personnel with less education about standard production procedures.

The dimensions of the collected blocks from all factories were within acceptable limits in terms of

length, width and height. The web thickness of most of the blocks however, was not up to the

required standard value due to use of deteriorated moulds and improper tuning of the machine

moulds consequently the volume and area available for resisting loads was effectively reduced

leading to a decrease in the density and strength properties of the blocks.

46
The bulk densities of the sampled blocks are consistent with the standard provision of (NIS 87:

2007) for load bearing blocks indicating adequate compaction of the blocks. Compaction is

therefore unlikely to have any influence on the important attributes of the blocks.

The water absorption capacities of the sampled blocks are above the specified maximum value of

12% except those from factory B, H, K and L. This can be ascribed to the use of poor mixes and

bad curing practices. These blocks are therefore less durable and more susceptible to failure from

high rate of water permeability.

The crushing strengths of the collected blocks are therefore far below the standard requirements

of (NIS 87: 2007) and (NBC, 2006) for load bearing and non-load bearing blocks. This is as a

result of poor quality control management, improper mix proportion and inadequate curing

practice amongst the block manufacturers.

The blocks produced in the selected factories of Minna metropolis are therefore of poor quality

and thus, not suitable for construction purposes. The use of these blocks would lead to cracks on

walling units especially in buildings were the roof-load is left to bear on the walls and in extreme

cases of inundation would lead to a total collapse.

47
5.2 Recommendations

From the conclusions reached, the following recommendations are apt.

1) Proper quality control management techniques such as improved curing practice, use of

appropriate mix ratios, adequate compaction timing and use of mechanical mixers should be

enforced by the regulatory bodies on the block manufacturers.

2) Block factories should be saddled with the responsibility of employing the services of

professionals. Periodic training should also be organized by appropriate bodies for staff on the

importance of adhering to standard specification and possible ways of improving the quality

of blocks.

3) The Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON), the Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE) and

other concerned regulatory bodies should be saddled with the responsibility of ensuring that

the blocks employed in construction conforms with standard specifications. Penalties and

sanctions should be meted out to defaulters to serve as a deterrent to others.

4) The use of admixtures in the production of Sandcrete block such as laterite, granite fines,

quarry dust and saw dust has been found to improve the properties and optimize cost of

producing Sandcrete blocks. The use of these admixtures should therefore be encouraged in

the production of Sandcrete block.

48
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52
 APPENDICES

Appendix A: Materials and Equipment used

A1: Collected block samples.

A2: Weighing balance.

53
 A4: Blocks immersed in curing tank.

A5: Compressive strength testing machine.

54
Appendix B: Dimensions of collected Sandcrete blocks
Block No Length Mean Width Mean Height Mean Web Mean Web
Factory (mm) Length (mm) Width (mm) Height thickness Thickness
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
A 1 460 458 235 231.2 230 230.6 38.00 38.60
2 455 232 230 39.00
3 457 231 230 39.60
4 460 230 231 38.10
5 458 228 232 38.30

B 1 455 456.2 228 228.2 230 230.6 40.00 40.68

2 455 228 231 40.00
3 456 225 232 44.40
4 455 230 230 39.00
5 460 230 230 40.00

C 1 460 459.4 230 229.6 230 230 35.90 36.25

2 460 230 230 38.30
3 462 230 230 36.05
4 460 228 230 36.20
5 455 230 230 34.80

D 1 460 458.6 230 228.8 230 230 39.30 39.46

2 460 230 230 37.10
3 460 230 230 39.05
4 455 228 230 40.00
5 458 226 230 42.05

E 1 455 457 230 230.8 227 228.6 42.25 41.27

2 455 231 230 41.10
3 460 230 226 40.45

55
 4 460 230 230 41.55
5 455 233 230 41.00

F 1 460 462 230 228.6 230 228.2 41.65 40.01

2 462 227 225 39.60
3 465 230 226 39.60
4 463 230 230 39.60
5 460 226 230 39.60

G 1 455 453.8 255 225.2 225 226 40.25 40.02

2 453 226 225 39.60
3 452 225 225 40.30
4 455 225 230 39.95
5 454 225 225 40.05

H 1 455 455 226 225.2 230 230 40.55 40.27

2 455 225 230 42.80
3 455 225 230 38.50
4 455 227 230 40.25
5 455 225 230 39.25

I 1 455 457.2 230 229.4 230 230.6 36.20 36.81

2 460 232 231 35.65
3 460 230 232 39.00
4 456 228 230 36.05
5 455 227 230 37.20

J 1 458 459.6 228 229.6 230 229.6 37.40 37.62

2 460 230 232 37.20
3 458 230 226 37.05

56
 4 462 230 230 39.00
5 460 229 230 37.50

K 1 455 456 225 227 225 226.8 36.60 36.97

2 455 231 225 37.10
3 455 226 226 36.65
4 458 225 230 37.15
5 457 228 230 37.55

L 1 460 460.6 230 231.5 230 230.5 52.25 52.01

2 460 231 230 50.05
3 463 232 232 52.85
4 460 231 230 54.65
5 460 230 230 50.25

Q 1 460 457.6 225 227.8 225 227.0 37.20 36.46

2 460 230 230 35.20
3 457 231 230 36.30
4 458 225 225 36.30
5 453 225 225 37.30

R 1 460 460 230 230 230 230.0 53.90 54.43

2 460 230 230 53.35
3 460 230 230 52.80
4 460 230 230 56.25
5 460 230 230 55.85

S 1 460 457.2 227 227.6 232 231.2 38.05 37.62

2 455 226 231 38.10
3 460 227 233 37.05

57
 4 456 228 230 37.65
5 460 230 230 37.25

U 1 455 457.0 230 229.4 230 230 39.05 40.06

2 455 230 230 40.60
3 460 230 230 41.30
4 455 231 230 40.10
5 460 226 230 39.25

Appendix C: Density and water absorption capacity of collected blocks

Block No Weight of Weight of Density Mean Water Mean
Factory Dry Block Wet Block (kg/m3) Density Absorption Water
3
(kg) (kg) (kg/m ) Capacity Absorption
(%) Capacity
(%)
A 1 20.54 23.32 1682.3 1676.7 13.53 15.27
2 20.42 23.75 1659.2 16.30
3 21.06 24.42 1688.5 15.95

B 1 21.34 23.23 1713.1 1704.3 8.85 9.23

2 22.08 24.18 1764.9 9.51
3 22.24 24.31 1634.9 9.30

C 1 20.43 22.49 1774.2 1736.0 10.08 13.35

2 20.60 23.25 1694.3 12.86
3 20.16 23.61 1739.6 17.11

D 1 20.68 22.49 1664.8 1669.9 8.75 16.44

2 20.31 23.25 1719.5 21.37
3 20.06 23.60 1625.2 19.19

58
E 1 22.23 25.44 1721.4 1740.5 14.44 14.09
2 21.68 24.87 1690.8 14.71
3 22.62 25.59 1809.3 13.13

F 1 22.40 25.24 1719.2 1734.2 12.68 13.64

2 21.80 24.66 1789.3 13.12
3 20.96 24.13 1694.2 15.12

G 1 20.40 23.62 1676.7 1692.4 15.78 16.37

2 20.63 23.79 1719.7 15.32
3 20.38 24.05 1680.8 18.01

H 1 23.48 25.97 1899.7 1904.8 10.60 10.38

2 23.88 25.58 1821.7 7.11
3 23.93 25.87 1993.1 8.10

I 1 19.68 22.57 1709.3 1666.6 14.68 13.08

2 19.27 21.72 1668.9 12.71
3 20.19 22.58 1621.7 11.84

J 1 20.86 23.63 1672.9 1693.3 13.28 14.60

2 19.42 22.06 1622.6 13.59
3 19.61 22.93 1694.5 16.93

K 1 20.69 22.85 1840.1 1824.9 10.44 8.61

2 20.82 22.97 1823.0 10.33
3 20.53 22.66 1811.7 10.38

L 1 25.45 28.87 1619.4 1614.8 13.44 12.17

2 25.60 28.72 1629.0 12.19

59
 3 25.20 27.95 1596.1 10.91

Q 1 21.42 23.85 1865.5 1809.1 11.34 13.42

2 20.66 24.08 1824.3 16.55
3 20.15 22.64 1737.3 12.36

R 1 25.30 28.48 1611.3 1607.3 12.57 12.32

2 25.89 28.75 1636.4 11.05
3 24.72 27.97 1574.1 13.15

S 1 20.80 23.96 1716.5 1765.8 15.19 12.61

2 21.20 23.54 1771.0 11.04
3 21.53 24.03 1809.0 11.61

U 1 21.3 23.97 1736.5 1646.7 12.54 10.23

2 20.9 22.55 1651.7 7.79
3 20.08 22.16 1551.8 10.36

Appendix D: Compressive strength of collected blocks

Block Factory No Crushing Load (kN) Compressive Mean Compressive
Strength (N/mm2) Strength (N/mm2)
A 1 15 0.28 0.27
2 18 0.34
3 16 0.30
4 10 0.19
5 12 0.23

B 1 22 0.40 0.41
2 19 0.35
3 28 0.48

60
 4 19 0.36
5 26 0.47

C 1 15 0.30 0.29
2 17 0.32
3 12 0.24
4 14 0.28
5 16 0.33

D 1 20 0.37 0.34
2 28 0.54
3 20 0.37
4 12 0.22
5 10 0.18

E 1 15 0.26 0.44
2 25 0.45
3 28 0.51
4 24 0.42
5 30 0.54

F 1 35 0.62 0.67
2 30 0.55
3 38 0.69
4 42 0.77
5 40 0.74

G 1 14 0.26
0.31
2 12 0.23
3 12 0.22

61
 4 22 0.40
5 24 0.44

H 1 65 1.18 1.12
2 62 1.07
3 56 1.05
4 58 1.05
5 68 1.26

I 1 16 0.32 0.47
2 24 0.48
3 32 0.60
4 22 0.44
5 26 0.51

J 1 16 0.31 0.38
2 12 0.23
3 20 0.39
4 18 0.33
5 34 0.66

K 1 52 1.04 1.03
2 56 1.09
3 52 1.04
4 48 0.95
5 54 1.05

L 1 38 0.5 0.49
2 36 0.53
3 32 0.47

62
 4 38 0.55
5 28 0.40

Q 1 36 0.71 0.85
2 26 0.53
3 62 1.23
4 48 0.96
5 42 0.83

R 1 46 0.66 0.80
2 58 0.84
3 64 0.94
4 52 0.73
5 60 0.84

S 1 36 0.69 0.52
2 30 0.57
3 28 0.55
4 18 0.35
5 22 0.43

U 1 36 0.49 0.40
2 30 0.44
3 28 0.32
4 18 0.37
5 22 0.41

63