Chapter 1

1.0. Introduction

1.1. Background

The design and operation of a functional subsea production system must consider all
parameters and uncertainties encountered in the entire system, from the reservoir
downstream to the reception processing facilities at the topside. Continuous expansion
in the Oil and Gas production operations in the record breaking water depths using
subsea technology has integrated flow assurance management strategies as a critical
element of the system design and operations.

While making exceptional efforts to assure that the whole production system can be
designed to perform successfully and cost-effectively, systems designers have the task
of ensuring that basic flow assurance principles; reservoir characteristics, production
profiles, produced fluid chemistry, and environmental conditions, mechanical,
operational, risk, and economic concerns are technically addressed. These essential
system design parameters explicitly include; flowline and tubing diameters, insulation (of
wellbore tubing, trees, jumpers, manifolds, risers and flowlines, etc), flow blockage
prevention and remediation provisions, etc (Davalath and Stevens, 2006).

Operations in the subsea systems offer unprecedented challenges that are not obtained
in the onshore or offshore platform wells. In the last few decades, the focus on
controlling the various flow assurance threats has been a major concern. Such threats
as the formation of hydrate, wax, scale, asphaltene, paraffin, etc as a result of “chilly-
choke” conditions in particular are being battled by production engineers so as to obtain
fluid flow along the oil and gas recovery facilities with less or reduced disruptions.

Chilly choke effect is caused by the Joules Thompson cooling effect of the choke valve
installed on the subsea trees. It commonly occurs during start-ups and shut-ins of the
well operations as a result of temperature change (drop) when a gas expands while
flowing through a restricted path at high pressure without the possibility of exchange of
heat. The Joule-Thomson effect frequently causes a temperature drop as gas flows
through pores of a reservoir to the wellbore and via the subsea trees to the reception
facility (Floating Production Storage and Offloading System, FPSO etc). The chilly
choke effect usually paves the way for some flow assurance threats such as, the

1
formation of wax, scale, hydrate, asphaltene, etc (mostly during well shut-ins and start-
ups) on and around the choke region, which in turn becomes an obstacle to the flow of
oil and gas from subsea reservoirs to the reception processing facilities.

Choke is a mechanical device installed on subsea trees to induce restriction in the flow
of fluid via the wellhead to the facility at the topside by causing a pressure drop or
reducing the rate of flow through an orifice (Cameron, 2006). While it is a key device
through which the flow of oil and gas is optimally regulated, it must be kept free from
blockage or substances that have the potential of causing obstruction to the
predetermined flow rate and pressure. Very often, during wells shut-ins and start-ups, it
is observed that, due to drop in the shut-in pressure, the operating temperature reduces
substantially to the ambient temperature of the subsea environment (usually between
3.3oC and 5.5oC, considering the case in the Gulf of Mexico deep water) (Lorimer and
Ellison, 2000). At this point, the crude oil becomes more viscous and the gas in the fluid
expanding across the choke at a very chilly temperature starts to precipitate. As a
result, the Joule Thompson cooling effect in turn causes a major threat to the flow of oil
and gas to the processing facilities; such threats include but are not limited to the
formation of, scale, hydrate, wax, asphaltene, paraffins, etc.

For many years the flow assurance experts in the oil and gas industry in collaboration
with the academics in the field are at the forefront of finding a permanent solution to
curb the temperature drop and the detrimental effects that it poses to the subsea
facilities and to the flow of fluid as well. Several efforts have been made with good
success, some preventive and some mitigating measures. Experts have pointed out
that, most of the techniques used today in checking the chilly nature of these facilities
require a lot of resources and, thereby, are not often economically viable (Mamman,
2009). The flow assurance management strategies in practice are categorised as follow:

 Thermal Management.
 Pressure Management.
 Chemical Treatment Management.
 Mechanical Remediation Methods.
Several other techniques are yet in the proposing and monitoring stages.

2
1.2. Objective

It is important to note that most of the existing techniques for preventing chilly effect on
chokes and other subsea facilities are practically robust and, as such, are very
expensive to implement.

This Project however seeks to investigate eclectic prevention methods in practice and
proposes methods that are most functional and practically viable. This will take the
following steps as highlighted in the methodology.

1.3. Methodology - (Given in detail in Chapter 3)

i. Literature study of the existing techniques of curbing chilly choke effect and
other flow assurance threats, opportunities and challenges.

ii. Analysis of the current approaches by Industrial (Oil and Gas research
institutes) and/or educational institutions.

iii. Investigating other flow assurance management strategies, such as;

 Pressure Management: often carried out by the down-hole and

seafloor pump boosters (when the well is active).
 Mechanical Methods: Usually involves pigging (performed when the
wax, scale or hydrate had been formed in the facility).

iv. Using HYSYS Simulation software to investigate the effect of high pressure
differential on chilly choke effect (Joule Thompson cooling effect) on subsea
choke valve installed in a gas production system and proposing the best
possible and practically viable methods of preventing chilly choke effect on
subsea trees during start-up operations.

3
1.4. Outline

The Project will be presented according with following contents and chapters;

 Chapter 1 - Introduction to Chilly choke effect (a flow assurance threat).

 Chapter 2 – Literature review of;
 Choke valve in subsea systems.
 Generic Chilly Choke effects and other flow assurance threats in

subsea oil and gas production.

 Generic Chilly Choke effects and other flow assurance prevention
techniques in Subsea oil and gas production system.
 Chapter 4 – Methodology and experimental procedures: Analysis of the
effect of increase differential pressure on chilly choke effect across the
choke valve installed on subsea trees.
 Chapter 5 – Results, discussions and Identifying and proposing the best
possible technique for preventing the effect of chilly choke on subsea
operations during start-up.
 Chapter 6 – Summary and conclusion of the work.

4
 Chapter 2
2.0. Literature Review

2.1. Background of Choke Valve in Subsea Systems

Production of Crude from the Subsea systems requires fluid flow at a very high pressure
(about 11,600psi) from the reservoir to be able to go up to the processing unit at the
topside, a depth of between 1500m to 3000m (for very deepwater offshore). To realise
this, flow boosters (flow pumps) are installed at strategic positions where pressure drop
may be estimated to occur along the flow path (Saint-Martin, 2006). The production rate
(flowrate) is systematically managed to prevent water coning (coning is the change in
water-oil contact profile cause by draw down pressure during production) and/or
production of sand, meeting the limitation of allowable production pressures and
satisfying the production rules spelt out by the regulatory authorities (Guo and
Ghalambor, 2005). The well life is extended and early well abandonment is reduced
when flowrates are kept at natural production rates by decreasing the wellhead
pressures to as little as 50psi (Schlumberger, 2004). Flow pressures are moderately
regulated by the application of Choke valves installed on the subsea trees.

Chokes are devices installed on wellheads (subsea trees) or down-holes to cause a

restriction to the flow of fluids, and thus control Crude production rate (Guo and
Ghalambor, 2005). They are made of two types, the adjustable and the positive chokes.

Part ListItemDescriptionQuantityBottomTopOverall Height

(H)1Hex Bolt12Washer13Handle14Hex. Soc. set

Society15Indicator16Bonnet Nut17Bonnet18Nylon

Plug19Thumb Screw110'O' Ring-Bonnet111Junk Ring212'J'

Packing + Back-up ring113Int. Retainer Ring114Needle

(Restriction) 115Seat116Gasket117Body1

5
Fig 2.1: Choke Valve Installed on Subsea Trees (Adjustable Choke) (ACT, 2006)
 ItemComponentQty1Bushing12Body13Bo
nnet Stud84O-Ring25Seat
Bushing16Seat17Stem Adaptor18Valve
Core19O-Ring210Packing Box111O-
Ring212Bonnet113Packing
Gland114Bonnet Nut815Stem116Screw
Housing117Saddle Key118Stem
Nut119Hand wheel120Indicator
Ring121Stem Protector122Bearing
Gland123Bearing224Flat Key125Grease
Cup126Packing Ring227Packing5

Fig 2.2: Components of Choke Valve (Jiangsu, 2008)

2.2. Types of Choke Valve

There are basically two types of choke, namely; the positive and the adjustable chokes.
Both types of choke are designed according API standards (API Spec 6A and API
Spec 16C ) to withstand the pressure rating up to 15,000psi (ACT, 2006).

The positive choke has fixed orifice size, although fixed chokes are available in wide
variety of sizes and types, the choke must be disassembled to replace the bean sizes.
Positive chokes are used where the application requires infrequent adjustment such as
obtained on wellhead (subsea) trees. One part of the choke as demonstrated in figure
2.3 is called a bean (shown in red in the figure below); a bean is a piece of hardware
installed in the flow path in a positive choke that has an orifice or opening drilled into it.

6
Bean size is determined by the internal diameter or bore of the fixed orifice available in
64ths of an inch increment (Cameron, 2006).

On the other hand, the adjustable choke (see figure 2.1) provides variable orifice sizes
through some kind of external adjustable devices. It is designed specifically for variable
flow with an externally controlled indicator specifying orifice size in 1/64 th inch
increments and a needle and seat feature suitable for pressure control at high capacity
(ACT, 2006). Conventionally, chokes are classified as nozzle and orifice types with fixed
diameters (Guo and Ghalambor, 2005).

Fig 2.3: Positive Choke with Fixed (Orifice) Bean (Cameron, 2006).

2.3. Principles of Operation

The choke valve is applied to control the throttling of high velocity flows. Fluid from the
down-hole enters the choke inlet and then travels radially inward circulating in the
annulus between the body and cage. The cage has an even distribution of ports that
determines the maximum flow capacity. In a positive choke, the fixed sized orifice or
bean helps regulate the flow rate and the pressure to natural production rate at the
wellhead while in the adjustable choke, the multi-turn stem (needle) tip can be adjusted
up and down inside the cage to control the amount of fluid (oil or gas) allowed into the
port. The variation in choke size for the adjustable choke is attained by rotating a hand
wheel to achieve the desired flow rate at downstream side. This forms the means of

7
throttle control and the fluid further moves pass the restricted cavity at a moderate flow
rate and pressure downstream into the flowlines.

Fig 2.4a Fig 2.4b

Fig 2.4: Fixed Orifice and Adjustable Chokes Showing Direction of Flow on Red
Arrows (Cameron, 2006).

The overall flow rate in a free flowing Well can be determined if the reservoir pressure
and productivity index of the Well are known, but the rate of crude flowing through the
choke (orifice and nozzle) depends upon the pressure drop in the choke, the inside
diameters of the pipe and the choke, and the density of the crude oil. Therefore, for
incompressible fluids, the flowrate can be predicted with equation 2.1 (Lyons and
Plisga, 2005):

Eq. 2.1

Where; q0 = Oil rate in bbl/day.

C = Choke Flow Coefficient as function of diameter ratio and Reynolds number.

A = Cross-Sectional area of choke in in2.

∆P = Pressure drop across the choke in psi.

8
 Oil Specific weight in lb/ft3.

And the choke Flow coefficient C, can be determined for Reynolds number between 10 4
and 106 as follows (Guo and Ghalambor, 2005);

Eq. 2.2

Where; C = choke flow coefficient.

d = choke diameter, in.

D = Pipe diameter, in.

NRe = Reynolds number.

There are two basic flow regimes encountered in the subsea production, the sonic and
the subsonic flow. Sonic flow regimes occur when the downstream (i.e. flowline
pressure) pressure of the installed choke is 55% or even less of the upstream (i.e.
pressure from the reservoir) to ensure that the upstream pressure and flowrate is not
changed. A subsonic flow occurs when the upstream pressure and/or flowrate are
influenced as the downstream pressure and/or flowrate change(s).

9
Fig 2.5: Cameron Subsea Choke (Cameron, 2006).

2.4. Selection of Choke Valve.

Choke valve selection is commonly based on early life production process data and cost
implication: Nonetheless, choke valves are essential elements in subsea production
facilities. Malfunction or failure of a choke can affect production safety, the environment
and production rates. Experts advise that choke selection should be based on technical
and economic fundamentals and on long-term perception (Mokveld, 2010).

Choke selection is effected by factors such as the sizing criteria and the application
(where the choke is going to be used, onshore or subsea). Correct sizing is a critical
factor to optimum choke performance, whilst incorrect sizing can cause; poor control,
increased erosion, vibration and undesirable flowrates.

2.4.1. The sizing criteria of a choke are based on;

 Knowing the rate of which the crude shall be flowed.

 The inlet pressure and outlet pressure.
 The specific gravity of the fluid. In a case where the specific gravity is not
known, the averaged gravity can be used. Using averaged gravity does
not necessarily influence the sizing of the choke.

10
2.4.2. Application of choke however, is determined by;

 The fluid; either liquid or gas can be flowing in the system.

 The temperature range of the surrounding environment (very low in
subsea environment).
 The pressure rating; knowing the highest anticipated flow pressure of the
application is a key criterion. Some of the working pressure (WP) ratings
with the corresponding sizes of choke and orifice diameter are shown in
the table below, Table 2.1.

Size (inches) & WP (psi) Max Orifice Diameter (mm)

2 1/16 x 2000 25.4
2 9/16 x 2000 50.8
3 1/8 x 2000 50.8
4 1/16 x 2000 76.2
2 1/16 x 3000 25.4
2 9/16 x 3000 50.8

Size (inches) & WP (psi) Max. Orifice Diameter (mm)

3 1/8 x 3000 50.8
4 1/16 x 3000 76.2
2 1/16 x 5000 25.4
2 9/16 x 5000 50.8
3 1/8 x 5000 50.8
4 1/16 x 5000 76.2
2 1/16 x 10000 25.4
2 9/16 x 10000 50.8
3 1/16 x 10000 50.8
2 1/16 x 15000 25.4
3 1/16 x 15000 50.8

Table 2.1: Pressure Rating and the Corresponding Choke size and Orifice
Diameter (Jiangsu, 2008).

2.4.3. Flow Coefficient:

Another criterion for choke selection is the flow coefficient, C V, which is the flow capacity
index. The most commonly used technique in identifying the flow capacity of a valve
and the factor used to express the sizes of choke is a follows, given mathematically as
equation 2.3(Cameron, 2006).

11
 Eq. 2.3

Where; CV = Flow Coefficient, (unitless).

Q = Flowrate in bbl/day. (bbl = barrels).

G = Specific Gravity in lb/ft3.

∆P = Pressure drop in psi.

(Note that: CV = Flowrate of water; when ∆P = 1psi at 15.6oC).

2.5. Materials Selection for Deepwater Choke Valves .

With the production of oil and gas from subsea of water depths quite thousands of
meters (say between 1500m and 3000m for deep water fields) below the ground level,
choke valve material selection is of great importance, most commonly it is difficult and
the decision is complicated. Choke valves in used on subsea production facilities are
obtainable in wide variety of materials and choosing the right materials depends solely
on the applications (what kind of fluid is going to be flowed), newer challenges and
knowledge of established standards (Maligas, 2011).

In the past Oil and Gas industries were faced with selecting materials based on the
characteristics of handling corrosive chemicals such as hydrogen sulphide (H 2S),
chlorides, and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the onshore field. With the development of
subsea (deepwater) fields, the newer facilities are designed to handle chemicals that
can impede the formation of most common flow assurance threats such as; paraffin,
hydrates, asphaltenes, waxes, scales and, also, to offer the possibility for checking
corrosion. These chemicals pose detrimental effects on subsea facilities (metallic and
non-metallic) and as such compounding problems when they are subjected to handling
varieties of injected chemical inhibitors, annular fluids in consonance with the produced
fluid (Maligas, 2011).

2.5.1. Factors Effecting Choke Materials Selection.

12
The following factors must be considered when choosing materials for subsea choke
valve:

 Produced fluid composition in contact with the choke.

 Operating temperatures and pressure ranges.

 Effect of choke materials on contact with dissimilar materials.

 Crevice corrosion at seal and flange faces.

 Temperature and chemical reactions for non-metallic materials.

 Absorption of coating materials.

 Material availability and cost.

 Materials compatibility with injected fluids (chemical inhibitors).

2.5.2. Choke Valve Body Materials.

Chokes are specified based on American Petroleum Institute (API) and National
Association for Corrosion Engineers (NACE) standards for subsea systems.

API governs standards, such a specification 17D “Specification for Subsea Wellhead
and Tree Equipment,” which uses the material requirements of API spec 6A and 16C
(Maligas, et al., 1996). These standards are at the forefront of recommending choke
materials suitable for various subsea applications on the basis of strength and corrosion
resistance requirements respectively. Most of the materials commonly used for subsea
choke body are described as follows in the next sections:

2.5.2.1. Stainless-Steel Choke.

The subsea operation environment involves turbulently moving saline water which can
cause any metallic material in contact to corrode. Such environment calls for steel
materials of very high strength and resistance to corrosion, such as one of the stainless
steel; F6NM is one of the commonly used materials in choke body (Maligas, 2011).
F6NM is often used when detecting that a subsea field will pose a risk of Joule
Thomson cooling effect (the temperature change of a gas or liquid forced through a

13
valve or porous plug while being kept well-insulated so that no heat is exchanged with
the environment) at the wellhead (Maligas, 2011).

2.5.2.2. Duplex Stainless-Steel Components

Duplex stainless steel material has good corrosion resistance in subsea environments
but its application is limited for wellhead equipment because of the danger involving
sigma compound formation during heat treatment in large section thicknesses.
Inadequate heat treatment may not only result in poor corrosion resistance, but also
poor toughness properties (Byrne, et al., 2004).

Below are the summary of application of materials and their benefits/limits:

1. Stainless Steel (F6NM).

 Good corrosion resistance for many applications.

 High toughness.
 Good hardenability.

2. Duplex Stainless Steels.

 Good corrosion resistance in most production fluids.

 High resistance to stress corrosion cracking in chloride environment.
 Good toughness.
 It may exhibit problems when heat treated in large sections.

2.6. Subsea Choke Innovation.

On the pursuit for a solution to curb most of the crude oil flow assurance threats, oil and
gas research and development institution established by Des Operation, a subsidiary of
Cameron Industry, have developed a Multiple Application Re-injection System (MARS)
(Petrone, 2009). MARS is a system that allows any process such as water injection
pumping, multiphase pumping, chemical injection, subsea processing, process
metering, sand filtering, etc to be incorporated directly onto the subsea trees. The
working principle is quite simple and involves introducing a coaxial flow path insert into

14
the subsea tree, fluid are channelled externally into the flow loop which encompasses a
processing technology.

The MARS insert is situated at the subsea tree choke system which can be upgraded
to fit a chemical injection flow path that can be used to check most flow assurance
threats such as scale squeeze (this is preventing the scale formation), hydrate
management, etc with the choke functionality still retained.

Injection Pipe MARS Bonnet

Upper Trim

Lower Trim

Retaining Choke
Functionality

15
Fig 2.6: Single Flow-path MARS (Petrone, 2009).

2.7. Problems with Choke Flow.

Choke flow is commonly affected by four potential damaging effects, namely (Mokveld,
2010);

 Cavitation.
 Flashing.
 Erosion.
 Freezing.

2.7.1. Cavitation

Cavitation is a kind of degradation that occurs when flow (mainly liquids) passing the
choke forms vapour bubbles which implode after passing through the orifice. If this
violent implosion arises near metal surfaces, the choke trim and the body can be
damaged.

Fig 2.7: Cavitation Problem in Choke (Cameron, 2006).

If one looks closely at the cut-away choke view in figure 2.7 it is seen that as the
bubbles moves further away from the orifice, the pressure increases and causes the
bubbles to condense back into the liquid. This collapsing of the bubbles generates a
powerful implosion that may be forceful enough to damage the choke body and the
outlet piping system downstream; it is a well known problem on ship propeller blades.

16
2.7.2. Flashing

This occurs when pressure fails to recover as vapour bubbles flow downstream from the
orifice. Flashing occurs at high velocities with a noisy sound and can cause erosion of
the choke if the flow stream holds sand particles.

Fig 2.8: Flashing Problem in Choke (Cameron, 2006).

2.7.3. Erosion

Erosion is caused by the impact of high velocity solid particles on the choke material
surface. These solid particles are commonly sand mixed with crude from the reservoir.

Fig 2.9: Erosion at the Adjustable Choke (Cameron, 2006).

2.7.4. Freezing

17
Freezing is damage that is commonly associated (typically in a gas line) with subsea
systems that must be prevented. Freezing occurs when a gas encounters the choke
flow and the gas produces a cooling effect as it expands in response to the change in
pressure and temperature. This phenomenon of cooling effect as a result of gas
expansion is called the Joule Thompson cooling effect or “chilly choke effect” in subsea
chokes.
Pressure (P) & Temperature (T)

essure
R

Temperature
Pressure

Fig 2.10: Freezing of Gas due to Pressure drop (Cameron, 2006).

As the pressure drop occurs the gas gradually expands; if the cooling effect freezes
moisture contained in the gas then a frozen mass (hydrate) is formed in the choke body
and, as such, the flow path is completely plugged. This damage is detrimental to the
general flow assurance of the crude from the reservoir and the entire subsea operation
Distance
as well. From the graph above, as the Travelled (m) from P 1 to P2 across the choke,
pressure drops
the temperature also drops considerably from T 1 to T2 (pressure law; pressure is directly
proportional to temperature at constant volume). This sudden drop in temperature may
be caused by mechanical failure of the down-hole booster pump (Electrical Submersible
Pump, ESP), etc, and where the system is not properly insulated the temperature on the
system drops gradually within a short period of time to the ambient temperature of the
subsea environment. When this temperature drop surpasses the hydrate stability
temperature (say 21.1oC in most subsea fields), the fluid is prone to freeze and plug the
choke system.

18
This Project will investigate various methods of preventing this sudden sub-cooling
effect in cases of sudden drop in pressure.

2.8. Advantages of Choke Valve in Subsea Systems.

 The choke valve controls flowrate and pressure by triggering a balance at

different points throughout the subsea system.
 The valve protects equipment by managing over-pressurisation of the
downstream equipment, such as the jumpers, the manifold, etc, downstream
the subsea tree.
 The valve eliminates damage on the system by protecting the reservoir from
injection pressure that may cause fracture or bleed off of fluid.
 Choke valves are essential in controlling the rate of chemical injected to the
lines to check the formation of most flow assurance threats, e.g. wax, hydrate,
scale and asphaltene.

2.9. Chilly Choke Effect and Generic Flow Assurance Management in

Subsea Oil and Gas Production: Threats.

2.10. Background.

The production of oil and gas from the subsea field requires exceptional expertise and
proficient flow assurance management approaches to transport fluid from the remote
reservoirs subsea up to the processing facility at the topside. The fluid must be flowed
through jumpers (flowlines connecting the subsea trees and the manifold), manifolds,
flowlines and risers, which are designed to withstand the deepwater pressure, the
seafloor ambient temperature, and the turbulent ocean currents (Ratulowski, et al.,
2005).

19
Nonetheless, the lengthening depth in deepwater operations is without threats to the
flow of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons with heavy fractions of compositions are highly
viscous and, thus, very difficult to transport. Many factors acting singly or in consonance
with others, such as chilly choke effects (Joule Thompson cooling effect) can pave the
way for deposition of scale, hydrate, asphaltene, paraffin, wax, etc, that can be severe
enough to impede flow to the processing unit. The degree of these flow assurance
threats are fundamentally influenced by the chemical composition of the produced fluid
and the operating temperature and pressure range of flow.

These threats can be mitigated through proper design, testing, and monitoring by
adequately managing the hydraulic performance conditions of subsea production
systems.

This literature discusses flow assurance challenges faced by deepwater operators and
several techniques of preventing these challenges on subsea facilities in generic terms.
It also illustrates new technologies and services developed to defeat obstacles to the
flow of oil and gas from subsea wells to the platform.

According to Dr. Ajee Mamman, a Director in Firmlink International Ltd (Mamman,

2009), “Flow Assurance” is characterised as “the ability to produce fluids economically
from the reservoir to the reception facilities over the life of a field and in any
environment”. Several effects, such as the chilly choke effect, occur to impede the
success of fluid flow beneath the sea floor to the reception unit at the topside. These
factors; formation of hydrates, wax, scale, asphaltene, etc, arise as a result of
differences in the ambient temperature as opposed to the operating temperature and
pressure of the production process.

20
Fig 2.11: A Typical Subsea Production System Layout (Ratulowski, et al., 2005).

2.10.1. Causes of Chilly Choke Effect

21
2.10.1.1. Temperature and Pressure Interactions

In some subsea fields, at any working pressure (WP) range, the flow temperature must
not be kept below the pour point (the temperature below which the crude oil begins to
gel) of about 21.1oC. Changes in temperature and pressure along the subsea system
coupled with cold seafloor temperature cause the oil to become more viscous and, as
such, lighter hydrocarbon constituents are liberated as a gas phase.

As the oil exceeds the bubble point pressure (the pressure at which the first gas bubble
appears while decreasing the pressure of the flowing fluid), intensive backpressure
occurs in the system and the flow pattern changes, causing differences in the flowrates
of the produced oil, gas and water phases. At a point where the flow velocity is
insufficient to hold the three-phase fluid thoroughly mixed, gravity segregation of the oil,
gas and water sets-in.

In an elevated/vertical profile of the production system (such as the subsea tree profile),
this gravity segregated condition permits the lighter phase of gas to slip past the heavier
produced oil and the water phases whereas at the downhill, the heavy liquid phases
flow faster than the gas phase. This irregular production regime resulting from the
flowing fluid phase’s slippage is called “slug flow”. As the gas phase travels along the
choke region in the subsea tree, pressure is released and, if the system is not well
insulated, the temperature drops gradually. This drop in working pressure and
temperature causes the restricted gas as it encounters the choke to expand and in turn,
a chilly effect is created at the choke (Joule Thompson cooling effect) which when
allowed to persist may lead to the formation of asphaltene, gel, wax, and then hydrates,
which lead to plugging of the choke and the flowlines.

The oil phase diagram in figure 2.12 overleaf takes a similar case study from a
deepwater field in the Gulf of Mexico. Depending on the design and operation of any
subsea production system, it must encounter some or all of these flow segregation
boundaries when moving crude from the reservoir to the processing facilities.

The oil flows from the reservoir, A, along the path as seen in the figure overleaf to the
flowline, F, in a steady decrease in temperature and the operating pressure. The drop in
temperature and pressure tends to separate asphaltene from the solution at point B, as
the oil exceeds the upper edge of the asphaltene precipitation envelope (Upper APE).

22
 As the oil flows past point C (i.e. wax appearance temperature, WAT), wax begins to
form, then as it crosses point D, it enters hydrate formation range (this could be at the
choke region). Beyond the hydrate formation line, lighter hydrocarbons are liberated as
gas to form a two-phase fluid before it finally enters the flowline F (Ratulowski, et al,
2005).

Fig 2.12: Oil Phase Diagram showing gravity Segregation phases and the Flow
Assurance Threats Formation Boundaries (Ratulowski, et al., 2005).

2.10.2. Flow Assurance Threats Emanating from Chilly Choke Effect.

Flow assurance management is seen as the most critical aspect of subsea pre-
production analysis that must be carefully considered right from the onset of the design
and operation stages. It is solely focussing on the prevention and control of solid
deposits that could potentially impede the flow of oil and gas. The common threats
(solid deposits) encounter on subsea systems as a result of chilly effect are hydrates,
wax and asphaltenes, although scales and sand also pose detrimental threats in many
subsea fields.

These threats appear at certain combinations of temperature and pressure conditions,

usually below the operation conditions and form solid deposits on the subsea production
facilities (i.e. the fittings, “choke” and the flowlines). If the solutions to these potential

23
problems are not properly designed into the initial production process, they can
drastically change the system operational procedures and, in a worse case scenario,
the entire project could be subjected to operational risk, if they are discovered after first
oil/gas production (Ellison, et al, 2000). It is imperative to examine the behaviour of
these flow assurance threats on subsea systems.

Fig 2.13: Generic Flow Assurance Issues encountered in Subsea Oil/Gas

Production Systems (Mamman, 2009).

2.10.2.1. Hydrates.

Solids depositions challenges vary between oil and gas facilities. The main concern in
the gas systems is usually the formation of hydrates, whereas in the oil systems
hydrates and paraffins (wax) are critical issues.

“Hydrates, also known as “clathrate hydrates”, are ice-like crystalline compounds

consisting of water (host) and suitably sized “guest” gas molecules. Hydrogen bonding
of water molecules leads to the formation of lattice structures with several cavities that
guest molecules can occupy” (Solanke and Yang, 2010). Subsea production facilities
are exposed to hydrates formation even during production operations, but they are more
vulnerable at the transient conditions, mostly during start-up and shut-in operations,
where the temperature tends to be lower at a higher operating pressure, thereby paving
the way for water to accumulate into the low spot (Ellison, et al, 2000).

24
Fig 2.14: Lattice Structure of Hydrates Showing Trapped “Guest” Gas Molecules
in water (Mamman, 2009).

In generic terms, the most common source of cooling causing hydrate deposition in
subsea deepwater facilities is the ambient water temperature as opposed to the
operation temperature. However, numerous cases often exist where hydrates are
formed as a result of the Joule-Thomson cooling effect of gas as it expands across the
choke (causing chilly choke effect) and other subsea valves.

Fig 2.15: Hydrate Plug on Flowline (Saint-Martin, 2006).

25
2.10.2.1.1. Conditions for Hydrates Formation.

Hydrates depositions in subsea systems occur under three fundamental conditions,

which are:

 The existence of water in the system; either free, emulsified or dissolved.

Hydrates are crystalline gauges of water; the water cages form around the quest
gas molecules. Hydrates are composed of about 80 – 90 mol% of ice and in turn
have similar physical properties compared to that of ice (for instance, the
mechanical properties).
 Light hydrocarbons (methane, ethane, propane, iso-butane, and normal-butane)
or some acid gases (Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulphide), Nitrogen and
some branched of C5 – C8 hydrocarbons are prone to be trapped in the lattice.
The presence of these gas molecules energizes the stability of the crystalline
structure and allows hydrate to form at a higher temperature (up to 21.1 oC)
compare to ice below 0oC (Saint-Martin, 2006).
 Low temperatures and high pressure ranges: This condition is common to
subsea production and it is the ideal circumstance for hydrate deposition. For
instance, a system flowing at a temperature of 4 oC and a pressure of 174psi or at
a temperature of 20oC and a pressure of 1450psi is prone to experience hydrates
deposition since this condition may give room for water to be accumulated into
the low spots. As demonstrated below, at the pressure of about 2000psi, a typical
hydrate deposition is stable at a temperature of about 70 oF (21.1oC) (Ellison, et
al, 2000).

Fig 2.16: Hydrate Formation Curve (Toscano, 2007).

26
2.10.2.1.2. Associated Risk of Hydrate Plug to Subsea Production Systems.

Formation of hydrates is more often the biggest flow assurance that can have serious
direct impacts on the subsea facilities and consequently poses damaging threats to oil
and gas production management. Some of the threats include:

 Plugging of drill bits.

 Plugging of Subsea production facilities (pipelines, chokes, risers, etc): They start
sparingly suspended in the fluid and subsequently integrate as the temperature
continues to decrease to form a bulky lattice that plugs the flow of oil/gas
downstream. Figure 2.15 on page 24 above shows the recovered hydrates plug
from a flowline.

Fig 2.17: Sparing Hydrate Crystals Integrated to Plug the System (Saint-Martin,
2006).

 Safety hazard on Subsea facilities: Safety threats and damages are experienced
on pipelines and fittings due to hydrate plug “missile”. Highly damaging if the
hydrate plug disassociates and causes projectile effect, propelling down the
flowline like ice bullets (missiles). This can potentially rupture the line at any
restriction point such as choke valve or bend. Hazard is also imminent when high
pressure is trapped between two hydrate plugs unidentified. The momentum of
the pressure may cause the line rupture or blast. Pressure reduction for both
sides of hydrate plugs in deepwater field is extremely difficult to achieve.
 Extremely costly in terms of lost production time to remove the resulting plugs.
 Very difficult to detect and evaluate the size of plugs with remote operations.

27
Fig 2.18: Safety Hazard of Hydrate Missiles on Bends and Fittings (Saint-Martin,
2006).

Fig 2.19: Safety Hazard of High Pressure Trapped between Hydrate Plugs (Saint-
Martin, 2006).

2.10.2.1.3. The Preventive and Curative Methods of Hydrates.

The preventive and curative techniques for hydrates encompass but are not limited to;
design/operational changes, thermal management, pressure management strategies,
chemical treatment and mechanical remediation. These strategies are dealt with in
detail in section 2.11.

2.10.2.2. Wax.

28
Wax or paraffins are natural constituents of crude oil and condensate hydrocarbons
consisting of higher molecular paraffinic weight compounds with organic chain lengths
from C15 to C70+ (Ellison, et al, 2000). Paraffinic/naphthenic hydrocarbon fluid is without
problems in the subsea production systems. These problems range from formation of
emulsions to gels in flowlines.

The oil flow assurance threat posed by wax occurs when the fluid cools below the
reservoir temperature conditions as it flows downstream and the wax crystals begin to
form. The physical property (temperature) which predicts when the crystal wax is about
to form in a crude oil is termed the cloud point or wax appearance temperature
(WAT). In other words, it is the temperature at which wax crystals start to emerge in a
subsea production at a given operating pressure (mostly at static pressure) (Leontaritis’,
2003).

Wax may deposit in any surface colder than the WAT either in bulk gelled particles that
are flowed along with the crude oil or accumulate on a cold surface and build up to
distort the effective flow of the oil. If this problem is allowed to persist, the temperature
may decrease significantly with time and the crystal continues to build so that at a point,
the flow of fluid is totally impeded. The temperature below which the crude oil gels and
will not move even with the application of high pressure is called the pour point (PP),
usually below 21.1oC (70oF) in some subsea fields (Mamman, 2009).

Fig 2.20: Wax Plug from Gradual Deposition on Flowline (Mamman, 2009).

29
Wax does not form when the oil is flowing since the intermolecular structure will be
destroyed by the shear forces of the moving fluid; rather, its particles will interact and
form a network of gel structure when the oil stops to flow, usually during shut ins.

2.10.2.2.1. The Implications of Wax on Subsea Systems.

Wax deposition has direct and detrimental consequences on fluid flow in subsea
systems; some of the following issues caused by waxes should be addressed at the
onset of the flow assurance process analysis:

 Deposition in chokes, flowlines as well as down-hole monitoring tools; it can

gradually plug the well tubulars cause restrictions to flow.
 Wax stabilised emulsions/interface sludge.
 Precipitation of crude oil during shut-in and pumping pressure problems during
start-up operations due to high viscosity.
 Formation of hard to remove composite organic scale on pipelines.
 Great impact on operational expenditure due to exorbitant mitigation strategies
such as insulation of the facilities and wax inhibitors injection during start-up and
shut-in.
 Difficulty in launching pig in deepwater environments.

2.10.2.2.2. Mitigation Measures of Wax on Subsea Systems.

As for hydrates, preventive and mitigation techniques of wax deposition on subsea oil
systems must be considered amongst the design and operational criteria, some of what
are thermal methods, chemical methods (injection of wax inhibitors), Mechanical
methods (pigging) and removal methods (wax dispersants/dissolvers). A
comprehensive view of these methods is treated in section 2.11.

2.10.2.3. Asphaltene.

Asphaltenes belong to a group of dark coloured compounds in crude oil; they are friable
solids with a density of about 1.20 g/m3 insoluble in normal alkanes but soluble in
aromatic solvents such as toluene (methylbenzene). They were first discovered among
the complex molecules in living plants and animals, and can only be partially dissolved

30
by the actions of temperature and pressure with geologic time (Yong and Qiang, 2005).
The broken down asphaltenes are found to consist of some bulk of inorganic
components of crude oil; Sulphur and Nitrogen and other metals such as nickel and
vanadium are also present.

Generally, asphaltenes become an operational problem to the subsea production

systems at their unstable state; typically, problems are encountered downstream due to
blending or compatibility of multiphase flow. Nonetheless, crude oils with unstable
asphaltenes offer some fouling operational problems which affect the chokes, valves,
filters and tubing, etc. Asphaltenes are made of multiple groups of rings linked together
by alkane chains (Allenson, et al, 2007).

Fig 2.21: Modelled Flocculation/Aggregation of Venezuelan Crude Asphaltene

Molecules (Branco et al, 2001).

Asphaltenes tend to deposit in certain types of crude oil, those with a low resins to
asphaltenes ratio. They become so unstable in the production system as the reservoir
pressure decreases and the volume fraction of aliphatic components increases. At a
point where the aliphatic fraction of the oil exceeds a threshold limit, the asphaltenes
particles (micelles) begin to flocculate into larger aggregates. The pressure at which
this aggregation takes place is called the flocculation point (Ellison, et al, 2000).

31
Fig 2.22: Natural n-heptanes (n-C7) Asphaltenes (Bunger and Li, 1981).

Figure 2.23 below shows the asphaltene-precipitation envelope (APE) in pressure-

temperature space. The APE indicated by the upper red curve, defines the stability
zones for asphaltenes in solution. For instance, for a given reservoir conditions as
shown in red dot, primary depletion causes pressure to decrease. As the pressure rises
gradually to the upper asphaltene-precipitation envelope, also called “the asphaltene-
precipitation onset pressure”, the least-soluble asphaltene will precipitate. More
asphaltenes will precipitate as the pressure decreases, until the bubble-point pressure
is attained whereby gas is released from the solution. With continued pressure
decrease, enough gas has been removed from the system, and the crude oil may begin
to re-dissolve asphaltenes at the lower asphaltene-precipitation envelope (Allenson, et
al, 2007).

Fig 2.23: Asphaltene-Precipitation Envelope (APE) (Allenson, et al, 2007).

32
2.10.2.3.1. Treating Asphaltenes Problems

Basically, asphaltenes mitigation strategies include; chemical treatment methods

(dissolvers, inhibitors, etc) and engineering or mechanical methods (coiled tubing and
mechanical scrapers). Details of these methods will be given in section 2.11.

2.10.2.4. Inorganic Scales.

Scale deposition is a critical issue in the oil and gas production system that are of great
concern to the production engineers. Inorganic scale is a water insoluble compound
forming as a result of their super-saturation in the fluid system. At the production
systems, scale deposition poses the problems of caking perforations, casing, production
tubing, chokes, valves, pumps, down-hole completion equipments, etc and in turn clogs
the subsea upstream causing restrictions in oil and gas flow.

Fig 2.24: Scale Deposits on Production Tubing (Crabtree, et al, 1999).

In most cases, scales formed in the subsea oil and gas systems are as a result of the
direct precipitation of the water that gushes naturally from the reservoir rock, or due to
the production of two incompatible waters (down-hole) flowing with the oil being
oversaturated with scale. Scale formation is inevitable whenever subsea wells (oil or
gas) produce water, or water is injected to the wells to facilitate oil/gas recovery,
(Crabtree, et al, 1999).

33
2.10.2.4.1. Types of Inorganic Scales.

Basically, inorganic scales are found in two categories, the acid soluble and the acid
insoluble scales.

 The acid soluble scales consist of Carbonates and Sulphides, as shown below.
 Calcium Carbonate, CaCO3.
 Iron carbonate, FeCO3.
 Iron sulphide, FeS/FeS2.
 Iron oxides, FeO.

 And the acid insoluble consists mainly of sulphates, as shown below.

 Barium sulphate, BaSO4.
 Strontium sulphate, SrSO4.
 Calcium sulphate, CaSO4.
 Mixed Sulphates, BaSO4/SrSO4.

2.10.2.4.2. Causes of Inorganic Scales.

Most scales in subsea production systems are formed as a result of incessant changes
in reservoir and operational temperature and pressure conditions, a shift in pH
condition, out-gassing, or incompatibility of waters in contact. It is understood that the
major source of scale deposition comes from the deep subsurface water associated
with oil and gas. This subsurface water is enriched with ions from the mutation of
sedimentary (rock) minerals (Crabtree, et al, 1999).

Inorganic scales basically are grown from solutions. This fact is observed in the water
produced in carbonate and calcite-cemented sandstone reservoirs which typically
contains abundance of divalent calcium (Ca +2) and magnesium (Mg+2) cations which the
Sandstone formation fluids usually contain Barium (Ba +2) and Strontium (Sr+2) cations
(Crabtree, et al, 1999).

34
Scales deposition sources are further simplified into the Carbonate and the Sulphate
scale.

 Carbonate Scales.
 Can precipitate anywhere in flow system due to pressure reduction and/or
changes in temperature or changes in pH.

Ca2+ (aq) + 2HCO3–(aq) CaCO3(s) + CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

(Affects the Choke/Subsurface Safety valve, SSSV due to pressure

reduction, production string, surface facilities, reservoir (during reservoir
pressure depletion) (Mamman, 2009).

 Heating: Carbonate scales can form on Electrical submersible pumps

(ESPs), separators and topsides heat exchangers (high temperature, high
pH), and dehydration (particularly for gas).

 Sulphate Scales.

 Often form primarily due to mixing of incompatible brines as in injection

water (SO4) and formation water (Ba/Sr/Ca).

Ba2+ (aq) + SO42–(aq) BaSO4 (s)

(Usually affects the wellbore, subsea wellheads, risers, topsides, near

wellbore, water injection systems, etc) (Mamman, 2009).

2.10.2.4.3. Implications of Inorganic Scales on Subsea Systems.

Scale developing at the oil and gas formation pores close to the wellbore can reduce
formation porosity and permeability. It can deposit gradually as it formation conditions
become worsened and can then impede fluid flow block flow by clogging perforated
facilities, forming a thick lining in production tubing or coating and damaging down-hole
completion equipment, such as safety valve, gas lift mandrels, etc (Crabtree, et al,
1999).

Figure 2.24 on page 32 shows scale deposits on production tubing. It was observed
here that calcium carbonate scale can grow in the production tubing to block more than
40% of its flowing area and its formation can prevent the well remediation tool from

35
gaining access to the lower parts of the system (Crabtree, et al, 1999). The effects of
scale deposition can be drastic and instantaneous: “in one North Sea well in the Miller
field, engineers were shocked to see production fall from 30,000 B/D (4770 m3/d) to
zero in just 24 hours” (Brown M, 1998).

Moreover, the damaging consequences of inorganic scales deposition to the subsea

production and injection systems can be summarised as follow:

 Equipment damage.
 Under-deposit corrosion.
 Reservoir plugging.
 Lost production due to need for work-overs.
 Significant impact on abandonment costs (Mamman, 2009).

2.10.2.4.4. Preventive and mitigation measures.

Scales in production systems are controlled by a range of strategies design into the
operational process at the onset of the field development plan, some of which are;

 Fluid modification: de-sulphation of injection water (nano-filtration).

 Flow modification: water shut-off.
 Chemical inhibition: continuous chemical injection, scale squeeze).
 Damage removal (remedial measure): employing dissolvers, milling, jetting, re-
drilling, fracturing, and re-perforation methods.

36
2.11. Chilly Choke Effect and Generic Flow Assurance Management
in Subsea Oil and Gas Production: Prevention Techniques.

2.12. Background.

Flow assurance management strategies are one of the most important subjects in the
production of oil and gas from the remote, ultra-deepwater systems. Ultra deepwater
(subsea) production can only be successful when the flow assurance risks associated
with the gelation and deposition of solids such as hydrates, asphaltenes, waxes as well
as inorganic scales are effectively managed. Until recent times there has been no
fundamental understanding pertaining to the evolution of the rheological (flow)
properties of these solid precipitates under varying composition, phase distribution, and
flow regime (Armstrong, 2008).

Nonetheless, these threats to flow assurance can be mitigated through testing, design
and monitoring. Subsea production assurance experts have devised various processes
and techniques to be able to anticipate and manage conditions that affect hydraulic
performance of production systems (Ratulowski, 2005). Owing to this fact, several
preventive measures have been put in place while some are yet at the proposing and
developing stages. Most of the commonly practiced and proposed flow assurance
management strategies come under these categories:

 Thermal Management strategy;

 Circulating hot fluid (internal hot oil flushing).

 Electrical heating.
 Heat conservation (facility insulation).
 Heat induction (external hot water jacket – pipe-in-pipe).

 Pressure Management strategy;

 Down-hole and Seafloor pump boosters.

 Blow down – depressurisation of line (hydrates remediation strategy).
 Design/operational changes/considerations – balancing the operational
temperature and pressure conditions with respect to the ambient
temperature.

37
  Chemical treatment strategy;

 Thermodynamics inhibitors (methanol, glycols) injected into the production

system to inhibit the formation of hydrate, wax, scale, corrosion, etc.
 Threshold inhibitors injected to prevent the nucleation of hydrate
structures.

 Mechanical Remediation strategy;

 Pigging of the flowlines.

It will be understood that each of these strategies employs peculiar paradigms in solving
these flow problems encountered in subsea fields. For instance, some are focussed on
providing solutions to a particular challenge in the oil and gas flow, such as impeding
the formation of hydrates only; a number of them offer preventive solutions, some
remediation solutions and others employ iterative and incremental methods to achieve
the evolutionary advancement of their deliverables. All of these strategies, however,
strike for the overarching objectives of flow assurance management in general and the
prevention of chilly choke effect in particular.

The approaches to preventing chilly choke effect on subsea trees have been of concern
over the years amongst the operators in the Oil and Gas field. Ever since Petrobras, a
Brazilian multinational, “formally” coined the concept of “flow assurance” in the early
1980s (Watson, et al., 2003), operators in the sector have been utilising some of the
techniques pinpointed above to improve the recovery of crude oil under unfriendly
working conditions/environments. However, in recent years production engineers and
research scholars have identified the challenges posed and the opportunities with these
techniques.

2.13. Objecting and Concurring Statements by Experts.

Many experts in recent years have voiced their opinions for or against different
mechanisms for preventing and mitigating the damaging effects of solid depositions on
subsea facilities. Controversy arose most often on the right methods to be used for
curbing each flow assurance threats considering the production environments.

38
Commenting on the subject, Watson, et al (2003) suggested that if economy is not to be
considered, insulation of the entire subsea facility is an appropriate method to conserve
heat within a period of time.

In his paper presented at the Institute of Petroleum Studies (IPS), University of Port
Harcourt, Nigeria, Dr. Ajee Mamman (Mamman, 2009) highlighted that facility insulation
is a good step to thwarting the growing effect of the chilly choke but such a method is
only suitable for a facility having a tie back of no longer than 20km.

On their contributions through thorough research, Jordan and Feasey (2008)

recommended the injection of chemical inhibitors (methanol or monoethylene glycol,
MEG) to the wellhead during well shut-ins and start-ups but warn that during this period,
the inorganic scale inhibitor constantly injected to check the formation of scale should
be stopped as this chemical is incompatible with methanol and may plug the chemical
injection lines due to this incompatibility.

Saint-Martin (2006) in his testimony backs the application of electrical heating for a
facility at the preventive stage but he rejected this method outrightly at the curative
stage (remediation stage) saying “heating must be banned as a precaution”. His
argument is based on the fact that, if evacuation of the gas cannot be ensured due to
the plug sealing effect, then the pressure may increase exponentially with temperature
(heating mode) and cause facility (line) rupture.

The opportunities and challenges with these management strategies are exploited, thus;

2.14. Thermal Management Strategies.

The thermal properties of a subsea production system are determined by the behaviour
of the fluid hydraulics in the transportation facilities (i.e. the flowlines, risers, subsea
trees, etc). The thermal performance also affects the hydraulic design indirectly due to
the effect of temperature on the oil and gas properties such as the gas/oil ratio, density,
as well as viscosity.
Effective and efficient management of the thermal properties is an essential drive to the
successful production in subsea field. The thermal management strategy involved in
subsea systems can be categorised into two main groups; passive control and the
active heating. The passive control methods involves heat conservation (facilities
insulated externally), Heat induction (external hot water jacket: pipe-in-pipe, PIP),

39
bundle and burial of flowlines; while the active heating methods includes circulating hot
fluid (internal hot oil flushing) and electrical heating.

Fig 2.25: Thermal Insulation Philosophy (Subsea 7, 2010).

2.14.1. Heat Conservation (Facilities Insulation with External Layer).

Deepwater production operations are not without challenges of low temperature

encountered at the seabed. Successful operations become more heavily dependent on
the type of thermal insulation strategy used.

Thermal insulation on subsea facilities (flowlines, risers, valves, trees, etc) uses styrenic
thermoplastics as the wrapping (insulation) materials because of their low conductivity;
a wet insulation system limited to conductivity, k values of between 0.20 and 0.30
W/mK, good ductility and high impact tolerance (Subsea 7, 2010). Most Oil and Gas
operators also apply Silicone Elastomer insulation (Novolastic TM HT) materials to the
Subsea trees as shown in figure 2.28a on the following pages (p 42).

2.14.1.1. Benefits of Thermal Insulation.

The benefits of thermal insulation on subsea facilities as follows:

 Most of the newly developed thermal insulation methods can stabilise thermal
performance over time at operating temperatures up to 350 oF (177oC).
 Excellent in deepwater and high-temperature service.
 Low water absorption.
 Retain thermal and mechanical properties over life of the subsea field.

40
Fig 2.26: Wet Thermal Insulation: Passive System (Subsea 7, 2010).

2.14.2. Heat Induction (External Hot Water Jacket: Pipe-In-Pipe Bundle, PIP).

The thermal performance of many high performance insulation materials made of

polymeric foams could be significantly enhanced if they are kept in a proper and dry
state. Pipe-in-pipe technology is devised to render a protective outer casing for the
insulation material, so as to keep it dry and in turn retain the effectiveness of the
insulation (Subsea 7, 2003).

Fig 2.27: Dry Thermal Insulation: PIP; Passive System (Subsea 7, 2010).

41
Fig 2.28a and 2.28b: L-R: Insulated Subsea Tree with Silicone Elastomer
Insulation (NovolasticTM HT) Material and Un-insulated Subsea Tree (Davalath and
Stevens, 2006).

2.14.3. Circulating Hot Fluid (Internal Hot Oil Flushing)

This takes place during the cold start-up of the production system. Hot crude oil at a
temperature of approximately 60ºC is flowed from the FPSO (Floating Production
Storage and Offloading) facility through the dual flowlines/risers between the FPSO and
the manifold then back to the FPSO. This technique allows for the flowlines, manifold,
risers, subsea trees, choke valves, etc to be preheated (warmed up) to approximately
38ºC or perhaps more than that considering the hot oil circulation rate.

Circulation of the hot dry oil is achieved by applying the topside pigging pump with rates
similar to that of the pigging operations. Preheating of the facilities is significantly
considered prior to the cold start-up of the subsea production operations in the sense
that the temperature of the cold production fluid flowing from the wells will not drop
below the “pour point” downstream to the processing facility (Davalath, et al, 2004).

Hot water circulation is also employed to check the problem of cold start-up with large
differential pressure across the subsea choke valves. Large differential pressure is often
experienced across the choke valves if the risers downstream are “blown down”
(depressurised) to a reduced pressure during well start-up. This occurs due to high
shut-in pressure in the tubing, which ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 psi in some wells.

42
Prior to well shut down in some subsea production, and depending on the flow rates
and water-cut (i.e. the ratio of water to the total volume of fluid produced from a well in a
given production period), a column of free gas is often experienced just below the
subsea tree. During start-up operation, this cold gas flowing through the subsea chokes
at an increased differential pressure higher than 1,000 psi, will cause a low temperature
downstream the of choke due to the Joule Thompson cooling effect (Chilly Choke
effect). In some cases, the temperature can drop to about –10ºC or lower depending on
the gas composition of the gas and the differential pressure (Davalath, et al, 2004).

The Joule Thompson cooling effect could be avoided during the cold well start-up by
keeping the differential pressure across the choke at a minimum. One of the most
practiced methods of optimising this differential pressure to check the chilly choke effect
is to flow back hot “dry” crude oil from the FPSO through the flowlines and the risers to
build a back pressure at the manifold (i.e. a combination of hydrostatic head and
friction) which in turn reduces the differential pressure across the choke valve
(Davalath, et al, 2004).

2.14.3.1. Benefits of Hot Oil Circulation.

Prior to well start-up, hot “dry” oil circulation are advantageous in so many ways, thus;

 It reduces the risk of hydrates formation while also minimising the need for large
amount of hydrates inhibitors. A single well start-up depending on the subsea
field location usually demands an estimated amount of 30 to 150 litres/minute of
methanol.
 Cost saving due to minimised chemical injection.

2.14.4. Electrical Heating.

Following the operational region of some subsea fields, active heating techniques such
as direct electrical heating, induction heating system, skin effect current heating and
electrical heat traced flowline are also used in some facilities whose operational thermal
requirements cannot depend exclusively on passive insulation heating methods.
Electrical heating system is one of the flow assurance management techniques that is
often applied to ensure that the temperature of the system is kept above the hydrate or

43
wax formation temperature during shutdown. This system can be applied in remediation
circumstance to melt hydrates in a very controlled way and in so doing reducing the use
of chemical inhibitors injection during well start-up.

2.14.4.1. Electrical "Skin Effect" Heating

Skin effect current tracing (SECT); is the most commonly used, and recommended
active heating technique in the subsea production operation. It works by the means of
external resistance heating (electric) cables attached to the subsea pipeline. Heat is
generated through the cable by an alternating current (AC) from a source installed on
the topside facility which results in a skin effect (proximity effect which occurs when AC
electric current flows through a ferromagnetic conductive material). The heat from the
cables is then transferred to the production pipe by conduction (Subsea 7, 2010).

Fig 2.29: Typical Skin Effect Current Tracing Technique on Flowline (Ratulowski,
2005).

As seen in the figure above, this electric heating (active heating) method could be
incorporated into the passive thermal insulation method to provide an additional thermal
support and efficiency.

This method is very functional when the Joule-Thompson cooling effect in the riser is
becomes increased as the height of the riser increases. The temperature loss caused
by this effect is thermodynamic (manner of heat transfer) and cannot be curbed by

44
thermal insulation alone. This persisting cooling effect has in many occasion necessitate
the application of an active heating method.

This technique should only be used satisfactorily at the preventive stage rather than the
mitigation stage, due to the fact that, if evacuation of the gas cannot be ensured due to
the plug sealing effect (i.e. high pressure gas trapped between hydrates plug as shown
in figure 2.19), then the pressure may increase exponentially with temperature (heating
mode) and cause facility (pipeline) rupture (Saint-Martin, 2006).

2.15. Pressure Management strategy.

The application of pressure on subsea production has gone beyond moving the
produced fluid from pore space to the reception facilities at the topside to a critical role
of managing the phase changes that do occur on the reservoir fluid (oil, gas and water)
during production.

2.15.1. Down-Hole and Multiphase Booster Pumps.

Down-hole (electrical submersible pump, ESP) and seafloor (multiphase pump) booster
pumps are installed in the subsea production line to ensure that sufficient pressure in
the flowlines is maintained. If the pressure in the oil/gas transportation facilities is not
adequate, then the produced fluid stream will eventually experience multiple phases’
segregation (i.e. separation of produced fluid into oil, gas and water). When this
happens, the gas phase will be liberated out of solution while the oil and water phases
form separate layers owing to their respective densities. The separated gas phase
flowing at the high side of the flowline ensue transient flow conditions and poses flow
assurance threats downstream of the production system.

45
Fig 2.30: Framo Subsea Multi Phase Booster Pump (Ratulowski, 2005).
The seabed multiphase booster pump shown in figure 2.30 on the previous page is
designed to the pressure rating of about 5,000psi, a design temperature of 120 oC and
consists of an integrated flow homogeniser (FEA, 2007). It shares the burden of
boosting up the pressure when used in conjunction with the ESP (down-hole pump) by
compressing the gas and, as such, drives them into the solution. The production stream
flowing through the multiphase pump is discharged as a homogeneous fluid
downstream the flowline under steady-state flow conditions and at adequate
temperature and pressure ranges. As the homogenised fluid flow past the booster
pump, the heat generated by the pump helps keep the fluid at a temperature above the
hydrate and wax formation temperatures (Ratulowski, 2005).

2.15. 2. Blow Down (Depressurisation).

This is a mitigation technique for hydrate plugs in subsea systems. Depressurisation or

blow down is the basis for reducing the pressure build up in a flowline at the hydrate
plug interface. Depressurisation should not be done rapidly to avoid the effect of Joule
Thompson cooling (cooling expansion of gas without heat transfer) which can pose a
worsening effect in the system. The common and preferred method of decomposing
hydrate plugs is to depressurise both ends of the blockage simultaneously. This action
is based on the principle that, if one end of the flowline is depressurised, the pressure
gradient will cause a large pressure differential across the flowline which, in turn,
causes the dislodged hydrate projectile to gain enough momentum to pose damaging

46
and safety issues to the facility at the restricted areas such as bends, elbows, choke
valves, etc.

When this pressure is decreased below hydrate dissociation pressure (i.e. a pressure
just above the ice point at an equilibrium temperature), then the surface temperature of
the hydrate will be subjected to cooling below the seabed or subsea ambient
temperature and the heat flow from the surrounding deepwater will gradually dissolve
the hydrate at the flowline boundary. Decreasing pressure also reduces the hydrate
formation temperature and prevents more aggregation of hydrates in the line. Hydrate
dissociation occurs faster in insulated lines such as gas lines because the heat flow
from the deepwater is conducted more rapidly by the bare pipe and thus, hydrate plug
dissociates more rapidly (Yong and Qiang, 2005).

Although depressurization is preferred and ascertained by experts to be more viable

than the thermal dissociation technique, the process could take a long time and, as
such, operating expenditure (OPEX) becomes high. The method may not be effective in
a production line of complex geometry and in a case where plugs become icy then the
possibility of further dissociation is inhibited (Chandragupthan, et al, 2011).

2.16. Chemical treatment strategy.

The chemical treatment strategy requires the application of thermodynamic hydrates

inhibitors (THIs) and the threshold or Low-dosage hydrate inhibitors (LDHIs) or kinetic
inhibitors (KIs), which are injected into the production lines to prevent the formation of
hydrates by breaking the hydrogen bonds and weakening the nucleation of the water-
gas molecules. Inhibitors injection is most effective in a flowline that is properly
monitored and if the injection is done at constant rate, it must begin from the hydrate-
free zone of operation to destabilise the effect of stagnant water which occurred when
the temperature at the remote region drops below the hydrate equilibrium temperature.

Periodically, large volume of inhibitors poorly soluble in hydrocarbons such as glycols or

alcohols are injected to the production lines, mostly when pipelines are constructed with
different diameters of pipes and where pig pistons cannot reach to clean water deposit
in the lines. Some of the commonly applied inhibitors on subsea systems are as follow;

2.16.1. Thermodynamic Hydrates Inhibitors (THIs).

47
This inhibitor is injected to gas-water lines in order to distort the energy of intermolecular
cohesion and thermodynamic equilibrium between the gas and water molecules.
Examples of thermodynamic inhibitors are methanol (MeOH) and Mono ethylene glycol
(MEG). Its application into the production systems helps to inhibit the formation of
hydrate, wax, scale, corrosion, etc.

Both of these inhibitors (Methanol and MEG) are very effective when adequate
quantities are injected into deepwater production at dosages approximately 0.50 to 1.00
barrel per barrel of water produced in the field (this produced amount of water is
normally estimated based on experience of previous production on such field).

Methanol can offer a higher depression rate to hydrate temperature; nevertheless, this
effect could be countered by losses due to hydrocarbon liquid (oil and water) and gas
phases. MEG flowed into the hydrocarbon flowlines forms a hydrogen bond with the
produced water molecules and, as such, makes it difficult for the water molecules to
participate in the hydrogen bonding with the produced hydrocarbon fluids.

Thermodynamic inhibitors are best selected based on their cost implications,

downstream process specifications, environmental issues and/or operator preferences
(Yong and Qiang, 2005). The table below demonstrates the advantages and
disadvantages of applying methanol and MEG, taking a typical case study from the Gulf
of Mexico (GoM) fields in the year 2004.

Advantages Disadvantages
 move hydrate formation temperature  Losses of methanol to gas
more than MEG in a mass basis; and condensate phases can
 less viscous; be significant, leading to a
 less likely to cause salt precipitation; lower recovery (<80%);
Methanol  relative cost of regeneration system  impact of methanol
is less than for MEG; contamination in downstream

 approximate GoM cost of 1.0 $/gal; processing;

 low flash point;
 Environmental limitation on
overboard discharge.
 Easy to recover with recovery of  high viscosity, impacts
99%. umbilical and pump

48
  Low gas & condensate solubility. requirements;
 Approximate GoM cost of 2.5$/gal.  less applicable for restarts,
MEG stays with aqueous phase at
bottom of pipe;
 More likely to cause salt
precipitation.

Table 2.2: Comparison of Methanol and MEG (Cochran and Gudimetla, 2004).

As shown in the figure below, injecting a thermodynamic hydrate inhibitor may shift the
hydrate dissociation curve towards a lower temperature; such inhibitors include
Methanol, MEG and other uncommonly used inhibitors such as ethanol, sodium chloride
and calcium chloride (Yong and Qiang, 2005).

Fig 2.31: Hydrate Dissociation Curve Showing the Effect of Thermodynamic

Hydrate Inhibitor (Edmonds, et al, 1998).

Through extensive research work, Hammerschmidt (1969) formulated an equation for

rough estimation of the temperature shift of the hydrate formation curve
(Hammerschmidt, 1969)

49
 Eq. 2.4

Where; ∆T = the temperature shift, hydrate depression in oC.

K = the hydrate depressant constant (a unitless constant which gives the

relationship between depression and concentration for any combination of
inhibitor and oil/gas/water). The empirical values are; 2335 for methanol and
2700 for MEG.

W = concentration of the inhibitor in weight percent in the aqueous phase.

M = molecular weight of the inhibitor divided by the molecular weight of water.

Nonetheless, some of the risks of applying thermodynamics inhibitors on subsea

systems are as identified below;

 Under-dosing, particularly due to not knowing water production rates.

 Inhibitor not going where intended (operator error or equipment failure).
 Environmental concerns, particularly with methanol discharge limits.
 Ensuring remote location supply.
 Ensuring chemical/material compatibility.
 Safety considerations in handling methanol topsides (Yong and Qiang, 2005).

2.16. 2. Threshold or Low-dosage hydrate inhibitors (LDHIs) or kinetic

inhibitors (KIs).

Kinetic inhibitors are injected to the oil/gas lines to prevent the hydrate structure. They
are polymers and copolymers of low molecular weight and soluble in water but not
hydrolysed to insoluble compounds and they absorb well on hydrates surface crystals,
enveloping the crystal pieces and preventing them from further agglomeration (anti-
agglomerants, AAs). It is essential to note that these inhibitors do not completely
prevent the formation of hydrates, rather they elongate the time and space where large
volumes of hydrates blockages form in the production system. Most of the commonly
used KIs are; groups of fatty acids, mixtures of fatty alcohols and amines etc: examples
include; Poly-N-Vinyl Amides, Poly-N-Vinyl-N-Methyllaptamide and Poly-N-
Vinylpyrolidone (PVP) (Chandragupthan, et al, 2011).

50
Kinetic inhibitors are independent of water-cut (i.e. the ratio of water to the total volume
of fluid produced from a well in a given production period), but they are restricted to sub-
cooling temperature quite as low as or even below 20 oF (-6.7oC). it is advised that
kinetic inhibitors be used alongside the thermodynamic inhibitors at sub-cooling lower
than 20oF (Yong and Qiang, 2005).

In addition, the benefits of KIs in subsea systems during shut-in are limited since its
inhibition effect does not last for a long period of time; they are generally
environmentally friendly.

2.17. Mechanical Remediation Strategy.

Mechanical methods are more often the mitigation strategies for removing and cleaning
off the solid deposits of hydrates, waxes, Asphaltenes and scales from the subsea
facilities. Some of the methods designed for the subsea field operations include;
mechanical pigging, drilling, scraping and coil tubing.

2.17.1. Mechanical Pigging.

The pigging process commonly involves forcing plugs (pigs) inserted into flowlines by
the hydraulic action of the produced fluid or sometimes by hauling on cable systems (if
the length of pipeline is relatively short). The pressure of the produced oil/gas propels
the pigs and scrapes debris, waxes and other depositions from the flowline walls.

Fig 2.32: Mechanical Pig (HM, 2009).

51
For effective cleaning to be achieved, most pigs are fitted with brushes to help dislodge
waxes, debris that accumulates in the flowlines low points.

Fig 2.33a and 2.33b: L-R: Cleaning Pig in a Pipeline and Components of a
Hydraulically Activated Power Pig (HAPP, 2010).

A pig launcher is a facility installed in the oil and gas production system used in
launching the pig plugs into the flowline, and pig receiver is also installed at the end of
the process through which debris, wax, scale, etc are received and emptied by the aim
of an opened gate value (see figure 2.35) to the saver pit (effluent).

Fig 2.34: Typical Pig Launcher (Varghese, 2011).

52
A single run of pig may be able to clean the pipeline to acceptable operation conditions
with the possibility of not experiencing normal production downtime. While the entire
product flow propels the pig and flushing deposits downstream, there is no risk of the
pig getting blocked or stocked as a result of plug formation in front of the stream.

Fig 2.35: A Typical Pig Receiver (Varghese, 2011).

The success of mechanical pigging methods on oil and gas production systems
depends on;

 The chemical properties of the debris or deposition in the pipeline.

 The design of the pig.
 The transport capacity of the produced/driving fluid in the flowline.

Experts have argued that pigging should not be applied to remove hydrate blockage,
owing to the fact that the pressure from the pig will compress the immovable hydrate
plug which in turn may cause further problems to the system.

If the hydrate crystal completely plugs the flowline, it will be practically impossible to
drive a pig. For a partial blockage, trying to drive a pig will worsen the situation by
creating a more severe blockage in the production line. Generally, complex mixtures of
emulsified solids/hydrocarbon and water that adhere strongly to the pipeline surface are
not readily addressed solely by this technique.

Nowadays, subsea production flowlines are generally installed as dual flowlines to form
a loop that accommodate flexible operations to be performed such as flowline

53
depressurisation or ‘blow-down’, circulation of inert fluid or (dead-oiling), circulation of
hot oil to warm the flowline during start-up operation, and round-trip pigging to clean off
pipe-wall wax deposits. While this dual flowline system provides flexibility, this benefit
comes with the penalty of doubling the entire cost to the production system which
impacts the capital expenditure (CAPEX) of the system (Knock, 2004).  

Mechanical pigging, if properly applied in an oil/gas facility, will have direct impact on
the operating expenditure at continuous operations.

2.17.2. Coiled Tubing.

Coiled tubing is a primary mechanical hydrate dissociation technique that is inserted

through a lubricator. Access of coiled tubing into the flowline is commonly launched at
the host or from the platform facility at the topside and provisions for this technique
should be made right from the onset during the design phase (Yong and Qiang, 2005).

It works in a simple principle; the coiled tubing is carefully launched down the tubing
string and methanol or mono ethylene glycol (MEG) inhibitor is jetted (pumped) directly
to the surface of the hydrate blockage to remove it. Commonly used coiled tubings have
their outer diameter (OD) specifications between ½” to 3-½” of maximum length
between 15,000 ft and 29,000ft (Sas-Jaworsky et al., 1993). Made of composite
materials, the tubing walls are porous to enable air/gas mixture to lubricate the tubing as
it propels for further penetration. The recorded length of coiled tubing penetration in the
field so far is approximately 14,800 ft (4,440 m) in remediation operations while
operators in the oil and gas are presently targeting lengths of about 10 miles
(Chandragupthan, et al, 2011).

When using coiled tubing, it is imperative to note that approximately 170 scf (standard
cubic feet) of gas could be liberated from each cubic feet of the dissociated hydrate
plug. Therefore, coiled tubing must be incorporated with gas flow-by capacity in the
drive mechanism at the tubing front. This will in turn prevent either pushing the tubing
from the hydrate plug face or line over-pressure due to pressure differential between the
tubing and the hydrate blockage (Sloan, 1998).

2.18. New Technology of Controlling Flow Assurance Threat (Solid Deposits).

54
2.18.1. Cold Flow Technology.

Cold flow technology is an entirely a new project that was originally designed by
SINTEF (Stiftelsen for Industriell og Teknisk Forskning, “The Foundation for Scientific
and Industrial Research") at the Norwegian Institute of Technology (NIT) in the 1990s
and now working in collaboration with the British Petroleum (BP). The technology
involves focussing on the chemistry the takes place inside the tiebacks flowlines from
the seabed downstream.

In some deepwater operations, such as the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) field, the seabed
temperature could drop to as low as 4 oC, which will cause the fluid in the seabed
flowlines, if not properly insulated, to precipitate into waxes or hydrates crystals, most
notably, during start-up and shut-in conditions. These afore-mentioned flow assurance
threats which within a short period of time can build up to clog the entire flow path often
require very expensive and tedious remedial measures and also lead to unacceptable
lost time production. Varieties of techniques used in curbing these crude oil production
problems ranges from the application of chemical, thermal, pressure and mechanical
management strategies as treated above. The problem with these strategies is that they
are inherently very expensive, and in deep water, costs escalation is significantly rapid.

The application of cold flow technology is being explored to thwart the formation of
hydrate blockage in the subsea systems. Hydrates are ice-like lattice crystals made of
guest gas molecules enveloped by water molecules. These gas molecules are very
stable above zero degrees as a result of the ambient pressure in the subsea flowlines.

These hydrate structures are hydrophilic which grows as a thin crust around free water
droplets and may break open when contacting other solid particles or the flowline wall,
paving the way for free sub-cooled water to gush from the inside out to the outer surface
of the crystal. The sub-cooled water flow out of the hydrate has a sticky- gluing
behaviour which tends to stick together a number of such hydrates crystals in the facility
into a bulk slushy structure which blocks the flow of fluid in the production system.
Control measures to leverage this dangerous effect are always at a significant cost and
are associated with keeping the temperature of the system usually above 40 oC through
thermal management methods or continuous injection of hydrate inhibitors (Knock,
2004).  

55
Fig 2.36: L-R: Hydrate Plugs and Cold Flow Technology does not Allow for
Hydrate Plug (Fluid Flowing easily) (Knock, 2004).  

Nonetheless, if the flowline conditions do not limit the hydrate crystal formation process
to the plugging phase, says Carl Argo, a BP’s production Chemist (Knock, 2004), “then
the hydrate crystals will separate sparingly into sub-millimetre particles that will not
agglomerate, just similar to powdered substance suspended in liquid which behaves like
slurry”. This crystal slurry would be flowed along with the fluid in this stable state. The
phenomenon at which the hydrate could not agglomerate to plug the flowline, and
rather, it forms slurry and can then be transported with the fluid is called “cold flow”.

On this note, BP and SINTEF research analysts have come up with a technology to
possibly achieve the phenomenon of cold flow.

The working principle behind cold flow is an idea that has been followed up at the
preliminary stages. A cooled well-stream containing non-plugging hydrate and wax
particles acting as seed crystals are mixed rapidly with the hot fluid from the well. The
mixing of hot fluid (at operating temperature) from the well with the cooled stream (lower
temperature) at the flowline normally termed “crash cooling”, will cause the free water
droplets from the well to quickly wrap the non-plugging hydrate and wax crystals as a
thin film. In this case, the film will be converted to hydrate at a reasonable temperature
and continues to form outwards and gradually absorbs all of the free water in the
system. As such, no free sub-cooled water will be inside the hydrate crystal and thus,

56
they will be no gushing of the sticky-gluing substance that agglomerates the hydrate into
plugging the flowlines (Knock, 2004).

Fig 2.37: A schematic draw of cold flow project (Lysne, SINTEF, 2005).

Practically, this crash cooling of the well fluid from the well operating temperature,
usually about 80oC, to the ambient seabed temperature of 4 oC is attained by injecting a
recycled cold stream of stabilised hydrates slurry that is obtained from a point on the
flowline (usually near the jumper) into the warmer fluid stream flowing out from the well:
these non-plugging dry hydrates seeds will induce further growth. This method would
require a step-up of pressure at the seabed (using seabed booster pump) owing to the
fact that the slurry formed on the outer surface of the hydrate offer a more viscous flow,
the seabed pumps to perform this task is already at the advanced stage of development
and will rather not be a potential form of delay to the project, says Argo.

As the slurry goes up to the host platform (say about 100km), it will be converted back
to free water and gas phases which require a higher temperature (heating system) to be
recovered into the topside facility. The hydrates with commercial value may also be
separated at this point (if need be) and can be exported in the slurry form.

Figure 2.37 above shows a typical schematic of the new technology (cold flow) concept.
A well stream of high temperature, approximately 80 oC in most subsea wells, containing
water coming out of the well (from bottom left side of the figure above) is commingled

57
with the flow stream at the sea-floor (about 4 oC) which contains the dry non-plugging
hydrate or wax particles recycled rapidly by the downstream flow. The free water from
the produced fluid (see blue colour in the schematic above) is adsorbed (that is the
accumulation of gases, liquids, or solutes on the surface of a solid or liquid) on the
surface of the dry hydrate particles (see white colour in the schematic figure 2.37) and
subsequently changed to gas hydrate: multi-wells can also be attached to this system
downstream (Knock, 2004).

Fig 2.38: Block Diagram of Cold Flow Hydrates Technology Process

(Gudmundsson, 2002).
Figure 2.38 shows the block flow diagram of cold flow dry hydrate technology process.
The warmed fluid arrives from a wellbore (WELL), and flows downstream through a cold
flow pipeline (CFP). This structure has several other processing units: a wellhead unit,
WHU; a separator unit, SU; a heat exchanger unit, HXU, and a reactor unit, RU. G/L
means gas/liquid. Considering the amount of water-cut, gas/oil ratio (GoR) and other
fluid properties, the process may require more units of SU+HXU+RU (Gudmundsson,
2002).

2.18.1.1. Benefits of Cold Flow Technology

This technology is still at the developing stages; so far, experts have suggested that
considering what has been observed in the laboratory modelling and simulation: if this
project is properly implemented, it will offer such benefits as;

 Long tie-back flowlines can be installed un-insulated without the risk of blockage
formation and downtime production, emphasises Argo. “And only single lines,

58
 rather than loops, will be needed – laboratory tests have shown that you can stop
a flowline for many days and restart the flow without problems as the hydrate
slurry is stable and can be readily re-mobilised, a significant operational
advantage” (Knock, 2004).
 Continuous chemical inhibitors injection into the production system could be
stopped. Considering, these factors, it means that tiebacks could become much
cheaper and much longer.
 This new technology, experts argue, could cut off the cost of developing a
subsea facility in deepwater operations by approximately $100 million (knock,
2004).

Chapter 3

3.0. Methodology (Experimental Procedures)

The aim of this Project was addressed through desk research and structured data
collection from Oil and Gas companies with proven capabilities in well intervention and
flow assurance management.

The desk research began with the use of textbooks related to flow assurance
management. In addition, articles on journals, conference papers (OTC, SPE, ASME,
etc), Oil and Gas Companies websites and workshop reports discussing applicability,
significance, opportunities and challenges of various preventive and curative strategies
in flow assurance management were used. In-depth data from the experts was used to
model and understand the chilly choke effect as a result of low temperature and high
pressure differential at the subsea choke valve during shut-in and, also, this data was

59
used to analyse and propose a viable method for preventing this effect so as to allow for
a smooth start-up of the subsea well.

This analysis was done to determine the behaviour of temperature at an assumed

differential pressures for which hydrate plugs form in a subsea tree choke valve as a
result of chilly choke effect (Joule Thompson cooling effect) in a subsea gas production
system. The thermodynamic properties of the gas flow would have been analysed using
HYSYS simulator for steady state hydraulic analysis and OLGA package for transient
hydraulic conditions. For the course of this work, the OLGA simulation package was not
available, thus the gas flow conditions were only obtained at their steady state using the
HYSYS software package which was available.

3.1. HYSYS Simulation Package

Aspen HYSYS v7.1 is a process modelling tool for simulating the steady state hydraulic
and thermal conditions, design, performance monitoring, optimization and business
planning for oil and gas production, gas processing and petroleum refining industries.
The software package has been built technologies, with more than 30 years experience
supplying process-proven simulation tools to the oil, gas and refining industries. It
proves an interactive process modelling solution that enables engineers to create
steady state models of plant design, performance monitoring, troubleshooting,
operational improvement, business-planning and asset management.

HYSYS enables fluid production and process industries to enhance productivity and
profitability throughout the plant lifecycle. The powerful simulation and analysis tools,
real-time applications and the integrated approach to the engineering solutions enable
the user to improve designs, optimize production and enhance decision-making (Aspen
Tech, 2009).

Another HYSYS feature is that modular operations are combined with a non-sequential
solution algorithm, so not only is information processed as it is supplied, but the results
of any calculation are automatically produced throughout the flow sheet, both forwards
and backwards. The modular structure of the operation means they can be calculated in
either direction, using information in an outlet stream to calculate inlet conditions (Aspen
Tech, 2009).

60
In HYSYS, all necessary information pertaining to pure component flash and physical
property calculations is contained within the Fluid Package, and in this case, choosing
the right Fluid Package for given compounds is essential. For the given composition of
natural gas flowing through a choke valve unit, different Fluid Packages were identified,
but the Peng-Robinson equation of state was used because of its large binary
interaction parameter database and applicability range in terms of temperature and
pressure conditions in gas flow, as an ideal model for process calculations (Peng and
Robinson, 1976).

Eq. 2.0

(Peng and Robinson, 1976)

Where;

 = pressure (absolute) in psia.

 = volume in kg.mol.

 = number of moles of a substance

 =   = molar volume, the volume of 1 mole of gas or liquid.

 = absolute temperature in Kelvin (converted to Celsius).

 = ideal gas constant (8.314472 J/ (mol·K))

 = pressure at the critical point

 = molar volume at the critical point

 = absolute temperature at the critical point

61
Material streams are used to simulate the material travelling in and out of the simulation
boundaries and passing between unit operations. For the material stream the user has
to define their main properties and composition so HYSYS can solve the stream. The
parameters necessary are the temperature, pressure, flow based, for example, on molar
flow, and composition (Aspen Tech, 2009). Energy streams are used to simulate the
energy travelling in and out of the simulation boundaries and passing between unit
operations. The energy stream property view contains fields allowing the user to define
stream parameters, view objects to which the stream is attached and specify dynamic
information. The main parameter for energy streams is heat flow (Aspen Tech, 2009).

3.2. Experimental Procedures

HYSYS simulation package was used to check the temperature and pressure
distributions along subsea choke in steady state condition as the gas flows. This was
done to know the temperature and pressure boundaries that vapour will no longer occur
at the outlet of the valve.

3.2.1. Gas compositions.

In order to perform a successful analysis, the produced fluid compositions are the first
requirement. The reservoir fluid (produced gas and water) compositions (mole fraction)
used was that gotten from Troll 1, a Norwegian gas field, taken from Professor Jon
Steinar Gudmundsson home page (Gudmundsson, 2002).

S/N Gas Gas Composition (molar fraction)

%
1 Methane 0.9310
2 Ethane 0.0370
3 Propane 0.0058
4 n-Butane 0.0008
5 i-Butane 0.0058
6 n-Heptane 0.0020
7 NO2 0.0166
8 CO2 0.0032

Table 3.1: Gas Composition from Troll 1 Subsea Gas Field (Gudmundsson,
2002).

The reservoir gas (with compositions as shown in the table above), approximately
1,000kg.mol/hr (2205lb.mol/hr) was injected through material stream and commingled

62
with water stream of 20 kg.mol/hr (44lb.mol/hr) in a fictitious mixer as shown in figure
3.1 below. The mixed fluid was flashed at standard conditions of pressure, P=14.7psi
and temperature, T=15oC and new gas compositions were obtained from the saturated
fluid (mixed out).

Fig 3.1: The Simulated Produced Fluid Conditions

The new gas compositions obtained were then used in the second analysis across the
choke valve as demonstrated in figure 3.6 on page 64.

Fig 3.2: Flashing of Reservoir Fluid to Obtain New Gas Compositions.

63
3.2.2. Analysis of Temperature and Pressure Differential Variations at the Choke
Valve

With the gas compositions obtained from the flashed (mixed) saturated fluid, a single
gas stream entering the subsea choke valve was simulated. The Peng Robinson Fluid
Package defined, is most useful for analysing non-polar molecules such as
hydrocarbons, nitrogen and Carbon dioxide.

Fig 3.3: Defining Peng Robinson Fluid Package.

The new fluid with the composition in figure 3.4 below was flowed into the inlet stream
of the choke valve system with the flow conditions as shown in figure 3.5.

Fig 3.4: New Fluid Compositions.

64
A shut-in pressure of 4100 psi and a temperature of 4 oC representing the cold ambient
temperature of the seabed. HYSYS calculated all the required inlet conditions for the
fluid.

Fig 3.5: Inlet Fluid Stream Conditions.

Basically, after the HYSYS software had finished calculating the initial inlet conditions, it
was convenient to install the choke valve to the inlet stream with an appropriate outlet
stream. Then with an initial discharge pressure of 500psi (see figure 3.8), a sensitivity
analysis was performed for different discharge pressure with an increment of 100psi
and the discharge temperature recorded in all iterations.

Fig 3.6: Choke Valve Connections.

65
Fig 3.7: Installed Choke Valve to the Gas Stream.

Fig 3.8: Discharge Pressure (Choke Valve Inlet and Outlet Pressure Differential)

Chapter 4

4.0. Results

HYSYS analysed the entire process at varied conditions of inlet temperature and
pressure to get the desired outputs such as outlet temperature, vapour flow condition,
molar enthalpy, molar entropy, etc.

All the inputs and outputs given are specified in the following table 4.1. With the
differential pressure of 400psi, HYSYS used the initial fluid conditions at the inlet of the
valve and calculated the conditions at the valve outlet. The results for differential
pressure from 400psi to 1300psi are recorded in the table below.

66
Fig 4.1: Valve Outlet Results for ∆P =400psia.

Fig 4.2: Valve Outlet Results for ∆P =500psia.

The inlet thermodynamic conditions and the resulting values at the outlet of the choke
valve are as recorded below.

Inlet Conditions into the Choke

Pressure Valve   Outlet Conditions from the Choke Valve
Differentia
l Molar Molar
Enthalpy Enthalpy
∆P (psia) Pressur (kcal/kg.mol Vapou Temp Pressur (kcal/kg.mol Vapou Temp
e (psia) ) r (oC)   e (psia) ) r (oC)
                   
400 4100 -2.0250E+04 0.9791 4.0000   3700 -2.0250E+04  0.9788  2.2420
500 4100 -2.0250E+04 0.9791 4.0000   3600 -2.0250E+04 0.0000 1.7290
600 4100 -2.0250E+04 0.9791 4.0000   3500 -2.0250E+04 0.0000 1.1850

67
 700 4100 -2.0250E+04 0.9791 4.0000   3400 -2.0250E+04 0.0000 0.6058
800 4100 -2.0250E+04 0.9791 4.0000   3300 -2.0250E+04 0.0000 -0.0091
900 4100 -2.0250E+04 0.9791 4.0000   3200 -2.0250E+04 0.0000 -0.6622
1000 4100 -2.0250E+04 0.9791 4.0000   3100 -2.0250E+04 0.0000 -1.3550
1100 4100 -2.0250E+04 0.9791 4.0000   3000 -2.0250E+04 0.0000 -2.0910
1200 4100 -2.0250E+04 0.9791 4.0000   2900 -2.0250E+04 0.0000 -2.2440
1300 4100 -2.0250E+04 0.9791 4.0000   2800 -2.0250E+04 0.0000 -3.6980

Table 4.1: Valve Inlet and the Resulting Thermodynamic Property of the Fluid
Flow at the Choke Valve for Different ∆P Conditions.

Fig 4.3: Hydrate Formation Curve.

Chapter 5

5.0. Discussion

The steady state flow conditions of a subsea gas system was analysed to fully observe
and understand the effect of an increased pressure differential, ∆P, at the subsea choke
valve on chilly choke effect (Joule Thompson cooling effect) and, hence, the potential
factor for the formation of a hydrates plug in the system. From the results obtained, as
recorded in the table above, at a constant ambient seabed temperature condition of 4 oC
and well operating pressure of 4100psi, the choke valve outlet (flow past valve)
thermodynamics properties vary significantly.

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The results show that as the ∆P increases, the temperature of the valve outlet
decreases and the flow vapour conditions decreases from the initial value of 0.9791 to
0.000, indicating that there must have been a formation of hydrate in the system under
these conditions. The enthalpy of the system in this instance remained unchanged,
owing to the fact that, hydrates mostly form at shut-in well conditions as a result of high
pressure and low temperature of the system at constant heat (enthalpy).

As the pressure differential increases, the chilly choke effect becomes more
pronounced. Looking at table 4.1, when ∆P = 400psia, the outlet temperature =
2.2420oC and decreases below freezing temperature as the pressure differential
increases to 1300psia. These conditions are prone to give rise to the accumulation of
water into the low spots of the system. At this point the subsea system is already
plugged of hydrates and requires immediate remediation attention to avoid long
production downtime and high setbacks on business.

From figure 4.3, it can be deduced that the presence of the gas molecules lends stability
to the crystalline structure, allowing hydrates to exist at much higher temperatures than
ice (ice formation temperature is 0 oC). For example, from the hydrate formation curve
(cyan coloured curve), hydrate deposition has started gaining stability at a temperature
of approximately 4.4oC and a pressure of 278.9psia. To the right of the curve, hydrates
are thermodynamically unstable. Operating in this region, producers can feel
comfortable that their system will be safe from hydrate blockages. To the left of the
curve, hydrates are thermodynamically stable and have the potential to form.

It is envisaged that these analysis conditions are mostly encountered during shut-in
production operations. The stability of hydrates and some other flow assurance threats
occur as a function of temperature and pressure conditions of the subsea system.
During start up, it is important that the thermodynamic conditions, mostly the
temperature be kept above these threats deposition conditions. The following strategies
for gas and oil fields are proposed to prevent this effect of chilly choke during start-up
operations on subsea trees.

Gas fields:

 Injection of thermodynamic inhibitors (methanol or MEG) at the subsea tree.

 Supervision of injection rate after start-up to avoid overdose.

69
  Thermal insulation of the subsea trees to maintain the temperature above which
hydrates or waxes could be deposited.

Oil fields:

 Circulation of dead oil, DO, to warm-up the flowlines.

 Injection of methanol during well start-up period, up to temperature target.

Chapter 6

6.0. Conclusions and Recommendations for future works

This Project is rich with the detailed principles of generic flow assurance management
concepts in the subsea oil and gas production systems. The problems of chilly choke
effect; causes, associated risks, implications of such risks to the production systems
and the remediation strategies were also explored.

In addition, the advantages of choke valve in subsea oil and gas production systems
was also investigated with proper consideration on the types, principles of operations,

70
valve materials selection criteria, valve selection as regard to its use and work purpose,
problems and innovations.

The analysis investigated the effect of increasing pressure differential on chilly choke
effect (Joule Thompson cooling effect) of the choke valve installed on subsea trees
during shut-in conditions so as to give a guide on the type of prevention methods to
utilise in curbing these hazardous problems. This was carefully carried out using
HYSYS fluid simulation package at steady state conditions.

Finally, the best possible and practically viable prevention techniques were proposed to
curb the effect of chilly choke on subsea trees during start-up operations.

6.1. Recommendations for Future Work

Since the analysis with the steady state conditions was done to determine the effect of
pressure differential on choke valve as it affects chilly choke, the analysis with transient
state conditions will provide a good knowledge of this effect at start-up and during
emergency operations. This could be analysed using OLGA or ProFES fluid simulation
software package.

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