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COMPATIBILITY ASSESSMENT FOR PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH CEMENT-BONDED FIBREBOARD

Thesis · August 2018

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.32026.08645

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 i

TITLE

COMPATIBILITY ASSESSMENT FOR PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH CEMENT-BONDED FIBREBOARD

HAYANA BINTI DULLAH

A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of Master of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

AUGUST 2018
 ii

DECLARATION
 iii

DEDICATION

To my beloved parents.
Hjh. Munirah & Hj. Dullah

For their Love, support and strength.

 iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With the name of Allah,

Praise to Allah the Almighty and owner of the world. Thank to Allah for the permission
and bless to finish this study within due time and complete the requirements for the
Master Degree in Civil Engineering. With the deepest gratitude I wish to thank every
person who has come into my life and inspired, touched and helping me through their
presence.

I would like to take this opportunity to return millions of thanks to my supervisor,

Associate Professor Dr. Zainal Abidin Bin Akasah for supervising, tutoring and
guiding me in this complete research and most importantly his willingness to spend
his time for discussion whenever I need to. May Allah always bless onto it. This
research would not have been possible in its current form without his assistance.

My million thank also goes to Mr. Nik Mohd Zaini Bin Nik Soh, lecturer of Civil
Engineering and Environment Department for his endless help and guide. Besides that,
thank also given to the Office for Research, Innovation, Commercialization and
Consultancy Management, UTHM, Malaysia for technical and financial support of
contract grant U522.

For my beloved family, especially to my respectable parents, Hj. Dullah Bin Makkarai,
Hjh. Munirah Binti Musa and my sisters who were supporting me to ensure the success
of this study. Last but not least, my friends who were always there when I need them.
Thank you.
 v

ABSTRACT

Agricultural by-products such as EFB fibre may be used as an alternative for producing
CBFB. Compatibility assessment for physical and mechanical properties of Cement-
Bonded Fibreboard (CBFB) made of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) is important to identify
the suitability of incorporating EFB into CBFB. However, there are known
compatibility issues between EFB fibre with cement mixtures as the fibres contain
residual oil and sugar that inhibit cement setting and hydration. Besides that, the
geometry of fibre has been said to be a factor that affects the physical and mechanical
properties of CBFB. Hence, this study was conducted to carry out the compatibility
assessments to improve the properties of Empty Fruit Bunch Cement Board (EFB-CB)
besides to identify the role of fibre length in the mechanical and physical properties.
Two compatibility assessments which include alkaline treatment by using sodium
Hydroxide (NaOH) and cement accelerators which is Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) and
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) were carried out on EFB-CB fabrications. The
fabrication of EFB-CB specimens was done by incorporating EFB fibres with different
lengths classified as R7M, R14M and R80M to establish findings on the effect of fibre
length on EFB-CB. The research finding shows that the combination of EFB fibre size
with distributions of 35%, 45% and 20% for R7M, R14M and R80M respectively is
the optimum fibre length that can be used for further research. Whereas the finding on
the compatibility assessment shows the requirements for the physical and mechanical
properties were met after subjecting EFB-CB to 1% NaOH treatment for EFB fibre
along with the addition of 0.3% CaCl2 or 0.4% MgCl2 as cement accelerators. Similar
requirements were fulfilled for EFB fibres treated with 4% NaOH with or without
cement accelerators. The results indicated that EFB fibre can be regarded as a potential
replacement material used in the manufacturing of CFB for non-load bearing
applications after it had gone through compatibility improvement methods.
 vi

ABSTRAK

Penilaian keserasian bagi sifat fizikal dan mekanikal bagi papan gentian simen (CBFB)
dari tandan kelapa sawit (EFB) penting untuk mengenal pasti kesesuaian penggunaan
EFB dalam pembuatan CBFB. Serat daripada sisa agrikultur seperti EFB boleh
digunakan sebagai alternatif untuk menghasilkan CBFB. Walaubagaimanapun,
terdapat isu keserasian antara gentian EFB dan campuran simen kerana gentian EFB
mengandungi sisa minyak dan gula yang melambatkan proses penghidratan simen.
Selain itu, geometri serat juga dikatakan sebagai faktor yang mempengaruhi sifat
mekanikal dan fizikal CFB. Oleh itu, kaedah untuk meningkatkan kekuatan papan
gentian tandan kelapa sawit (EFB-CB) telah dijalankan selain mengenal pasti peranan
panjang serat EFB terhadap sifat mekanikal dan fizikal EFB-CB. Dua kaedah bagi
meningkatkan keserasian simen dan EFB serat termasuk rawatan alkali menggunakan
Natrium Hidroksida (NaOH) dan bahan mempercepat pengerasan simen iaitu Kalsium
Klorida (CaCl2) dan Magnesium Klorida (MgCl2). Fabrikasi EFB-CB dilakukan
dengan menggunakan gentian EFB dengan panjang yang berbeza mengikut klasifikasi
saiz gentian iaitu R7M, R14M dan R80M untuk mengkaji kesan terhadap EFB-CB.
Daripada hasil kajian, sifat mekanikal dan fizikal yang tertinggi didapati pada
specimen yang mempunyai gabungan saiz serat daripada 35% (R7M), 45% R14M, dan
20% (R80M). Daripada hasil kajian penilaian keserasian, piawaian BS mampu dicapai
dengan menggunakan kepekatan 1% NaOH bagi merawat serat EFB dan tambahan
0.3% CaCl2 atau 0.4% MgCl2 sebagai bahan mempercepat pengerasan simen.
Keperluan yang sama juga dicapai dengan kepekatan NaOH rawatan serat 4% tanpa
bahan mempercepat pengerasan simen. Hasil daripada keseluruhan kajian mendapati
bahawa serat EFB boleh dianggap berpotensi sebagai bahan pengganti yang boleh
digunakan dalam pembuatan CFB selepas melalui kaedah peningkatan keserasian.
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES xvii
1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of study 1

1.2 Problem statement 3

1.3 Objective of study 4

1.4 Scope of study 5

2 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Introduction 6

2.2 Potential of natural fibre waste as replacement material 7

2.2.1 Natural fibre waste 9

2.3 Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) 11

2.3.1 EFB physical and morphological structure 12

2.3.2 Chemical composition of EFB 14

 viii

2.4 Fibre length distribution of cement composite 14

2.5 Compatibility of cement and empty fruit bunch (EFB) 15

2.5.1 EFB – Cement hydration rate 16

2.5.2 Method of compatibility improvement 17

2.5.2.1 Fibre pre-treatment 18

2.5.2.2 Cement accelerator 19

2.6 Previous research on cement-bonded board properties 21

2.6.1 Physical and mechanical properties 21

2.7 Summary 23

3 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 24
3.1 Introduction 24

3.2 Material preparation 26

3.2.1 Ordinary Portland cement 26

3.2.2 EFB fibre 26

3.2.2.1 Hammer mill process 27

3.2.2.2 Screening process 28

3.2.2.3 Pre-treatment stage 29

3.2.3 Chemical additive 30

3.3 Cement boards sampling design mix 31

3.3.1 Calculation of EFB-Cement-Water content 32

3.3.2 EFB-CB mix design for different EFB fibre

lengths 34
3.3.3 EFB-CB design mix for fibre treatment and
cement accelerator 35
3.4 Experimental tests 36

3.4.1 Heat of hydration 36

3.4.2 Surface morphology examination 38

3.4.3 EFB fibre tensile strength 39

 ix

3.4.4 Chemical composition analysis 41

3.5 Fabricating stage 42

3.5.1 Mixing the material 43

3.5.2 Moulding Process 44

3.5.3 Cold-press compacting 45

3.5.4 Curing 47

3.6 Properties of EFB-cement bonded board 48

3.6.1 Mechanical properties 49

3.6.1.1 Modulus of elasticity (MOE) and

modulus of rupture (MOR) 49
3.6.1.2 Internal bonding 50

3.6.2 Physical properties 52

3.6.2.1 Thickness swelling 52

3.7 Selection criteria of EFB pre-treatment using Sodium

Hydroxide (NaOH) 53
4 CHAPTER 4 EFB FIBRE LENGTH 57
4.1 Introduction 57

4.2 Effect of EFB-CB with various fibre geometry on

density and thickness 57
4.3 Physical and mechanical properties of EFB-CB
fabricated with various EFB fibre lengths 59
4.3.1 Mechanical properties 59

4.3.2 Physical properties 61

4.4 Summary 62

5 CHAPTER 5 EFFECT OF PRE-TREATMENT AND CEMENT

ACCELERATOR ON EFB FIBRE 63
5.1 Introduction 63

5.2 Effect of EFB pre-treatment and cement accelerator on

hydration rate 63
5.2.1 Hydration rate of cement mixed with EFB fibre
pre-treated with Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) of
different concentrations 64
 x

5.2.2 Hydration rate of EFB-cement after the addition

of cement accelerators 65
5.2.2.1 Untreated fibre 65

5.2.2.2 Treated fibre 67

5.3 Effect of EFB pre-treatment on surface morphology

examination 71
5.4 Effects of EFB pre-treatment on chemical composition
and tensile strength 74
5.4.1 Chemical composition of EFB fibre 74

5.4.2 Tensile strength of single EFB fibre 75

5.5 Summary 76

6 CHAPTER 6 PROPERTIES OF EFB-CB BASED ON FIBRE

TREATMENT AND CEMENT ACCELERATOR 77
6.1 Introduction 77

6.2 EFB-CB mechanical properties based on different

percentage of NaOH treatment and cement accelerators 77
6.2.1 Modulus of Rupture (MOR) 78

6.2.2 Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) 83

6.2.3 Internal Bonding (IB) 87

6.3 EFB-CB physical performance based on different

percentage of NaOH treatment and cement accelerator 90
6.3.1 Thickness Swelling (TS) 90

6.4 Surface morphology analyses 94

6.5 Summary 96

7 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 98

7.1 Introduction 98

7.2 Conclusion 98

7.3 Recommendation 101

8 REFERENCES 102
9 APPENDIX 112
 xi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Agricultural waste produced in Malaysia in 2007 8

Table 2.2 Chemical composition of agricultural waste fibre 10
Table 2.3 Mechanical properties of natural fibres 11
Table 2.4 Physical characteristics of EFB fibre 12
Table 2.5 Chemical composition of oil palm EFB fibre 14
Table 2.6 Previous study of fibre length/mesh used in cement board 15
Table 2.7 Previous study on EFB pre-treatment method 18
Table 2.8 Types of chemical additive used as cement accelerator 19
Table 2.8 (Cont'd) 20
Table 2.9 Properties of cement-bonded composite boards with various
natural fibre 22
Table 2.10 Requirements; specified properties of OPC bonded particle
boards 23
Table 3.1 The range of EFB fibre lengths according to mesh size 28
Table 3.2 Preliminary data for EFB-Cement ratio and density 32
Table 3.3 Preliminary data for water content 32
Table 3.4 Mix design for EFB-CB samples with various fibre sizes 34
Table 3.5 Label of samples with different percentage of EFB fibre size 35
Table 3.6 Mix design for EFB-CB samples with different concentrations
of NaOH and cement accelerators 36
Table 3.7 Hydration test sample preparation 37
Table 3.8 Tabulation of the effects of NaOH concentrations on hydration
and surface morphology 54
Table 3.8 (Cont'd) 55
Table 5.1 Chemical composition of EFB fibre 74
Table 6.1 Optimum mechanical and physical properties of EFB-CB
based on different percentage of NaOH treatment and cement
accelerator 97
 xii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Oil palm empty fruit bunch 7

Figure 2.2 A distribution of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in the
natural fibre 10
Figure 2.3 SEM image of the cross-section EFB fibre 13
Figure 2.4 Surface of OPEFB strand with silica body 13
Figure 2.5 Hydration temperature for neat cement and cement containing
eucalypt and poplar wood fibres 16
Figure 2.6 Hydration temperature of cement mixed with fronds using the
cement accelerator MgCI2: a, no MgCI2; b, 5.0% MgCI2; c,
7.5% MgCI2; d, 10.0% MgCI2; e, 15.0% MgCI2; f, neat
cement; and g, room temperature 17
Figure 3.1 Methodology flow chart 25
Figure 3.2 EFB fibre obtained from Global Seed Sdn. Bhd. 26
Figure 3.3 Grinding machine 27
Figure 3.4 Fibre strands 27
Figure 3.5 EFB fibre length after the screening process 28
Figure 3.6 Screening process 29
Figure 3.7 EFB fibre is soaked in Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) for 24 hours 30
Figure 3.8 (a) Magnesium chloride (MgCl2), (b) Calcium chloride (CaCl2) 31
Figure 3.9 Hydration test procedure 38
Figure 3.10 ZEISS Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 39
Figure 3.11 (i) Untreated fibre, (ii) 0.4% NaOH, (iii) 1% NaOH, (iv) 4%
NaOH 39
Figure 3.12 Schematic sketch of the experimental setup for the tensile test. 40
Figure 3.13 Position of the EFB fibre sample for the tensile test 41
Figure 3.14 Fabricating sequences 42
Figure 3.15 The fabricating process 43
Figure 3.16 Mixer machine 44
 xiii

Figure 3.17 The moulding process of EFB-CB 45

Figure 3.18 Steel Spacer 46
Figure 3.19 The mould has been placed at cold-press machine 46
Figure 3.20 The pressed mats placed in the oven for 24 hours at 60oC. 47
Figure 3.21 The EFB-cement board samples placed at the provided place
for 28 days air curing 48
Figure 3.22 Cutting dimension of EFB-CB samples 48
Figure 3.23 Arrangement of the bending apparatus 49
Figure 3.24 Arrangement of the internal bonding apparatus 51
Figure 3.25 Samples immersed in water for 24 hours 52
Figure 3.26 Thickness of the sample was measured by using a digital
micrometer 53
Figure 3.27 Hydration temperature of Neat Cement (NC), Cement-EFB
Fibre (Untreated fibre (UT), 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,
2%, 3% and 4% of NaOH Treatment) 56
Figure 4.1 Effects of different fibre lengths on density and thickness 58
Figure 4.2 MOE & MOR for various EFB fibre lengths 60
Figure 4.3 Internal Bonding (IB) for various EFB fibre lengths 60
Figure 4.4 Thickness Swelling (TS) for various EFB fibre length 61
Figure 5.1 Cement-EFB fibre hydration temperature of Untreated fibre
(UT), 0.4%, 1% and 4% of NaOH treatment 65
Figure 5.2 Cement-EFB fibre (UT) hydration temperature with 0.1 –
0.4% of cement accelerator (MgCl2) 66
Figure 5.3 Cement-EFB fibre hydration temperature with 0.1% – 0.4%
cement accelerator (CaCl2) 67
Figure 5.4 Hydration temperature of EFB fibre treated (0.4% NaOH) with
additional MgCl2 accelerator 68
Figure 5.5 Hydration temperature of EFB fibre treated (1% NaOH) with
additional MgCl2 accelerator 68
Figure 5.6 Hydration temperature of EFB fibre treated (4% NaOH) with
additional MgCl2 accelerator 69
Figure 5.7 Hydration temperature of EFB fibre treated (0.4% NaOH)
with additional CaCl2 accelerator 70
Figure 5.8 Hydration temperature of EFB fibre treated (1% NaOH)
with additional CaCl2 accelerator 70
Figure 5.9 Hydration temperature for EFB fibre treated (4% NaOH)
with additional CaCl2 accelerator 71
 xiv

Figure 5.10 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image for untreated

OPEFB fibre at (a) 100x Magnification and (b) 250x
Magnification 72
Figure 5.11 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image at 250x
magnification of OPEFB treated with NaOH ranging 0.2%
to 4%. 73
Figure 5.12 Tensile strength of Untreated fibre (UT) and fibre treated with
0.4%, 1% and 4% concentration of NaOH 76
Figure 6.1 MOR of EFB-CB for different percentages NaOH treatment
and MgCl2 accelerator 79
Figure 6.2 MOR of EFB-CB for different percentages NaOH treatment
and CaCl2 accelerator 79
Figure 6.3 MOR of EFB-CB (Untreated Fibre) 80
Figure 6.4 MOR of EFB-CB (0.4% NaOH treatment) 81
Figure 6.5 MOR of EFB-CB (1% NaOH treatment) 82
Figure 6.6 MOR of EFB-CB (4% NaOH treatment) 82
Figure 6.7 MOE of EFB-CB for different concentrations of NaOH
treatment and MgCl2 accelerator 83
Figure 6.8 MOE of EFB-CB for different concentrations of NaOH
treatment and CaCl2 accelerator 84
Figure 6.9 MOE of EFB-CB (Untreated Fibre) 85
Figure 6.10 MOE of EFB-CB (0.4% NaOH treatment) 85
Figure 6.11 MOE of EFB-CB (1% NaOH treatment) 86
Figure 6.12 MOE of EFB-CB (4% NaOH treatment) 86
Figure 6.13 IB of EFB-CB for different concentrations of NaOH treatment
and MgCl2 accelerator 87
Figure 6.14 IB of EFB-CB for different concentrations of NaOH treatment
and CaCl2 accelerator 88
Figure 6.15 IB of EFB-CB (Untreated Fibre) 88
Figure 6.16 IB of EFB-CB (0.4% NaOH Treatment) 89
Figure 6.17 IB of EFB-CB (1% NaOH Treatment) 89
Figure 6.18 IB of EFB-CB (4% NaOH Treatment) 90
Figure 6.19 Thickness Swelling (TS) of EFB-CB for different percentages
of NaOH treatment and MgCl2 accelerator 91
Figure 6.20 Thickness Swelling (TS) EFB-CB for different percentages of
NaOH treatment and CaCl2 accelerator 92
Figure 6.21 Thickness Swelling of EFB-CB (Untreated fibre) 92
Figure 6.22 Thickness Swelling of EFB-CB (0.4% NaOH treatment) 93
 xv

Figure 6.23 Thickness Swelling of EFB-CB (1% NaOH Treatment) 93

Figure 6.24 Thickness Swelling of EFB-CB (4% NaOH Treatment) 94
Figure 6.25 Electron micrographs images for EFB-CB specimens with
different percentages of NaOH fibre treatment: (a) Untreated
fibre (b) 0.4% NaOH 95
 xvi

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CBFB - Cement-bonded fibreboard

CBBs - Cement-bonded boards
EFB - Empty fruit bunch
FFB - Fresh Fruit Bunch
EFB-CB - Empty Fruit Bunch Cement Board
CWBB - Cement-bonded wood wool
CBPB - Cement-bonded particleboards
OPEFB - Oil palm empty fruit bunch fibre
R7M - Retain 7 mesh
R14M - Retain 14 mesh
R80M - Retain 80 mesh
UT - Untreated fibre
NaOH - Sodium hydroxide
CaCl2 - Calcium chloride
MgCl2 - Magnesium chloride
CB-C - Cement-bonded composites
SEM - Surface morphology examination
BS - British Standard
MDF - Medium density fibreboard
MOE - Modulus of elasticity
MOR - Modulus of rupture
IB - Internal bonding
TS - Thickness swelling
OPC - Ordinary Portland cement
 xvii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A1 SEM of untreated fibre into EFB-CB 113

A2 SEM of treated fibre with 0.4% NaOH into EFB-CB 114
A3 SEM of treated fibre with 1% NaOH into EFB-CB 114
A4 SEM of treated fibre with 4% NaOH into EFB-CB 115
A5 List of Publications and Achievements 116
 1 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

Fibre reinforcement of cementitious materials still remains an exciting and innovative

technology because of the basic engineering properties of crack resistance, ductility
and energy absorption that enhance infrastructure construction (Swamy, 2000).
Composite materials such as cement-bonded wood wool boards (CBWW), cement-
bonded particleboards (CBPB), and fibre-reinforced cement boards have been
introduced in the recent decades. Cement-bonded composites are made of strands,
particles or fibres of wood mixed with Portland cement and additives manufactured
into building components used in the construction industry. Wood particles/fibre are
the aggregate and the reinforcing agent respectively, cement is the binder, water is the
reactant, and the additives are the catalysts (Ashori, Tabarsa, & Sepahvand, 2012).

The potential of using natural fibre as a composite material is highly accepted

because it is cheap, sustainable and biodegradable. Besides that, it can also reduce the
carbon dioxide, CO2 released (Brandt, 2008). Wood has been introduced as a natural
fibre reinforcement in cement and its use has increased rapidly over the past decade
(Kochova, Schollbach, & Brouwers, 2015). However, the usage of wood as fibre
reinforcement will lead to the increasing demand for forest sources. Evidently, the use
of wood fibre will cause deforestation (Sotannde et al., 2012). This is not sustainable
for the mass production of wood fibre cement boards in the future (Karade, 2010).
Hence, other natural fibres should be considered to replace the utilisation of wood fibre
in cement boards.
 2

Nowadays, natural fibre cement boards are mostly made from wood. Due to
rapid decrease of wood resources along with economic development and massive
deforestation, the utilisation of wood resources needs to be minimised (Singh et al.,
2013). Natural fibre cement board products need to replace wood fibres with other
lignocellulosic fibres. Oil palm empty fruit bunch fibre (OPEFB) is the most
interesting fibre that is readily available within Malaysia. Some researchers have
reported that the addition of natural fibres reduces the thermal conductivity of
composite samples (Wang et al., 2016).

However, the main thing that needs to be concerned for producing OPEFB-
cement products is the incompatibility between cement and OPEFB fibre. Based on a
research study by Yi et al. (2002), there are compatibility issues between cement and
fibre due to the existence of hemicellulose, lignin and sugar which appear to inhibit
the setting of cement hydration significantly. Therefore, the effectiveness and
capabilities of the natural fibre cement board need to be justified and tested in order to
produce them in large quantities in future.

The most effective method that has been introduced by previous researchers is
natural fibre pre-treatment using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to modify the surface of
fibre and a cement-curing accelerator to accelerate the curing of cement which can be
applied to increase the compatibility of natural fibres with cement (Bin et al., 2014;
Karade, 2010). As reported by Asasutjarit et al. (2009), chemical composition
modification and surface modification could increase the mechanical properties of
composites such as modulus of rupture and internal bonding. Apart from that,
Hermawan, Subiyanto, & Kawai (2001) stated that the hydration of cement was
delayed when natural fibre was added. However, the addition of magnesium chloride
(MgCl2) as an accelerator enhanced the cement hydration and ultimate board strength
properties.

On the other hand, the fabrication of Empty Fruit Bunch Cement Board (EFB-
CB) samples needs to take into consideration the main material length which is EFB
fibre. Frybort et al. (2008) ) has classified particles as strands, flakes, chips and fibre
in varying sizes. The cement-bonded boards produced from different particle size and
geometry will have different physical and mechanical properties. The research finding
by Semple & Evans (2004) indicated that the manufactured cement-bonded boards
 3

need larger particle sizes compared to resin bonded panels. In addition, they also
clarified that particles with high slenderness ratio (longer and thinner) will produce
stronger, stiffer and more dimensionally stable boards.

Therefore, this research is focused on identifying the appropriate fibre size that
contributes to the optimum performance of cement boards. This research will also
investigate the potential of EFB in cement composites and its performance when
different percentages of NaOH pre-treatment and chemical additives are used to
enhance its physical and mechanical properties.

1.2 Problem statement

The palm oil industry is one of the most important industries in Malaysia that has
contributed to the economics of agriculture. Malaysia has become the largest producer
and exporter of palm oil products. However, increasing palm oil production has a
negative impact on the environmental. Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB) are a resulting
major waste product of palm oil mills (Sumathi, Chai, & Mohamed, 2008). For each
tonne of Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) processed in the mill, 20-25% are EFBs which are
the residues left behind after palm oil fruit harvest and oil extraction (Abu-bakar et al.,
2011). Therefore, the use of OPEFB in cement board production is seen as a greener
and more beneficial solution for humankind and the environment.

OPEFB is one of fibres belonging to the lignocellulosic family. It consists of

three main components namely, hemicellulose (19%-25%), cellulose (40% - 65%) and
lignin (19%-21%) (Mat Soom et al., 2006; Sreekala & Thomas, 2003). Sudin &
Swamy (2006) stated that EFB fibres contain a wide range of carbohydrates which are
known to inhibit normal settings and strength development of cement matrix. These
aspects will affect the compatibility of cement mixed with EFB fibre hence reducing
the bonding between cement and fibre. The use of OPEFB in cement board production
may be cost-efficient, but the main obstacle for producing OPEFB-cement is the
incompatibility between cement and OPEFB fibre (Bin et al., 2014). Therefore, the
fibre needs to undergo certain compatibility method to overcome this problem.

Previous studies have compared the use of different treatment methods on the
performance of EFB fibre. It has been proven that EFB fibre treated with chemicals
 4

such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was effective in removing residual oil (Hassan &
Badri, 2016). However, research findings about relationship between OPEFB fibre
pre-treatment and cement hydration remain vague. Since the compatibility of OPEFB
with cement needs to be evaluated before fabricating cement-bonded fibreboards,
reducing the inhibitory substance in OPEFB is necessary in order to improve the
compatibility level of OPEFB and cement. In addition, chemical additives can also
improve the performance of cement-bonded fibreboards (Yi et al., 2002). two types of
chemical accelerators were considered for this study namely, calcium chloride (CaCl2)
and magnesium chloride (MgCl2).

Nevertheless, the size distribution of fibre plays an important role as

reinforcement in cement-bonded fibreboard in terms of bending strength (Frybort et
al, 2008). Sotannde et al. (2012) found that the incorporation of heterogeneous particle
size can enhance the bending strength of cement-bonded composites (CB-C) compared
to single particles of larger size. Therefore, the particle size of fibre/wood to be
incorporated in cement board production needs to be identified in order to achieve the
desired physical and mechanical properties. Apart from research attempts in the
manufacturing of Empty Fruit Bunch Cement Boards (EFB-CB), published research
regarding the effects of particle dimension on EFB-CB properties are very limited.
Therefore, it is essential to explore and identify appropriate fibre sizes that contribute
to the optimum properties of cement boards.

1.3 Objective of study

The aim of this research is to study the potential use of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) fibres
in cement-bonded fibreboards. The research tasks can therefore be outlined as follows;

i. To determine the optimum size of EFB fibre in mixture of cement-bonded

fibreboards.
ii. To investigate the correlation between fibre treatment and cement accelerator
on EFB-cement hydration rate, surface morphology examination (SEM),
tensile properties and EFB chemical composition.
iii. To evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of EFB-CB using different
percentages of NaOH treatment and cement accelerators.
 5

1.4 Scope of study

This research primarily focused on laboratory investigation and ways to incorporate

EFB fibre into cement-bonded boards to produce acceptable physical and mechanical
properties. The scope of work for this study is as follows;

i. The scope of research includes two main materials which are cement and oil
palm Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) fibre.
ii. Empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibre was treated using Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
in different concentrations (0.2%, 0.4%, 06%.1%, 2%, 3% and 4%).
iii. Incorporating Untreated (UT) fibre and treated fibre to EFB-CB fabrication
with concentration 0.4%, 1% and 4% for further detail study.
iv. The EFB-CB mixture was added with 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3% and 0.4% of chemical
accelerators, namely Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) and Magnesium Chloride
(MgCl2).
v. The fibre-cement ratio used was 1:3 with an initial water content of 40% of the
system and a target density of 1300 kg/m3.
vi. To produce cement-bonded fibreboards (CBFB) for building materials based
on British Standard specifications.
vii. The EFB-CB samples were prepared at Makmal Fabrikasi Perkayuan FKAAS,
UTHM. The mechanical testing was done at Makmal Bahan FKAAS whereas
the sieve analysis was conducted at Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB),
Bangi.
 2 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Cement-bonded fibreboards were introduced to overcome concrete brittleness as

dispersed fibres play an important role in the concrete reinforcement (Karade, 2007).
The first cement-bonded fibreboard using asbestos was invented by an Austrian
engineer, Ludwig Hatschek (Alleman & Mossman, 1997). Asbestos is commonly used
in the fibreboard industry due to its resistance, high tensile strength and lower cost.
However, the usage of asbestos can lead to health risks among human beings
(Mossman et al., 1990).

To replace asbestos, another inorganic fibre source that can be used to make
fibreboard is glass fibre. Glass fibre is considered better than asbestos in terms of fibre
bonding and the long-term durability of cement boards (Pye, 1979). In order to achieve
cost-effectiveness and sustainability, the usage of glass fibre is not considered
convenient as it is an inorganic material (Suradi et al., 2009). This makes the
biodegradation of this material very difficult.

The application of natural fibres for the production of cement-bonded

fibreboards is better than asbestos and glass fibres since natural fibres are non-
hazardous, renewable and readily available at a relatively low cost due to established
technology for fibre extraction (Kaliwon, Ahmad, & Aziz, 2010). Oil palm fibre
extracted from the EFB is proven as an acceptable natural fibre for composite materials
since Malaysia is one of the world’s largest producer of palm oil and plentiful EFB
 7

waste is available at all plantation mills (Abdullah & Sulaiman, 2013a). Figure 2.1
shows the fresh oil palm empty fruit bunch.

This chapter discusses on fibre length effect for cement composite, the methods
for compatibility enhancement, i.e. (i) pretreatment of EFB fibre, (ii) modification of
cement matrix, and (iii) the combination of the two to the cement board and its
performance in terms of physical and mechanical properties. The results obtained were
later compared with the findings of previous studies.

Figure 2.1: Oil palm empty fruit bunch

2.2 Potential of natural fibre waste as replacement material

Recently, natural fibres have become one of the most widely explored waste material
worldwide due to increasing environmental awareness (Sanjay et al., 2016). It is
important for researchers to study this material due to several features such as its high
performance in terms of mechanical properties, cost effectiveness, lightweight,
availability, renewability, environmental friendliness and degradability (Al-Oqla &
Omari, 2017). Natural waste is one of the potential sources of renewable energy and
reinforcement material in composites. Evidently, natural waste fibre has sparked many
research studies to investigate the use of these fibres to replace man-made fibres
(Dungani et al., 2016). The potential of using natural fibre as a composite material is
highly accepted because it is cheap, sustainable, biodegradable, and its ability to
reduce the emission of carbon dioxide, CO2 (Brandt, 2008).
 8

According to Ali (2012), the utilisation of natural fibre as composites such as

cement paste, mortar and concrete is economical for increasing the specific
performance of physical and mechanical properties. Cement is normally brittle so the
addition of fibre to cement board can improve its properties to reduce the brittleness
of the cement itself (Masi et al., 2015). Ashori, Tabarsa, & Valizadeh (2011) stated
that the advantages of natural fibre in cement include low energy consumption, non-
abrasive nature and low cost. It is also capable of replacing asbestos-based cement
products and is widely available throughout the world.

One of the major characteristics of the forestry and agricultural sector is the
production of large quantities of processing wastes that have no economic value other
than energy generation. Their presence in recent years has created a major disposal
problem since open burning is being discouraged by the Department of Environment
in Malaysia (Abdullah & Sulaiman, 2013a). According to Goh et al. (2010), oil palm
is the main crop in Malaysia with a total plantation area of 4,304,914 hectares. It
produces huge amounts of waste such as dead fronds, Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB),
shells and chopped trunks. Other sources of agricultural waste are indicated in Table
2.1.

Table 2.1: Agricultural waste produced in Malaysia in 2007 (Goh et al., 2010;
Mekhilef et al., 2011)
Waste quantity
Source Agricultural waste
(ktons)
Oil palm FFB Oil palm fronds 46,837
EFB 18,022
Oil palm fibres 11,059
Oil palm shells 4506
Oil palm trunks 10,827
Replanting paddy Paddy straw 880
Rice husk 484
Banana Banana residues 530
Sugarcane Sugarcane bagasse 234
Coconut Coconut husk 171
Pineapple for factories Pineapple waste 48
 9

Tons of oil palm waste had produced during the process such as oil palm frond
and EFB. Since oil palm is a major waste from agricultural industry in Malaysia,
lignocellulosic fibre from oil palm plant offer a good opportunity to replace wood fibre
into cement bonded fibreboard. Among various oil palm fibre sources available, EFB
has the potential to yield up to 73% of fibres and becomes the preferred material for
the bio-composite industry based on its high availability and low cost (Norul et al.,
2012). Hence, EFB fibre were selected as a replacement material in this study.

2.2.1 Natural fibre waste

Natural fibres obtained from vegetables are also known as plant fibres or
lignocellulosic fibre (Monteiro et al., 2011). Cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are
major components of the cell wall in lignocellulosic fibres. Figure 2.2 shows the
distribution of lignocellulose material that exists in common natural fibre. This
composition plays an important role for the reinforcement of the cement matrix after
the natural fibres have been suitably treated and modified (Adekunle, 2015). Natural
fibres are commonly used to enhance the physical and mechanical properties of the
composites but appropriate fibres should be used for a particular purpose depending
on fibre types and characteristics.

Nowadays, researchers are investigating new alternatives of lignocellulose

materials to replace previous fibres that have been widely used in the construction
industry (Sanjay et al., 2016). According to Salit (2014), natural fibre encompasses all
forms of fibres from woody plants, grasses, fruits, agricultural crops, seeds, water
plants, palms, wild plants, leaves, animal feathers, and animal skins. Researchers have
used plant fibres as an alternative source to be used in composites such as cement paste
and concrete to increase its strength properties (Ali, 2012).

Individual cell wall layers of fibre are helically filament-wound composites with
cellulose microfibrils as the filaments are embedded in a matrix of lignin and
hemicellulose (Karade, 2010). Cellulose mainly attempts to overcome the difficulties
of retaining the cement-based composite. Natural fibre extractives or hemicellulose
and lignin have an unfavourable effect on cement. Hemicelluloses are non-crystalline
 10

and alkaline soluble. Therefore, they may dissolve in the cement paste and affect
cement setting (Ashori et al., 2011).

Figure 2.2: A distribution of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in the natural fibre
(Beg et al., 2015)

Natural fibre is defined as a fibrous plant material produced as a result of

photosynthesis. These fibres are sometimes referred to as vegetables, biomass,
photomass, phytomass, agromass, solarmas, or photosynthetic fibres. Plant-based
fibres contain lignocellulose materials such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin that
are suitable for converting composite materials while minimising the waste generated
(Mekhilef et al., 2011). The chemical compositions of agricultural waste fibre are
shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Chemical composition of agricultural waste fibre (Dungani et al., 2016)
Types of fibre Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%)
Oil palm 44.20- 49.60 18.30-33.54 17.30-26.51
Sugarcane 55.60-57.40 23.90-24.50 24.35-26.30
Banana 60.25- 65.21 48.20-59.20 5.55-10.35
Coconut (coir) 36.62-43.21 0.15-0.25 41.23-45.33
Corn stalks 38.33-40.31 25.21-32.22 7.32-21.45
Pineapple 70.55-82.31 18.73-21.90 5.35-12.33
Rice straw 28.42-48.33 23.22-28.45 12.65-16.72
Kenaf 37.50-63.00 15.10-21.40 18.00-24.30
Abaca 69.23-70.64 21.22-21.97 5.15-5.87
Kapok 65.63-69.87 6.66-10.49 5.46-5.63
 11

The structure and properties of natural fibre depend on the species and the parts
of the plants where they originate. Natural fibres have high tensile strength, as shown
in Table 2.3. The tensile strength of natural fibre affects the its performance when it is
incorporated into composite materials. Fibres with higher tensile strength could
increase the properties of cement-based composite materials (Hassan et al., 2010).

Table 2.3: Mechanical properties of natural fibres (Gunawan et al., 2009)

Properties Tensile strength Modulus of
(MPa) elasticity (GPa)
Oil palm EFB 253 16
Bamboo fibre 23 - 35 -
Coir 220 6
Sisal 400 - 600 38
Jute 430 - 530 10 - 30
Hemp 550 - 900 70

2.3 Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB)

Empty fruit bunch (EFB) is one of the major biomass types produced in the Malaysian
oil palm industry which contributes to 85.5% of the total biomass production in
Malaysia. From the 85.71 million tonnes of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) produced in 2009,
an estimated 6.76 million tonnes of dried EFB was generated from oil palm mills
(Sahari, Nuratiqah, & Rao, 2014). Among the various oil palm fibre sources available,
EFB has the potential to yield up to 73% of fibres. Thus, it has become the preferred
material for the biocomposite industry based on its high availability and low cost (Izani
et al. 2012; Sahari et al., 2014). Particularly, the cellulose content and high toughness
of EFBs make it suitable for composite applications (Ng et al. 2013).

An empty fruit bunch refers to the fibrous mass left behind after the separation
the fruits from sterilised fresh fruit bunches (FFB). Compared to other commercially
available fibres, EFB is a unique reinforcing material as it is non-hazardous, renewable
and readily available at a relatively low cost due to established technology which is
used to extract the fibres. To date, only a small percentage of these residues are turned
into useful products and the rest are either left to rot or burn (Ariffin et al. 2008).
 12

Realising the potential of this natural fibre, a number of research studies have
been undertaken in recent years to investigate its characteristics and usage, particularly
in biocomposite applications. Teh et al. (2010) stated that EFB is a bulky and
voluminous brown bunch left at palm oil mills after the removal of sterilised fruit using
a rotary thresher drum. To put the EFB to better use, it is usually pretreated using the
traditional water retting process to extract the fibrous material such as EFB fibres,
followed by a drying process to reduce its moisture content (Kerdsuwan et al. 2011).

2.3.1 EFB physical and morphological structure

Physical characteristics of EFB fibre which include its length, diameter, lumen width,
density and fibril angle are provided in Table 2.4. These physical characteristics of
EFB may result in different physical and mechanical properties of biocomposite
materials (Shinoj et al., 2011). According to Frybort et al. (2008), fibre size can
significantly affect the bonding and stress distribution of cement-bonded composites.
Besides that, Gunawan et al. (2009) stated that fibres with a small diameter are
significantly stronger than those with a large diameter due to the presence of voids
(Figure 2.3) inside the EFB fibre which could weaken its structure.

Table 2.4: Physical characteristics of EFB fibre (Beg et al., 2015)

Properties Values
Fibre length (mm) 0.89–142
Fibre diameter (µm) 8–300
Lumen width (µm) 8
Density (g/cm3) 0.7–1.6
Fibril angle (o) 46
 13

Figure 2.3: SEM image of the cross-section EFB fibre (Gunawan et al., 2009)

According to Law, Daud, & Ghazali (2007), many silica bodies are embedded
on EFB fibre strands as shown in Figure 2.4. They attach to circular craters on the EFB
fibre surface and spread relatively uniformly with a rounded spiky size of 10-15 μm
(Law et al., 2007). The presence of silica and oil residues in EFB fibres may influence
the properties of composites (Omar, Mohammed, & Baharuddin, 2014). As mentioned
by Nascimento et al., (2012), silica bodies embedded on the OPEFB surface contribute
to the strength and rigidity of the fibre. Silica bodies attached to the EFB fibre can
reportedly be removed through chemical treatment to enhance the strength of fibres
(Bahrin et al., 2012).

Silica body Silica body

Cell
wall

OPEFB
surface

Figure 2.4: Surface of OPEFB strand with silica body (Law et al., 2007)
 14

2.3.2 Chemical composition of EFB

Oil palm EFB has high cellulose content which makes it durable and suitable to be
used in composite materials (Sreekala et al., 2004). Fresh EFB usually contains 30.5%
lignocellulose, 2.5 % oil and 67% water (Ramli, Shaler, & Jamaludin, 2002). Chang
(2014) stated that EFB typically comprises of cellulose (23.7-65.0 %), hemicellulose
(20.58-33.52 %) and lignin (14.1-30.45 %). Besides that, the chemical composition of
EFB fibre differs according to age, soil condition, climate and the location of oil palm
(Do et al., 2014), as presented in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5: Chemical composition of oil palm EFB fibre

Author, Year Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin
(%) (%) (%)
Abdullah & Sulaiman, 2013b 57.8 21.2 22.8
Hill & Abdul Khalil, 2000 48 22 25
Law et al., 2007 62.9 28 18.8
Baharuddin et al., 2011 50.3 26.1 18.0
Ramli et al., 2002 45 32.8 20.5

Like many other natural fibres, EFB fibres which naturally occur in composites
consist primarily of rigid, crystalline cellulose microfibrils which are embedded in a
soft, amorphous matrix of hemicellulose and lignin (Hassan et al., 2010). According
to Rozman et al., (2001), oil residue from lignin in EFB fibres may affect the
interaction between fibres and coupling agents. This matter needs to be considered
when EFB fibre is used in cement-bonded fibreboard products.

2.4 Fibre length distribution of cement composite

The effect of fibre length variation incorporated with cement-based composites has
been discussed in previous research (Zuraida et al., 2011 and Asasutjarit et al., 2007).
Fibre length has been shown to affect the physical and mechanical properties of cement
boards as fibre plays an important role as reinforcement in cement-bonded fibreboards
especially in terms of bending strength (Frybort et al, 2008). Asasutjarit et al. (2007)
stated that the use of longer fibres causes the existence of voids thus diminishing the
physical performance of cement composites. On the other hand, Sotannde et al. (2012)
mentioned that cement-bonded particle boards made from heterogeneous particle size
 15

tend to enhance the bending strength of boards compared to those fabricated from
single particles of larger size. Hence, EFB fibre length for cement boards was studied
to obtain the optimum distribution for EFB-CB fabrication.

Table 2.6: Previous study of fibre length/mesh used in cement board

Author, Year Fibre Length / Mesh

Passing 20 Mesh, Retained
Lee et al., 1987 Wood
40 Mesh
Ma et al., 2000 Rice hulls Passing 2 x 2 mm Mesh
20 pass/30 on; 30 pass/50
Hermawan et al., 2001 Oil palm frond on; 50 pass/80 on; 80
pass/100 on; and 100 pass.
Zuraida et al., 2011 Coir fibre 2.5, 5, 10 and 20 mm
Retained 14, 25, and 50
Teixeira, 2012 Wood fibre
Mesh
Wheat straw and
Nazerian & Sadeghiipanah, 2013 Passing 40 Mesh
poplar wood
Onuorah et al., 2015 EFB fibre Retained 4 Mesh
Passing 20 Mesh, Retained
Nasser et al., 2016 Pruning waste
40 Mesh

Table 2.6 shows the distribution size of fibres incorporated into cement-bonded
composites. According to previous studies, various fibre lengths were used in cement
composites. Selection of mesh sives were based on the range of EFB fibre length as
stated in sub-chapter 3.2.2.2. Three different mesh sizes were investigated for EFB-
CB fabrication namely; i) Passing 4 mesh and retained 7 mesh, ii) Passing 7 mesh and
retained 14 mesh, iii) Passing 14 mesh and retained 80 mesh.

2.5 Compatibility of cement and empty fruit bunch (EFB)

The issue of compatibility between natural fibre and cement has been highlighted in
many studies on biocomposites (Kabir et al., 2007). Natural fibres could not be used
directly due to the incompatibility between fibre and cement matrix. The existence of
residual oil interrupts the penetration of binding agents thus affecting the properties of
the final EFB-product (Ibrahim et al., 2015; Hassan & Badri, 2016).
 16

The compatibility EFB fibre and cement is affected by a number of factors.

Pacheco-Torgal & Jalali (2011) mentioned that one of the factors that affect
compatibility is the wide range of carbohydrates present in EFB fibres such as hemi-
cellulose, starch, sugar, tannins and lignin that are known to inhibit normal setting.
The presence of these carbohydrates have been shown to delay the setting time of the
cement matrix by 45 minutes.

2.5.1 EFB – Cement hydration rate

The presence of inhibitory substances such as sugars and starches have been identified
in many previous studies as the main cause of incompatibility between natural fibre
and cement (Bin et al., 2014; Azrieda, 2009). Physical and chemical structures of
natural fibre are exist in EFB fibre. A wide range of carbohydrates such as hemi-
cellulose, sugar, oil and lignin present in fibre are known to inhibit the normal setting
of the cement matrix. However, different types of natural fibre influence the cement
curing/setting time differently (Ashori et al., 2011). Figure 2.5 shows a hydration rate
graph of cement mixed with poplar and eucalypt fibres.

Figure 2.5: Hydration temperature for neat cement and cement containing eucalypt
and poplar wood fibres (Ashori et al., 2011)

The cement hydration temperature is retarded when oil palm frond fibre is
present as indicated in Figure 2.6. Evidently, oil palm fibres cannot be used solely as
the raw material for cement-bonded fibreboards. This is due to its inhibitory effect on
 17

cement hydration due to the inherent extractives of the fibre. Nonetheless, the addition
of MgCl2 as an accelerator could enhance the hydration of the mixture and
significantly increase the compatibility of oil palm frond fibre with Portland cement
(Hermawan et al., 2001). It has been established that utilisation of chemical
accelerators can affect the hydration rate of cement and oil palm mixture.

Figure 2.6: Hydration temperature of cement mixed with fronds using the cement
accelerator MgCI2: a, no MgCI2; b, 5.0% MgCI2; c, 7.5% MgCI2; d, 10.0% MgCI2; e,
15.0% MgCI2; f, neat cement; and g, room temperature (Hermawan et al., 2001)

2.5.2 Method of compatibility improvement

Many researchers carried out a series of tests to improve the compatibility of fibre and
cement by using certain types of treatments (extraction or soaking of fibre particles in
some solutions such as hot water and sodium hydroxide before mixing it with cement).
On the other hand, other studies carried out a series of tests designed to improve the
fibre-cement mixtures through the addition of chemicals such as magnesium chloride
and calcium chloride (Ariffin et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2016).

In order to increase the compatibility between cement and natural fibre, several
methods can be used. The most effective methods that have been used by researchers
so far is the natural fibre pre-treatment and cement-curing accelerator during the
mixing process. Based on a review by Adekunle (2015), there are numerous types of
EFB fibre pre-treatments which can be used to modify the surface of fibre thus
optimising the compatibility between the EFB fibre and cement. Some researchers
 18

categorised the types of treatment available as thermal, physical and chemical

treatment for surface modifications of EFB fibres (Kabir et al., 2007; Ariffin et al.,
2008).

2.5.2.1 Fibre pre-treatment

Different methods were tried by researchers to treat natural fibre in order to enhance
its compatibility with composite materials (Bin et al., 2014). Based on the Table 2.7,
the most common EFB fibre pre-treatment that has been used by other researchers is
chemical treatment using sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

Table 2.7: Previous study on EFB pre-treatment method

Fibre Treatment
No References Product/Study
Type Method

2% NaOH Soaked 30 minutes

(Ramli et al., Medium Density
1
2002) Fibreboard
Water Boiled 30 minutes
-Physical
(Ariffin et al., Enzymatic
2 -Chemical (NaOH) Soaked 4 hours
2008) Hydrolysis
-Thermal
20g in 500ml
(Suradi et al., Soaked 3 hours at
3 Biocomposite Erlenmeyer flask of
2009) temperature 75ºC
distilled water

(Norul Izani et Medium Density 2% NaOH Soaked 30 minutes

4
al., 2013) Fibreboard Water Boiled 30 minutes
(Senawi et al.,
5 Biocomposite 5% NaOH Soaked 2 hours
2013)
Corrugating
(Harsono et al., 121 ℃ for 1, 2 & 3
6 Medium & 0, 1, & 2 % NaOH
2015) hours
Fibreboard
0.2, 0.4, 0.6 & 0.8% of;
(Ibrahim et al.,
7 Oil Content Effect -NaOH Soaked 24 hours
2015)
-Acetic acid
0.2, 0.4, 0.6 & 0.8% of;
(Ibrahim et al., Medium Density
8 -NaOH Soaked 24 hours
2016) Fibreboard
-Acetic acid
(Hassan et al., Reinforced Epoxy
9 2% NaOH Soaked 30 minutes
2016) Composite
10% NaOH Soaked 48 hours
(Hassan &
10 Thermal Behavior Stirred 3 hours (60 – 70
Badri, 2016) 2% H2O2 o
C)
 19

Ndazi et al. (2007) stated that NaOH has the ability to break hydrogen bonding
in the network structure of fibre cellulose which can increase fibre surface roughness.
Referring to the table above, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a reagent that is widely used
for EFB fibre pre-treatments. Chemical treatments can be conducted over a wide range
of operating condition suchs as different concentrations of NaOH and varying soaking
periods of EFB fibre. Studies by Ibrahim et al. (2015) proved that treatment using
NaOH successfully removed silica bodies from fibre strands. The EFB fibre pre-
treatment used in this research is sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in low concentration
(0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%) and high concentrations (1%, 2%, 3% and 4%), soaked for
24 hours.

2.5.2.2 Cement accelerator

The percentages and types of chemical additives on the compatibility of fibre-cement

water mixtures are summarized in Table 2.8. Normally the percentage of chemical
additive that is used lies in the range of 0.5 – 15 % depending on the type of chemical
used. Based on the table, the most suitable type of chemical used as a cement
accelerator is calcium chloride (CaCl2) followed by magnesium chloride (MgCL2).

Table 2.8: Types of chemical additive used as cement accelerator

Chemical Additive (%)
No References Material
MgCL2 A1C13 CaCl2 Al2(SO4)3 Other
Wood (Sugi,
Hinoki), 5, 10, 15
(Ma et al., Kenaf, 5, 10, 5, 10, Na2CO3,
1 - -
2000) Bamboo, Rice 15 15 NaHCO3,
hull, Rice Na2SiO3
Straw
(Sulastiningsih
2 Bamboo 5 - - - -
et al., 2000)
4
(Yi et al.,
3 Wood (Sugi) 4 4 4 4 CaO,
2002)
Na2SiO3
(Hermawan et Oil palm 0, 2.5,
4 - - - -
al., 2002) Frond 5
Bagasse,
(Mohamed,
5 Cotton stalk, - - 3 - -
2004)
Sunt sawdust
2
(Sudin &
6 Bamboo 2 - 2 2 Al2(SO4)3 +
Swamy, 2006)
Na2SiO3
 20

Table 2.8: (Cont’d)

Chemical Additive (%)
No References Material
MgCL2 A1C13 CaCl2 Al2(SO4)3 Other
(Menezzi,
Wood (Pinus
7 Castro, & - - 4 - -
Taeda)
Souza, 2007)
1.5,
(Noor Azrieda 6 forest 1.5,
8 - 2.5, - -
et al., 2009) species 2.5, 3.5
3.5
(A. Ashori,
Tabarsa, & Newsprint
9 - - 3, 5 - -
Valizadeh, paper
2011)
(A. Ashori et
10 Poplar strands - - 3, 7 - -
al., 2012)
Wood
(Sotannde et
11 (Afzelia 2 2 2 - -
al., 2012)
Africana)
(Mahzabin,
3
Hamid, & Wood
12 3 - - - Ca(HCOO)2,
Badaruzzaman, (Kelampayan)
Na2SiO3
2013)
(Hamzeh et al., White Rice
13 - - 5 - -
2013) Husk Ash
4
(Matoski et al., Pinus Wood
14 4 - 4 - Na2SiO3,
2013) Dust
Al2SO4
(Amel et al., 2, 4, 6
15 Kenaf Fibre - 2, 4, 6 2, 4, 6 -
2014) CaO
(Castro et al.,
16 Wood 3 - 3 - -
2015)
(Onuorah et al., Empty fruit
17 - - 1, 2, 3 - -
2015) bunch
Wood (Tree
(Nasser et al.,
18 Pruning 3 - 3 3 -
2016)
Waste)
(Wang et al., 0.5, 1, 0.5, 1, 0.5, 1, 0.5, 1, 0.5, 1, 2.5
19 Waste Wood
2016) 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 FeCl3

Previous studies by Matoski et al. (2013) and Nasser et al. (2016) stated that
the chemical accelerator could affect the hydration settings and compressive strength
of cement-bonded fibreboard. It is widely reported that one of the most commonly
used chemical accelerator for reducing the inhibitory effects of certain wood
constituents on cement hydration is calcium chloride (CaCl2) (Ma et al., 2000;
Onuorah et al., 2015). In addition, previous study expressed the opinion that MgC12
had proved to be an effective accelerator for overcoming the inhibitory effects of sugar
content in fibre (Yi et al., 2002; Hermawan et al., 2001).

Due to the different type of fibre in this study, the optimal percentage of these
two chemical addition need to be found. However, the range of percentage from the
 21

previous finding was considered involve to identify the optimum percentage. It was
thought that optimal hydration with additional cement accelerator content used in this
study will lead to better bonding and thus decrease in inhibitory effect as a main
purpose for this study. Therefore, in order to improve the compatibility of EFB fibre
mix with cement, chemical additives such as calcium chloride (CaCl2) and magnesium
chloride (MgCL2) are added alongside with tap water, fibre and cement with different
levels of concentration in the range of 0.1% - 0.4%.

2.6 Previous research on cement-bonded board properties

Many studies investigating the most suitable natural fibre in place of wood fibre for
cement-bonded boards have been conducted. Physical and mechanical properties such
as bending strength, modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), internal
bonding, thickness swelling, water absorption and screw withdrawal property at edge
have been tested. In this sub topic however, only MOR, MOE, internal bonding and
thickness swelling will be discussed as a requirement by British Standard.

The physical and mechanical properties of cement-bonded boards (CBBs)

made from natural fibre were discussed widely in many publications that support the
application of other natural fibres to be utilised in CBBs. According to Norul Izani et
al., (2013), a lower percentage of hemicellulose in fibre content results in fibreboards
with a higher modulus of elasticity (MOE).

2.6.1 Physical and mechanical properties

Table 2.9 shows the comparison of studies on the physical and mechanical properties
of cement-bonded boards incorporated with different types of natural fibre. Most of
the properties obtained by the researchers met the requirements of the British Standard
(BS EN 634-2:2007). However, the addition of chemical accelerators contributes to
the enhancement of physical and mechanical performance of natural fibre due to the
distinct characteristics of the natural fibre itself.
 22

Table 2.9: Properties of cement-bonded composite boards with various natural fibre
Type of MOR MOE IB
Author, year TS (%) Remarks
2
fibres (N/mm2) (N/mm ) (N/mm2)
Sulastiningsih et
Bamboo 18.56 3581 2.97 2.14 5% of MgCl2
al., 2000
Hermawan et al., Oil palm
23.3 4000 1.1 2.5 7.5% of MgCl2
2001 frond
Aggarwal et al., Arhar
9.42 4120 0.63 0.09 2% of CaCl2
2008 stalks
Ashori et al.,
Poplar 31.5 5900 1.3 - 5% of CaCl2
2011
Ashori et al.,
Eucalypt 19.8 2315 0.8 - 5% of CaCl2
2011
Ghofrani,
Mokaram, Rice stalk
8.6 3600 1.95 2.2 5% of CaCl2
Ashori, & fibre
Torkaman, 2015
Onuorah et al., Empty
15.98 5694 0.75 1.5 3% of CaCl2
2015 fruit bunch
Onuorah et al., Sawmill
18.95 5291 0.78 1.31 3% of CaCl2
2015 Residue
Ogunsile & Musa
8 2953.9 - 7.63 3% of CaCl2
Adepegba, 2015 paradisiaca

The use of empty fruit bunch in CFB has been done by Onuorah et al. (2015)
as state in Table 2.9. However, there were some limitations and arguments pertaining
to EFB fibre pre-treatment and compatibility issues between EFB fibre and cement.
Other findings on CFB products from other countries proved that natural fibres can be
considered for the replacement of wood fibre in terms of physical and mechanical
performance. Most of the research that have been done on different types of fibre met
the requirements by BS EN 634-2:2007 for cement-bonded particle boards. Hence,
these findings could be a benchmark for performing this research.

For this research, the cement-bonded fibreboard produced should meet the
minimum strength requirements; specified properties of OPC bonded particle boards
for use in dry, humid and external conditions by the British Standard (BS EN 634-
 23

2:2007) including modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), internal

bonding (IB) and thickness swelling (TS) as stated in Table 2.10.

Table 2.10: Requirements; specified properties of OPC bonded particle boards

Requirement
Properties Test method
(All thicknesses)
Modulus of Rupture
BS EN 310:1993 9 N/mm2
(MOR)
Modulus of Class 1; 4500 N/mm2
BS EN 310:1993
Elasticity (MOE) Class 2; 4000 N/mm2
Internal Bonding
BS EN 319:1993 0.5 N/mm2
(IB)
Thickness Swelling 1.5 %
BS EN 317:1993
in 24 hours (TS) (From initial thickness)

2.7 Summary

To conclude, this chapter reviewed previous studies on the potential of EFB fibre as a
biocomposite material and CFB production. This chapter elaborated on related
literature through published research work that included the use of other natural fibres
as a replacement material of wood fibre in cement-bonded fibreboard products.
Besides that, evaluation methods and factors affecting the compatibility between
cement and EFB fibre were discussed. The use of EFB fibre in the production of
cement-bonded fibreboards has been found to be viable. However, appropriate
preparation needs to be done to ensure the durability of the cement mix with EFB fibre.
 3 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

In order to meet the objectives of the research, proper methods based on previous
studies should be used. There is a great need to find useful methods where the
properties of Empty Fruit Bunch Cement Board (EFB-CB) can be quantified according
to the standard requirements.

In this chapter, the methods used to test the compatibility of EFB-CB with
different concentrations of chemicals are explained. A detailed overview of the project
including fibre processing, EFB fibre treatment, additional chemical treatment for
EFB-CB, hydration rate test, EFB fibre tensile strength test, surface morphology
examination, EFB fibre chemical composition test and a test to determine the
mechanical properties and physical properties of EFB-CB are discussed. This is
important because careful planning can facilitate statistical expectations of potential
problems that may influence the results at the end of the process. Figure 3.1 shows the
research methodology flowchart of this study.
 25

Figure 3.1: Methodology flow chart

 26

3.2 Material preparation

3.2.1 Ordinary Portland cement

Ordinary Portland cement (BS: 12: 1996) is the most common cement used as the main
binder for cement-bonded fibreboards. Ordinary Portland cement was used as the
binder for this research where it was mixed with water and EFB fibre to form cement-
bonded fibreboards.

3.2.2 EFB fibre

The raw material used in this research is Oil Palm Fibre (OPF) which is obtained from
empty fruit bunches (EFB) from a factory called Global Seed Sdn. Bhd. This factory
is located at Simpang Renggam industrial area, Johor. The fibres were shredded, screw
pressed and compacted into bundles as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: EFB fibre obtained from Global Seed Sdn. Bhd.
 27

3.2.2.1 Hammer mill process

EFB fibre from the oil palm mill had an average length between 50mm to 200mm. The
fibrous form of EFB fibre made it difficult for it to bond with cement. Hence, the
hammer mill process must be carried out to reduce the fibrous fibre to chip particles.
In terms of material preparation, the EFB fibres should ideally be reduced to chip
particles in a hammer mill as suggested by other researchers (Onuorah et al., 2015).
Hammer mills could reduce the particle size of EFB fibre through shear and impact
actions. Figure 3.3 shows the hammer mill used for grinding OPEFB fibres. The
strands fibres produced are shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.3: Grinding machine

Figure 3.4: Fibre strands

 28

3.2.2.2 Screening process

The main purpose of this process is to isolate dust that could affect the quality of the
cement board. Sample grinds were placed on top of a stack of sieves arranged from the
largest to the smallest opening. The grinded EFB fibres were screened with size
distributions of 20.5% passing 4 mesh and retained 7 mesh, 33.8% passing 7 mesh and
retained 14 mesh, 35.3% passing 14 mesh and retained 80 mesh and the remainder for
the next 10.4% represented dust passing through 80 mesh (nominal openings of 4.76
mm (4 mesh), 2.83 mm (7 mesh), 1.41 mm (14 mesh) and 0.177 mm (80 mesh). Table
3.1 and Figure 3.5 shows the range of fibre length and fibre length distribution
respectively. The screening process was done by using a sieve machine at the
Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), Bangi, as shown in Figure 3.6.

Table 3.1: The range of EFB fibre lengths according to mesh size
EFB Fibre Length (mm)
Passing 4 Mesh Passing 7 mesh Passing 14 Mesh
Retain 7 mesh (R7M) Retain 14 Mesh (R14M) Retain 80 Mesh (R80M)
15.9 mm to 30.85 mm 8.88 mm to 16.55 mm 2.15 mm to 9.67 mm

Figure 3.5: EFB fibre length after the screening process

 29

Figure 3.6: Screening process

3.2.2.3 Pre-treatment stage

The pre-treatment stage is the stage where material preparation is done before the EFB-
CB is produced. The raw fibres are washed under running water in order to eliminate
any unwanted particles or any fungus retained on the fibre. In this study, the pre-
treatment method using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in different concentrations was
selected as discussed in Chapter 2.

The chemical treatment is a process where the fibre is soaked with sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) for 24 hours (Ibrahim et al., 2016) to remove inhibitory substances
and oil residues in the fibre that could affect the hydration of cement. After being
soaked in the NaOH solution, the fibres were washed several times with tap water to
remove excess NaOH from the fibre surface until the water no longer shows any
alkalinity checked by using PH meter tester. The fibre was dried to maintain 10-15%
of fibre moisture to prevent fungal attacks (Menezzi et al., 2007). The moisture content
of EFB was maintained during the drying process and calculated based on Equation
3.1.
 30

Mn = ((Ww -Wd) / Ww) x 100 (3.1)

where;

Mn = moisture content (%)

Ww = wet weight of EFB fibre
Wd = weight of the EFB fibre after drying.

In this research, different concentrations of NaOH were added to determine the

optimum amount of NaOH that can be used for the fabrication of EFB cement boards.

Figure 3.7: EFB fibre is soaked in Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) for 24 hours

3.2.3 Chemical additive

Chemical additives are materials in the form of powder that are added to the cement
mixture to increase the hydration time of the cement matrix. As discussed in chapter
2, the highest ranked chemicals used by researchers in the fabrication of cement-
bonded fibreboards are calcium chloride (CaCl2) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2). In
this study, a chemical concentration of 0.1% - 0.4% by mass of cement was added to
EFB-cement at the time of mixing.
 31

(a) (b)
Figure 3.8: (a) Magnesium chloride (MgCl2), (b) Calcium chloride (CaCl2)

3.3 Cement boards sampling design mix

Mix design is defined as the process of selecting appropriate materials for cement-
bonded fibreboards and determining their relative quantities with the purpose of
producing an economical product which has certain properties, notably workability
and strength. In order to obtain a satisfactory mix composition for cement-bonded
fibreboards, trial mixes are necessary. It is required to make adjustments to the mix
proportion until a satisfactory mix is obtained. To achieve high strength with low
density as well as the carbonation of cement board, mix proportion plays a significant
role. The water ratio and fibre-cement ratio can influence the strength and density of
cement boards. EFB-CB panels measure 400mm x 400mm with a target thickness of
12 mm. In order to achieve the objectives, the sampling of cement boards consists of
two parts. Part 1 explores the role of EFB fibre length while part 2 evaluates the
influence of fibre treatments and cement accelerators on the sample cement boards.

According to British Standard, the allowable thickness for unsanded cement-

bonded particle board is 12 mm ≤ t < 15 mm (± 1 mm) whereas the minimum allowable
density 1000 kg/m3 (BS EN 634-2:2007). For this study, the fibre-cement ratio is 1:3,
a target density of 1300 kg/m3 and water content of 40% were selected based on the
preliminary lab work as shown in Table 3.2 and Table 3.3. Preliminary data was done
to get the optimum density, fibre-cement ratio and water content for fibreboard
 32

sampling. Minimum allowable density of 1000 kg/m3 were based on British Standard
while maximum density of 1300 kg/m3 were suggested by Karade (2010). Fibre
cement ratio and water content for preliminary data were selected based on previous
research on fibreboard sampling (Karade, 2010; Onuorah et al., 2015).

Table 3.2: Preliminary data for EFB-Cement ratio and density

Fibre-cement ratio Density MOE MOR IB TS
1000 784 1.94 0.02 4.43
1100 934 2.66 0.02 4.01
1:2
1200 1079 2.78 0.04 3.16
1300 1255 2.65 0.04 3.36
1000 1232 2.54 0.05 2.60
1100 1502 3.80 0.09 3.10
1:2.5
1200 2239 4.10 0.16 2.35
1300 2432 4.70 0.25 2.79
1000 1533 3.00 0.08 1.81
1100 2298 4.40 0.15 1.91
1:3
1200 2847 5.48 0.23 1.70
1300 3358 6.13 0.34 1.62

Table 3.3: Preliminary data for water content

Water content (%) MOE MOR IB TS
35% 3042 5.59 0.31 1.67
40% 3365 6.62 0.33 1.53
45% 3233 6.56 0.31 1.58
50% 2359 4.89 0.29 1.85

3.3.1 Calculation of EFB-Cement-Water content

The weight of EFB-cement-water used was based on the series of trial mixes that have
been done during the preliminary stage. The calculation was initially based on the
targeted dry density of EFB-CB. The sample calculation is as follows;
 33

Targeted EFB-CB dry density (oven dry) = 1300 Kg/m3

Sample size = 400 × 400 mm
Sample thickness =12 mm
Volume of sample = 0.4 × 0.4 × 0.012 = 1.92 × 10-3 m3
Dry weight of sample (oven-dry) = 1300 × 1.92 x 10-3 = 2.5 Kg
Oven-dry weight for EFB: Cement (1:3) = 3x + x = 2.5
x = 0.624 Kg ≈ 624 g

Sun-dried EFB fibre contains 10 - 15% moisture content (MC). Therefore, the weight
of EFB and cement is computed as follows;

(I) Oven dried (OD) EFB for 1 x Cement = 1 × 624 g = 624g,

If air dried (AD) = 624 g + 15% MC = 624 + (15/100 × 624) = 717.6 g
By considering a 5% loss during mixing and fabrication process, therefore
5
OD = 624 g + (100 × 624) = 655.2 g
5
AD = 717.6 g + (100 × 717.6) = 753.48 g

(II) Assuming oven dried cement is equal to air dried, therefore cement weight × 3
= 624 × 3 = 1872 g
By considering a 5% loss during the mixing and fabrication process, therefore
5
1872 + (100 × 1872) = 1965.6 g

(III) Total weight based on air dried was, Σ AD = IAD + II = 2719.1 g

(IV) Total weight based on oven dried was, Σ OD = IOD + II = 2620.8 g

The initial water content was found to be optimum (preliminary analysis) at 40% for
the system. Therefore, a corrected amount of water was added to the mixture and
calculated as follows;

AD40% −OD
=( ) × 100 = 40
OD

AD40% = 0.4OD + OD
AD40% = 3669.12 g

Corrected amount of water added;

= AD40% - AD = 3669.12 – 2719.1 = 950 g
 34

Therefore, from the calculation, the composition of EFB-cement was 1:3 with an initial
water content of 40% as summarised below;
EFB (g) = 753.48, Cement (g) = 1965.6, water (g) = 950

3.3.2 EFB-CB mix design for different EFB fibre lengths

EFB fibres of different lengths were used in this study to establish the findings on the
effect of varying fibre lengths on the properties of cement boards. The idea of mixing
the fibre of various lengths to optimise mechanical performance was based on the
function of short fibres and long fibres as fillers and reinforcement respectively. The
role of short fibres can be illustrated through the concept of concrete where the strength
of concrete could be increased by reducing the stress concentration caused by coarse
aggregates with the inclusion of smaller aggregates (Frybort et al., 2008).

The panel samples were prepared to identify the effect of EFB fibre size against
the mechanical performance of EFB-CB with the following classification of fibre size:
1) passing 4 mesh and retained on 7 mesh (R7M), 2) passing 7 mesh and retained on
14 mesh (R14M) and 3) passing 14 mesh and retained on 80 mesh (R80M) (nominal
openings of 6.63 mm, 5.66 mm, 1.41 mm and 0.177 mm respectively). There were 5
panel boards specimen for each mix design with a total of 45 samples which were
tested for the physical and mechanical properties as shown in Table 3.4. The specimen
were labelled with Sample A (SA), Sample (SB), Sample C (SC), Sample D (SD) and
Sample E (SE). Meanwhile, Table 3.5 shows the distribution of samples labelled with
different percentages of EFB fibre size.

Table 3.4: Mix design for EFB-CB samples with various fibre sizes
Part 1(Based on different fibre size)
Screening Mesh Size
Passing 4 Mesh Passing 7 mesh Passing 14 Mesh
Retain 7 Mesh Retain 14 Mesh Retain 80 Mesh (R80M)
(R7M) (R14M)

*5 *5 *5
Part 2 (Based on different percentage of size)
SA SB SC SD SE
*5 *5 *5 *5 *5
Notes; *5 specimens
 35

Table 3.5: Label of samples with different percentage of EFB fibre size

Sieve size

Label 7 mesh 14 Mesh 80 Mesh

R7M 100% 0 0
R14M 0 100% 0
R80M 0 0 100%
SA 5% 15% 80%
SB 15% 25% 60%
SC 25% 35% 40%
SD 35% 45% 20%
SE 45% 55% 0

3.3.3 EFB-CB design mix for fibre treatment and cement accelerator

The mix design of cement board panels with different percentage of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) treatment and cement accelerator consist of 5 samples for each mix with a
total of 180 samples overall. The EFB fibre length used for this mix was based on the
results discussed in Chapter 4 which is the combination of different EFB fibre length
retained on 7 mesh, 14 mesh and 80 mesh with a distribution of 35%, 45% and 20%
respectively. A fibre-cement ratio of 1:3, a target density of 1300 kg/m3 and 40% of
water content were applied based on the preliminary data. Table 3.6 shows the mix
design of EFB-CB samples treated with different concentrations of NaOH and cement
accelerators.

The concentrations of NaOH and cement accelerators (MgCl2 and CaCl2) used
for the cement board fabrication were chosen based on the discussion in chapter 5.
EFB fibre was treated with 0.4%, 1% and 4% of NaOH for EFB-CB fabrication. The
addition of two types of accelerators with concentrations ranging between 0.1% - 0.4%
were applied to the material mixture.
 36

Table 3.6: Mix design for EFB-CB samples with different concentrations of NaOH
and cement accelerators
NaoH 0%
0.4% 1% 4%
Percentage (Untreated)
Control 0% *5 *5 *5 *5
0.1% *5 *5 *5 *5
0.2% *5 *5 *5 *5
MgCl2
0.3% *5 *5 *5 *5
0.4% *5 *5 *5 *5
0.1% *5 *5 *5 *5
0.2% *5 *5 *5 *5
CaCl2
0.3% *5 *5 *5 *5
0.4% *5 *5 *5 *5
Notes; *5 specimens

3.4 Experimental tests

This section explains the experimental tests on EFB-CB. The experimental tests
consisted of the hydration rate test, surface morphology examination, chemical
composition and tensile strength test for single fibre. The correlation of the hydration
rate and surface morphology examination was used to determine the suitable range of
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) and cement accelerators which can be used for EFB-CB
sampling. The chemical composition and tensile strength of individual EFB fibres was
to support the physical and mechanical properties of the cement board samples.

3.4.1 Heat of hydration

The compatibility test has been done by previous researchers in order to determine the
effect of EFB fibre treated with NaOH in different concentrations on the hydration rate
of cement. This test is essential as it can determine the amount of NaOH that can be
used for EFB fibre treatment as well as the correlation between change of surface
morphology and the rate of EFB fibre-cement hydration. The heat of hydration
designed for this research was based on the method used by previous researchers such
as Ashori et al. (2011), Hermawan et al. (2001) and Azrieda et al. (2009). The
 37

experimental tests for the rate of hydration samples are shown in the Table 3.7. The
control sample consists of cement (OPC type 1) and a mixture of untreated EFB fibre
with cement.

Table 3.7: Hydration test sample preparation

Part 1 (Based on different concentration of NaOH)
Percentage of NaOH

0.2% 0.4% 0.6% 0.8% 1% 2% 3% 4%

Part 2 (Based on different concentration of cement accelerator)

NaOH Concentration Untreated 0.4% 1% 4%
0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%
Cement Accelerator 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%
(MgCl2 & CaCl2) 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%
0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4%

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) was used in this test. 250 grams of Portland
cement was mixed with 20 grams of fine EFB fibre and later added with 114 mL of
water. The water used for this test was fixed at 0.4mL/g of the cement weight plus
0.7mL/g of EFB fibre weight (oven dried). The hydration procedure is depicted in
Figure 3.9. The mixture was stirred for 2 minutes in polystyrene cup. For the next
batch of samples, additional cement accelerators of 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3% and 0.4% were
added based on cement weight. After mixing, thermal couple (type T) was immediately
inserted approximately into the core of the EFB fibre-cement mixture and connected
to the data logger (Midi Logger Graphtec GL220). The mixture was then placed in the
thermos flask. All the experiments were conducted at ambient room temperature and
the data was measured for 24 hours.
 38

Material weighted Stirred for 2 minutes

Data logger recorded Setup in the thermos flask

Figure 3.9: Hydration test procedure

3.4.2 Surface morphology examination

The change of surface properties of EFB fibre due to NaOH treatment was observed
using a ZEISS Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) as shown in Figure 3.10. SEM
is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning it with
a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample,
producing various signals that contain information about the sample's surface
topography and composition. SEM provides an excellent technique for the
examination of surface morphology and fractured surface of fiber composites.

The surface morphology examination was conducted using SEM observation

with magnifications ranging between 200x to 500x to obtain a better view of the
surface characteristics. This helps to provide a deeper understanding of the effects of
various concentrations of NaOH on the EFB fibre. According to Ibrahim et al. (2015)
and Sreekala & Thomas (2003), the use of magnifications ranging from 200x to 500x
during SEM is appropriate for the observation of the changes to the EFB fibre surface
morphology after the pre-treatment. In this study, the surface morphology of EFB fibre
was observed for untreated and treated fibre and EFB-CB samples.
 39

Figure 3.10: ZEISS Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

3.4.3 EFB fibre tensile strength

A single fibre tensile test was conducted based on the ASTM standard (ASTM D3379).
Single fibre tensile tests have been performed in previous research (Ilankeeran,
Mohite, & Kamle, 2012; Sia et al., 2014). This test method covers the preparation,
mounting, and testing of single fibres (obtained from an EFB fibre bundle) for the
determination of tensile strength. It is also to investigate the workability of tensile
strength of untreated EFB fibre treated with different concentrations of NaOH (0.4%,
1% and 4%). The concentration of NaOH were selected based on discussion in Section
3.7. EFB fibre samples used for the tensile strength test are shown in Figure 3.11.

i ii iii iv

Figure 3.11: (i) Untreated fibre, (ii) 0.4% NaOH, (iii) 1% NaOH, (iv) 4% NaOH
 40

A single fibre was attached to a cardboard frame shown in Figure 3.12. The
Instron Universal Testing Machine with a 10 kN load-cell was used to determine the
tensile strength, Young’s modulus and elongation when the specimen breaks. The
procedures for determining single fibre tensile strength are described below;

i. A mounting tab may be used for specimen mounting. Center the test
specimen over the tab using the printed pattern with one end taped to the
tab.
ii. Tape the opposite end of the test specimen to the tab exercising cares to
prevent fibre twisting. It has been found that the tensile strength of fibres
decreases significantly with increasing torsional strain.
iii. Carefully place a small amount of suitable adhesive (epoxy) at the marks
on the mounting tab that define the gage length, and bond the fibre to the
mounting tab.
iv. The mounting tabs are gripped or connected to the load train so that the test
specimen is aligned axially along the line of action of the test machine as
shows in the Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.12: Schematic sketch of the experimental setup for the tensile test.
 41

Figure 3.13: Position of the EFB fibre sample for the tensile test

3.4.4 Chemical composition analysis

The untreated and treated EFB fibres treated with 0.4%, 1% and 4% of NaOH were
prepared and analysed in terms of chemical composition. The chemical analysis was
done at the Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development Institute (MARDI). The
formulas used to calculate the chemical composition of natural fibre are as follows;

𝑊3− 𝑊4
Lignin = % ADL = × 100
𝑊𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

Cellulose = ADF – Lignin

Hemicellulose = NDF – ADF

Where;
ADL = Acid Detergent Lignin
ADF = Acid Detergent Fibre
NDF = Neutral Detergent Fibre
 42

3.5 Fabricating stage

This section describes the fabrication of Empty Fruit Bunch Cement Board (EFB-CB)
as recommended by previous researchers (Alpár & Rácz, 2009; Ashori et al., 2012;
Ghofrani et al., 2015; Ma et al., 2000; Menezzi et al., 2007; Onuorah et al., 2015). The
process is illustrated in Figure 3.14 and Figure 3.15. Cement and water in certain ratios
were used as the binder to form EFB-CB which was later pressed with a cold-press
machine at the Timber Laboratory, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.

Cement, fibre and

Materials weighing water mixing

Spreading the mix Addition of

into mould chemical accelerator

Compacting the
Hot curing for 24
mould with cold-
hours at 60oC
press machine

28 days air curing

Figure 3.14: Fabricating sequences

 43

Figure 3.15: The fabricating process

3.5.1 Mixing the material

Mixer or blenders are used to mix EFB fibre, cement and tap water, with the addition
of chemical accelerators in different concentrations as discussed in chapter 2. Raw
materials were placed in a mixer and blended for 5 minutes. A diluted aqueous solution
of CaCl2/MgCl2 and water were later added. The paste was mixed for another 5
minutes to obtain a homogenous mix. The total duration was 10 minutes as
recommended by Ghofrani et al. (2015). The mixture were uniformly blended and then
 44

immediately transferred to a wooden mould measuring 400 x 400 mm2. The mixer
machine used for this research is shown in Figure 3.16.

Figure 3.16: Mixer machine

3.5.2 Moulding Process

The mixed cement and fibre needs to spread into the mould before being compacted
with a cold press machine as mentioned by Ashori et al. (2012). The mixture was
evenly spread into a wooden mould and flattened by hand to produce a cement board
sample. Figure 3.17 shows the sequence of the moulding process where the mixed
material was spread and flattened by hand into a wooden mould measuring 400 mm x
400 mm on a 450 mm x 450 mm reinforced steel plate. A plate of plywood was placed
on top of the mat to pre-compact the mat. The wooden mould was then removed before
placing the steel mould on top of the mat that was covered with a polythene sheet (top
and bottom) to replace the plywood. Steel moulds were used in this research to clamp
the mixture and obtain the target thickness.
 45

▪ The mixed material was spread into a

wooden mould and flattened by hand.

▪ Plate of plywood used to pre-formed

the mats.

▪ Pre-formed mats were covered

with polythene sheet.

▪ Steel plate was placed on

top of pre-formed mats.

Figure 3.17: The moulding process of EFB-CB

3.5.3 Cold-press compacting

The compacting procedure of the mixture was based on a previous study by Alpár &
Rácz (2009). The steel mould containing the mixed material was pressed at a specific
pressure of 40 tonnes via a hydraulic cold-press machine to reduce its height. A
hydraulic cold-pressed machine is a device which uses hydraulic cylinders to generate
a compressive force. The moulds were compressed under high pressure until cement
boards/samples with a target thickness of 12 mm are formed. A spacer with a thickness
of 12mm was placed between the steel moulds before the compaction of the mixed
 46

material as shown in Figure 3.18. The pressed mats were kept under compression for
24 hours by bolting the two steel moulds together. After 24 hours, the boards were de-
clamped, stacked horizontally and cured for 28 days.

12 mm

Figure 3.18: Steel Spacer

Figure 3.19: The mould has been placed at cold-press machine

 47

3.5.4 Curing

Curing methods for cement-bonded fibreboards were discussed in a number of

previous studies (Ghofrani et al., 2015; Hermawan et al., 2001; Onuorah et al., 2015).
The curing process involves two steps which are hot curing and air curing. The pressed
mats were placed in an oven for 24 hours to accelerate the hydration time of the
mixture as shown in Figure 3.20. The temperature was 60℃ (Hermawan et al., 2001)
which was controlled by a digital precision 47 thermoregulatory-indicator.

Figure 3.20: The pressed mats placed in the oven for 24 hours at 60oC.

The pressed samples were demoulded after 24 hours and subjected to 28 days
of air curing under standard climate conditions of 25 ± 2°C and a relative humidity of
65 ± 2% (Alpár & Rácz, 2009; Ghofrani et al., 2015; Onuorah et al., 2015). Air curing
is a process which maintains satisfactory moisture content and a reasonable
temperature range. All sample panels were arranged at the provided place as shown in
Figure 3.21.
 48

Figure 3.21: The EFB-cement board samples placed at the provided place for 28 days
air curing

3.6 Properties of EFB-cement bonded board

A sample test was performed to obtain the properties of specific cement board samples.
The laboratory tests that were carried out to determine the physical and mechanical
performance of EFB–CB included Modulus of Rupture (MOR), Modulus of Elasticity
(MOE), Internal Bonding (IB) and Thickness Swelling (TS). Samples of EFB-cement
bonded fibreboards were cut as shown in Figure 3.22 as guided by the Malaysian
Standard specification (MS 934 1984) and British Standard (BS EN 326).

Figure 3.22: Cutting dimension of EFB-CB samples

 49

3.6.1 Mechanical properties

After the curing process, the test samples were cut to determine the mechanical
properties namely, the modulus of rupture (MOR) and the modulus of elasticity (MOE)
according to BS EN 310 – 1993. The MOR and MOE values can be obtained by
performing the static bending test. At the same time, the test is able to determine the
maximum load that could be applied to the midpoint of the test specimen which is
simply supported.

3.6.1.1 Modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR)

After curing, the test samples were cut and their mechanical properties (MOE and
MOR) were determined according to BS EN 326. A static bending test was performed
to obtain the MOR and MOE values. This test was done to determine the maximum
load that could be applied to the midpoint of the test specimen which is simply
supported. The specimens measured 300 mm x 50 mm x 12 mm (BS EN326-1-1994).
Figure 3.23 shows the arrangement of the bending apparatus for the MOR and MOE
tests.

Figure 3.23: Arrangement of the bending apparatus (BS EN 310-1993)

 50

The MOR and MOE are calculated based on Equation 3.2 and Equation 3.3
respectively.

3𝑊𝐿
𝑀𝑂𝑅 = (3.2)
2𝑏𝑡 2

where,
W = Peak/maximum Load (N)
L = Distance between center of support (mm)
a = Thickness of test piece (mm)
b = Width of test piece (mm)

𝐿2 ∆𝑤
𝑀𝑂𝐸 = (3.3)
4𝑏𝑡 3 ∆𝑆

where,
∆W = Increment load in Newton (N)
∆𝑆 = Increment of deflection at midpoint corresponding to ∆𝑊
L = distance between center of support in millimeter (mm)
B = width of test piece (mm)
t = thickness of test piece (mm)

3.6.1.2 Internal bonding

The internal bonding (IB) test is used to test the strength of the bonding formed
between cement and EFB fibre. A steel block is glued to the sample and used to hold
the sample in the test machine. The test machine then pulls the sample at a uniform
rate of motion depending on the thickness of the sample. The test continues until the
sample fails.

This test is carried out to obtain the maximum load on the sample before it
breaks. The better the bond between the glue and the fibre strands, the higher the
strength of the board. The Universal Testing Machine (UTM Instron) and BS EN 319-
 51

1993 standard were used in this test as shown in Figure 3.24. The equation used to
calculate the Internal Bonding (IB) is the following;

𝑃
𝐼𝐵 = (3.4)
𝑤 ×𝑙

where,
IB = Internal Bonding (N/𝑚𝑚2 )
P = Peak Load or Maximum Load (N)
w = width (mm)
l = length (mm)

Figure 3.24: Arrangement of the internal bonding apparatus

 52

3.6.2 Physical properties

3.6.2.1 Thickness swelling

The thickness swelling (TS) test was used to measure the water absorption of the EFB
cement board after a curing period of 28 days. The method used for this test is
according to the BS EN 317 standard. The sample dimension should be square with a
side length of 50 ± 1mm (height x width). The samples were immersed in still water
with a pH of 7 ± 1 for 24 hours as shown in Figure 3.25 and conditioned to constant
mass in an atmosphere with a mean relative humidity of 65 ± 5% and a temperature of
20 ± 2°C.

The thickness of the EFB-CB samples before being immersed in water was
recorded. The thickness of the sample was measured using a digital micrometer after
it was soaked in water as shown in Figure 3.26. The thickness will increase as the
sample absorbs the water. The natural fiber is characterised as hydrophilic which refers
to its high tendency to absorb water. The equation used to calculate TS is; -

𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑇𝑆 = × 100% (3.5)
𝑡1

Where,
t1 = Thickness of the test piece before immersion, in millimetres
t 2 = Thickness of the test piece after immersion, in millimetres.

Figure 3.25: Samples immersed in water for 24 hours

 53

Figure 3.26: Thickness of the sample was measured by using a digital micrometer

3.7 Selection criteria of EFB pre-treatment using Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

The selection criteria for EFB pre-treatment using Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) are
presented in Table 3.8. The percentages of NaOH pre-treatment were selected based
on 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6% and 0.8% (Ibrahim et al., 2015) and extended concentration of
1%, 2%, 3% and 4% to understand the further effect on EFB-CB.

The types of pre-treatment were divided into four categories namely, Untreated
(UT) and three groups of NaOH concentration according to the similarity of the surface
morphology examination and the maximum temperature (Tmax) of hydration. The
hydration rate of EFB fibre mixed with cement slightly increases with the increment
of NaOH concentration during the pre-treatment. A higher concentration of NaOH also
results in a reduction of silica bodies on the EFB fibre surface.

The results can be categorized into three groups according to their graph
variation that shows a minimum differentiation of temperature between each other.
The 1st group is EFB fibre treated with NaOH at 0.2% and 0.4% that reached maximum
temperature (Tmax) at 38.9°C and 39.2°C respectively at time taken (tmax) 8 hours. The
2nd group was the fibre treated with 0.6%, 0.8% and 1% with the range temperature
 54

from 40.4°C to 40.6°C at the time to hit the maximum temperature from 7.5 to 8 hours.
The 3rd group for the EFB fibre treated with 2%, 3% and 4% of NaOH. The maximum
temperature obtained from this group were 41.2°C to 41.5°C at 7 to 8 hours.

Large amounts of silica bodies attached to the fibre surface inhibit the
hydration of the EFB-cement mixture as shown on untreated fibre. Thus, the pre-
treatment of EFB fibre significantly removes a certain amount of silica bodies and
increases the workability of the fibre. NaOH concentrations of 0.2% and 0.4% reduces
the amount of silica bodies and increases the hydration temperature (T max) of the
mixture. The same results were obtained by the 2nd group of NaOH concentration
(0.6%, 0.8% and 1%) and the 3rd group of NaOH concentration (2%, 3% and 4%). As
mentioned earlier, all the categories resulted in a similar SEM and small differences in
Tmax. Hence, untreated fibre and highest concentration for each group (0.4%, 1% and
4%) was selected to be used as an NaOH concentration of EFB fibre pre-treatment. It
can be concluded that, the preparation of EFB fibre material can be use on untreated
fibre (control sample), 0.4%, 1% and 4% concentration of NaOH treatment as shows
in the Figure 3.27.

Table 3.8: Tabulation of the effects of NaOH concentrations on hydration and

surface morphology
NaOH Tmax tmax Surface morphology (SEM)

2
Untreated 30.5°C
Hours

Untreated

1st Group;
38.9°C
8
0.2 % and
Hours
39.2°C
0.4 %

0.2% 0.4%
 55

Table 3.8: (Cont’d)

NaOH Tmax tmax Surface morphology (SEM)

2nd Group;
40.4°C
0.6 % 7.5 – 8 0.6% 0.8%
to
0.8 % Hours
40.6°C
1%

1%

3rd Group;

41.2°C
2% 8 2% 3%
to
3% Hours
41.5°C
4%

4%
 56

Completely removed
3rd Group
45 silica body

NC
43
UT
Partly removed
41
2nd Group silica body 0.2%

39 0.4%
Temperature (oC)

0.6%
37
1st Group 0.8%
Partially removed
35
1%
silica body
33 2%

Untreated Fully embedded 3%

31
with silica body 4%
29 ambient

27

25
0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Duration (H)

Figure 3.27: Hydration temperature of Neat Cement (NC), Cement-EFB Fibre (Untreated fibre (UT), 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 2%, 3% and
4% of NaOH Treatment)
 4 CHAPTER 4

EFB FIBRE LENGTH

4.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the effectiveness of Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) fibre length on
the physical and mechanical performance of EFB Cement Boards (EFB-CB). EFB
fibre of various length were used to determine the suitable range of fibre length for
EFB-CB fabrication. As mentioned by Zuraida et al., (2011), fibre geometry has a
significant effect on the physical and mechanical properties of cement-based
composites.

4.2 Effect of EFB-CB with various fibre geometry on density and thickness

Samples of various fibre lengths were prepared to evaluate the properties of fibre
geometry after thickness and density were assessed. The designed thickness of the
EFB-CB sample is 12 mm while the designed density is 1300 kg/m3. According to
British Standard (BS EN 634-1:1995), the allowable thickness for unsanded cement-
bonded particle board is 12 mm ≤ t < 15 mm (± 1 mm) whereas the minimum allowable
density 1000 kg/m3 (BS EN 634-2:2007). Figure 4.1 shows the effects of different
fibre lengths on density and thickness measured after a curing period of 28 days. By
referring to the graph in Figure 4.1, it is clear that the increasing thickness of EFB-CB
results in lower density of the specimens.
 58

From the Figure 4.1, the lowest density of 1217 kg/m3 belongs to sample R7M
with a thickness of 13.87 mm which exceeded the allowable thickness set by the
British Standard. Cement board specimens with longer EFB fibres tend to ball up thus
increased the thickness of cement board. This finding supported by Zuraida et al.
(2011) which mention that ball up fibre resulting in low workability and decline in
strength. It also reduces the density of the cement board. Similar results were reported
by previous research (Asasutjarit et al., 2007) where it was found that the incorporation
of long fibres into cement boards diminished its workability and increased the void
space. Zuraida et al. (2011) stated that shorter fibre increased the physical performance
of cement boards.

Hence, it can be concluded that different fibre lengths could affect the physical
and mechanical performance of cement boards. Since limited references are available
on the effects of different fibre lengths on cement boards, this study will investigate
the most effective mixture of EFB fibre length and cement board in order to obtain
high performance in terms of physical and mechanical properties. Further
experimental laboratory work was done in for different length of fibre in order to get
the optimum mechanical and physical properties for the EFB-CB.

1340

1320
R7M
1300 R14M
Density (Kg/m3)

1280 R80M
SA
1260
SB
1240 SC
SD
1220
SE
1200
12.0 12.2 12.4 12.6 12.8 13.0 13.2 13.4 13.6 13.8 14.0

Thickness (mm)

Figure 4.1: Effects of different fibre lengths on density and thickness

 59

4.3 Physical and mechanical properties of EFB-CB fabricated with various

EFB fibre lengths

All three graphs present the mechanical and physical properties of cement fibreboards
based on standard requirements namely, BS EN 310, BS EN 319 (section 2.4) and BS
EN 317:1993.

4.3.1 Mechanical properties

Twenty-eight days after being fabricated according to the procedures described in

Chapter 3, the EFB-CB samples were tested for mechanical properties. The results
indicated that the mechanical performance was significantly influenced by the fibre
length incorporated in the composite. It is clear that the flexural behaviour of EFB-
CB made of the shortest EFB fibre (R80M) was very low (2068 N/mm2 in MOE, 4.40
N/mm2 in MOR and 0.056 N/mm2 in IB) compared to those fabricated using longer
EFB-CB fibres such as R14M and R7M as shown in Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3. The
author attributed this mainly to several factors. The surface area of shorter fibres is
larger than that of longer fibres, thus a higher binder (OPC) volume is needed to
optimise the cement setting, eventually creating a stronger bonding between the fibre
as claimed by earlier research (Li, Shupe, & Hse 2004; Semple & Evans 2004). The
best performance in terms of mechanical properties for EFB-CB made from different
EFB lengths was achieved by EFB-CB fabricated from R14M with an MOE of 2986
N/mm2, an MOR of 5.53 N/mm2 and an IB of 0.203 N/mm2 followed by EFB-CB
made from R7M with an MOE of 2421 N/mm2, an MOR of 4.76 N/mm2 and an IB of
0.128 N/mm2.
 60

3500 7

3000 6

2500 5

MOR (N/mm2)
MOE (N/mm2)
2000 4

1500 3

1000 2

500 1

0 0
R7M R14M R80M SA SB SC SD SE
MOE 2421 2986 2068 2400 2582 2795 3289 2589
MOR 4.76 5.53 4.40 4.25 5.11 4.79 6.05 4.86

Figure 4.2: MOE & MOR for various EFB fibre lengths

0.300

0.250
Internal Bonding (N/mm2)

0.200

0.150

0.100

0.050

0.000
R7M R14M R80M SA SB SC SD SE
IB 0.128 0.203 0.056 0.109 0.140 0.214 0.258 0.178

Figure 4.3: Internal Bonding (IB) for various EFB fibre lengths

SA-SE were fabricated using different percentages of fibre length. The

mechanical properties obtained indicated that the optimum performance of EFB-CB
made of 35% of R7M + 45% of R14M + 20% of R80M (SD) were 3289 N/mm2, 6.05
N/mm2 and 0.258 N/mm2 for MOE, MOR and IB respectively. This proves that the
use of various fibre lengths could enhance the mechanical performance of cement
 61

boards due to interconnected roles of short fibre (filler) and long fibre (reinforcement).
This was supported by a study by Sotannde et al. (2012) where cement-bonded particle
boards made from heterogeneous particle size tend to enhanced bending strength
compared to those fabricated from single particles of larger size.

4.3.2 Physical properties

EFB-CB samples were tested for physical properties such as Thickness Swelling (TS)
after a curing period of 28 days. The physical properties obtained indicated that the
optimum performance was achieved by EFB-CB made of 35% of R7M + 45% of
R14M + 20% of R80M (SD) with TS (1.51%). According to Figure 4.4, samples with
100% of fibre size retained on 7 mesh had the highest percentage of thickness swelling.
In line with the mechanical properties, the percentage of TS dropped significantly
(1.51%) for sample SD. The size distribution of fibre plays an important role as
reinforcement in cement-bonded fibreboards especially in terms of thickness swelling
of cement composites (Frybort et al., 2008). Zuraida et al. (2011) stated that longer
fibre could increase flexural strength. Unfortunately, this could lead to diminished
physical properties. Hence, it is clear that varying fibre length are capable of
influencing the physical and mechanical properties of cement composite.

4.50

4.00

3.50
Thickness Swelling (%)

3.00

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
R7M R14M R80M SA SB SC SD SE
TS (%) 4.09 1.96 3.14 2.17 2.09 1.89 1.51 2.28

Figure 4.4: Thickness Swelling (TS) for various EFB fibre length
 62

4.4 Summary

The effectiveness of EFB fibre size is important for determining the suitable range of
fibre length which can be used for EFB-CB fabrication. In conclusion, it is clear that
the distribution of fibre sizes influences the mechanical and physical performance on
cement-bonded fibreboards (Sotannde et al., 2012). From the data obtained, the
combination of EFB fibre size with distributions of 35%, 45% and 20% for R7M,
R14M and R80M respectively was found to be the optimum fibre size that can be used
for further research.
 5 CHAPTER 5

EFFECT OF PRE-TREATMENT AND CEMENT ACCELERATOR

ON EFB FIBRE

5.1 Introduction

The effects of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) pre-treatment for Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB)
fibre were analysed in terms of hydration rate, surface morphology examination,
tensile properties and chemical composition. On the other hand, the effects of
additional cement accelerators such as Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) and Calcium
Chloride (CaCl2) on EFB-cement mixtures were analysed in terms of hydration rate.
The concentrations of NaOH used were based on low concentrations (0.2%, 0.4%,
0.6%, 0.8%) and high concentrations (1%, 2%, 3, 4%). Meanwhile, the concentrations
of both cement accelerators (MgCl2 and CaCl2) used were 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3% and 0.4%.

5.2 Effect of EFB pre-treatment and cement accelerator on hydration rate

A detailed analysis and a discussion was done on the cement hydration rate involving
two categories of samples which are EFB fibre treated with different concentrations of
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) and treated EFB fibre and cement mixed with cement
accelerators in different concentrations.
 64

5.2.1 Hydration rate of cement mixed with EFB fibre pre-treated with Sodium
Hydroxide (NaOH) of different concentrations

The natural fibre to cement compatibility is still a major problem in cement-bonded

fibreboard production. Adding a certain amount of natural fibre into cement
composites significantly reduces the hydration temperature of the mixture. The
hydration rates of neat cement and cement-EFB fibre were recorded for 24 hours to
observe the temperature change of the mixed material. Based on Figure 5.1, the
maximum hydration temperature of neat cement was 44°C after 6.5 hours. The
hydration temperatures of neat cement depend on the type of cement used, the amount
of cement and water used and sample size (Schackow et al., 2016). On the other hand,
the temperature of untreated fibre mixed with cement showed an increase at 30.5°C
for the first 2 hours and then gradually dropped for the remaining duration until the
lowest temperature at 28°C was reached. The same results were obtained from a
previous study that clearly showed that untreated EFB fibre contains impurities, wax
and fatty substances (Norul Izani, et al., 2013). Evidently, EFB fibre cannot be used
solely as the main material for cement-bonded fibreboard due to the presence of
inherent extractives in the fibre.

Conversely, increasing hydration temperature was obtained for the cement

mixed with EFB fibre which was previously treated using different concentrations of
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH). An increase in temperature depends on the amount of
NaOH as shown in Figure 5.1. Through the experimental test, the hydration
temperature has been shown to increase with the increment in NaOH concentrations
during the fibre pre-treatment process. The addition of 0.4%, 1% and 4% of NaOH
concentrations for EFB fibre were chosen based on the discussion in sub-chapter 3.7.
EFB fibre treated with 0.4% NaOH reached the maximum temperature (Tmax) at
39.2°C after 8 hours (tmax). Meanwhile, 1% of NaOH resulted in the maximum
temperature of 40.6°C after 8 hours. Lastly, EFB fibre treated with 4% of NaOH
obtained 41.5°C after 8 hours. The increment of NaOH concentration increases the
hydration temperature of the EFB-cement mixture. As mentioned by Ibrahim et al.
(2010), removing lignin and hemicellulose improved the fibre matrix interaction thus
leading to a better incorporation of fibre with the matrix.
 65

45
43
41
39
NC
37
Temperature (oC)
UT
35
0.4%
33
1%
31
4%
29
27
25
0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Duration (H)

Figure 5.1: Cement-EFB fibre hydration temperature of Untreated fibre (UT), 0.4%,
1% and 4% of NaOH treatment

EFB fibre treated with 0.4%, 1% and 4% of NaOH made a significant

difference on the hydration temperature of cement-EFB fibre. This was supported by
the Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) results as discussed in section 5.3.

5.2.2 Hydration rate of EFB-cement after the addition of cement accelerators

The hydration temperatures for EFB-cement mixtures with the addition of 0.1% - 0.4%
of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) and Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) accelerators are given
in Figure 5.2 to Figure 5.9. The addition of the cement accelerators to the EFB-cement
mixtures with untreated EFB fibre and treated EFB fibre (0.4%, 1% and 4% of NaOH
concentration) was examined in this study. Low concentrations of cement accelerator
were selected to minimise the use of chemical additives in EFB-CB.

5.2.2.1 Untreated fibre

It can be seen from Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3 that all the untreated EFB fibre prevented
the temperature from rising during the cement setting process. The retarding effect of
EFB fibre on the cement setting process can be measured by the extent of temperature
 66

suppression. The maximum hydration temperature (Tmax) of 27.8oC was achieved after
the addition of 0.3% CaCl2 to the EFB-cement mixture after 16.25 hours.

Both cement accelerators (MgCl2 and CaCl2) which were mixed with cement
and EFB fibre without any treatment decreased the hydration temperature significantly
compared to neat cement. Hence, they are all considered incompatible. The results of
hydration temperature for untreated natural fibre were mentioned by previous
researchers (Mohamed, 2004; Nasser et al., 2016) where it was stated that higher
hemicellulose and lignin content on untreated natural fibre could inhibit the rate of
EFB-cement hydration temperature.

45

40
Temperature (oC)

NC
35
0.1%
0.2%
30 0.3%
0.4%
25

20
0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 22 23 24
Duration (H)

Figure 5.2: Cement-EFB fibre (UT) hydration temperature with 0.1 – 0.4% of cement
accelerator (MgCl2)
 67

45

40
Temperature (oC) NC
35 0.1%
0.2%
30 0.3%
0.4%
25

20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Duration (H)

Figure 5.3: Cement-EFB fibre hydration temperature with 0.1% – 0.4% cement
accelerator (CaCl2)

5.2.2.2 Treated fibre

Results of the hydration temperature obtained for different types of cement curing
accelerators are shown in Figure 5.4, Figure 5.5 and Figure 5.6 (MgCl2) and Figure
5.7, Figure 5.8, and Figure 5.9 (CaCl2). The increasing percentages of NaOH pre-
treatment significantly increased the hydration temperature of fibre-cement mixtures.
However, the addition of low concentrations of cement curing accelerator between
0.1% to 0.4% slightly increased the hydration temperature

Figure 5.4, Figure 5.5 and Figure 5.6 show the graphs for treated EFB fibre
with cement mixture and the addition of MgCl2 to EFB-CB mixture as a cement
accelerator. The hydration rate slightly increased with the addition of MgCl2. Tmax of
the graph was found at 4% NaOH treatment with addition of 0.4% MgCl2 with 41oC
at 8 hours tmax. The lower Tmax of MgCl2 cement accelerator goes to 0.4% NaOH
treatment and 0.1% MgCl2 with value of 38oC at time taken 10 hours. Evidently, the
increase in hydration temperature was affected by NaOH treatment and the
concentration of the cement curing accelerator. Hermawan et al. (2001) obtained a
significant increase in Tmax when MgCl2 concentrations added up to 15%. Low
concentrations of MgCl2 may lead to a minimal increase in hydration rate.
 68

44

40

36 NC
Temperature (oC)

0.1%
32 0.2%
0.3%
28
0.4%

24

20
0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Duration (H)

Figure 5.4: Hydration temperature of EFB fibre treated (0.4% NaOH) with additional
MgCl2 accelerator

45
43
41
39
NC
Temperature (oC)

37 0.1%
35 0.2%
33 0.3%
31 0.4%

29
27
25
0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Duration (H)

Figure 5.5: Hydration temperature of EFB fibre treated (1% NaOH) with additional
MgCl2 accelerator
 69

45

43

41

39
NC
Temperature (oC)
37
0.1%
35 0.2%
33 0.3%
31 0.4%

29

27

25
0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Duration (H)

Figure 5.6: Hydration temperature of EFB fibre treated (4% NaOH) with additional
MgCl2 accelerator

The additional of Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) mainly serves to accelerate cement

setting (Bin et al., 2014). As seen in Figure 5.7, Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.9, hydration
temperature increased with the increase in CaCl2 concentration. Through the results, it
was found that the maximum temperature Tmax of 41.9oC occurred during 4% NaOH
EFB fibre with 0.4% CaCl2 at tmax 7 hours. The second highest temperature was
obtained by 0.3% CaCl2 with Tmax 41.7oC at tmax 7 hours. In line with published
research published by Ashori et al. (2011), increasing CaCl2 concentration could
accelerate the hydration process of the mixture. The minimum hydration temperature
with additional CaCl2 was obtained at 0.4% NaOH fibre treatment mixed with cement
at a temperature of 37.8oC (8.5 hours). Evidently, the high significant difference in
hydration temperature was attributed to the NaOH concentration during the pre-
treatment of EFB fibre which increases the compatibility on EFB fibre with cement.
 70

44

40

36
Temperature (oC)
NC
0.1%
32 0.2%
0.3%
28 0.4%

24

20
0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Duration (H)

Figure 5.7: Hydration temperature of EFB fibre treated (0.4% NaOH) with additional
CaCl2 accelerator

45
43
41
39
NC
Temperature (oC)

37
0.1%
35
0.2%
33 0.3%
31 0.4%
29
27
25
0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Duration (H)

Figure 5.8: Hydration temperature of EFB fibre treated (1% NaOH) with additional
CaCl2 accelerator
 71

45
43
41
39
Temperature (oC) NC
37
0.1%
35 0.2%
33 0.3%
31 0.4%

29
27
25
0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Duration (H)

Figure 5.9: Hydration temperature for EFB fibre treated (4% NaOH) with additional
CaCl2 accelerator

5.3 Effect of EFB pre-treatment on surface morphology examination

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces

images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons
interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that contain information
about the sample’s surface topography and composition. Scanning electron
microscopy provides an excellent technique for the examination of the surface
morphology of fibre composites. In this study, morphological changes that occurred
after the fibre treatment were examined.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) imaging with various magnifications

ranging from 200x to 500x was used to observe the change in the surface morphology
of EFB fibre before and after pre-treatment. It was found that the untreated fibre
(Figure 5.10a and Figure 5.10b) had silica bodies embedded on the EFB fibre strand.
They attached to circular craters on the EFB fibre surface and were spread quite
uniformly with a rounded, spiky size of 10-14 μm. Ibrahim et al. (2015) obtained
similar results where they found the existence of a great number of silica bodies on
EFB fibre strand while Kwei et al. (2007) found the presence of silica bodies on EFB
fibre strand with a rounded, spiky size distribution of 10-15 μm.
 72

Silica Body

(a) (b)
Figure 5.10: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image for untreated OPEFB fibre
at (a) 100x Magnification and (b) 250x Magnification

OPEFB treated with Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) showed a reduction in silica

bodies (Figure 5.11(a) to Figure 5.11(i)). OPEFB treated with NaOH at 0.2% did not
show much difference in terms of appearance of silica bodies. However, after being
treated with 0.4% NaOH, some of the silica bodies were removed from the EFB
strands, leaving behind crater-shaped holes. The higher the concentration of NaOH
used, the lower the number of silica bodies remaining on the EFB fibre strands.
According to Ariffin et al. (2008), Ibrahim et al. (2015), and Sreekala, Kumaran, &
Thomas, (1997), a reduction in the number of silica bodies on EFB fibre strands was
observed after NaOH treatment. At 1% NaOH (Figure 5.11e), it can be seen that the
silica bodies were almost completely removed from the EFB fibre strand.

However, the remaining silica bodies were not fully eliminated and the residues
still remained on the fibre strand. When the NaOH concentrations reach 2% (Figure
5.11f), the presence of silica bodies is completely removed and decomposed. Figure
5.11g shows EFB fibre strands treated with 3% NaOH. It is found that the surface of
the EFB fibre strand turns more rough and uneven after the pre-treatment. Crater-
shaped holes start to form on the EFB fibre strand leading to deformation at 4% of
NaOH as shown in Figure 5.11h. According to Sreekala et al. (1997), the rough
surface of the fibre strand due to alkali treatment could enhance mechanical
interlocking at the interface. However, to date, comprehensive discussions related to
EFB fibre treatment and the effect of surface morphology to cement setting remains
limited.
 73

(a) 0.2% NaOH (b) 0.4% NaOH

(c) 0.6% NaOH (d) 0.8% NaOH

(e) 1.0% NaOH (f) 2% NaOH

(g) 3% NaOH (h) 4% NaOH

Figure 5.11: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image at 250x magnification of

OPEFB treated with NaOH ranging 0.2% to 4%.
 74

5.4 Effects of EFB pre-treatment on chemical composition and tensile strength

The chemical composition and tensile strength of untreated EFB fibres and treated
EFB fibres are presented in the Table 5.1 and Figure 5.12 respectively.

5.4.1 Chemical composition of EFB fibre

Table 5.1 shows the EFB fibre chemical composition based on different concentrations
of NaOH pre-treatment. The chemical composition of EFB fibre includes lignin,
hemicellulose, and cellulose content. Cellulose is a major component which provides
strength and stability (Supranto et al., 2014).

Table 5.1: Chemical composition of EFB fibre

Untreated (UT) 0.4% 1% 4%

Cellulose (%) 52.46 56.81 60.79 65.41
Hemicellulose (%) 23.44 15.60 18.90 18.15
Lignin (%) 13.31 26.60 18.48 15.71
Others (%) 10.79 0.99 1.83 0.73
Sugar -nd -g/100g -nd -g/100g -nd -g/100g -nd -g/100g
*nd = non-detected

For the entire category above, the content of cellulose is much higher than
hemicellulose and lignin. The cellulose content was 52.46% for UT, 56.81% for 0.4%
NaOH, 60.79% for 1% NaOH and 65.41 for 4% NaOH. These values show that EFB
fibre treated with 4% of NaOH has the highest cellulose content and proves that higher
cellulose content can be obtained with increasing concentrations of NaOH treatment.
However, the content of hemicellulose and lignin in EFB fibre is much lower than
cellulose with the increment of NaOH concentration during the pre-treatment process. The
same results were obtained by Aanifah et al. (2014) and Hassan & Badri (2016) which
stated that cellulose content in EFB fibre increased after fibre pre-treatment using NaOH.

As mentioned earlier, cellulose is the main structural component in cell walls.

Therefore, the lower content of cellulose in untreated EFB fiber explains its relatively low
 75

tensile strength. Therefore, cellulose content mainly affects the strength of EFB fibre when
NaOH pre-treatment is conducted. Higher concentrations of NaOH could increase higher
amounts of cellulose. The highest amount of cellulose was found in treated EFB fiber.
This accounts for its high tensile strength as supported by the tensile strength results
(Section 5.4.2).

5.4.2 Tensile strength of single EFB fibre

The average tensile strength values of untreated EFB fibres and treated EFB fibres are
presented in Figure 5.12. The fibre treatment appeared to slightly increase the tensile
strength of the fibres in relation to the untreated fibres. The results also revealed that
the tensile strength of EFB fibers increased markedly when there is an increment in
NaOH concentration. However, these results contradict the findings by Nishiyama &
Okano (1998) who stated that tensile strength decreases after alkali treatment due to
the damage caused by a chemical structure change such that cellulose in the fibre
partially changes from crystalline cellulose into amorphous cellulose. Additionally,
Beckermann et al. (2003) reported that alkali treatment reduces the strength of the fibre
due to the degradation of cellulose chains.

In contrast, Ibrahim et al. (2010) stated that subjecting fibre to alkaline

treatment (4% of NaOH concentration) accounted for its higher tensile strength.
However, tensile strength decreases when the fibre is subjected to higher
concentrations of NaOH (> 4%) due to the degradation of lignocellulose and rupture
of the fibre surface. Through the results, it was found that the tensile strength of EFB
fibres increased significantly after they are treated with alkaline due to the removal of
lignin and hemicellulose. The results are in-line with the findings by Norul Izani, et al.
(2013) where tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and the percentage of elongation of
fibres treated with NaOH are higher than that of untreated fibre. As mentioned by
Mohanty et al. (2001), alkali treatment may depolymerise the native cellulose and
delignify the fibre excessively. This, in turn, can adversely affect the strength of fibre.
 76

450

400

350

300
Stress (N/mm2)
250

200

150

100

50

0
UT 0.4% 1% 4%

Figure 5.12: Tensile strength of Untreated fibre (UT) and fibre treated with 0.4%, 1%
and 4% concentration of NaOH

5.5 Summary

The concentrations of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) for EFB fibre treatment were
selected based on the criteria of selection discussed in Chapter 3. The effect of
hydration rate on the EFB fibre-cement mixture significantly increased with increasing
NaOH concentration. The same results were obtained in terms of of the surface
morphology of EFB fibre which captured the complete removal of silica bodies after
being subjected to 4% NaOH pre-treatment. Increased cellulose content was also found
to contribute to the tensile strength of EFB fibre after it has been treated with up to 4%
of NaOH.
 6 CHAPTER 6

PROPERTIES OF EFB-CB BASED ON FIBRE TREATMENT AND CEMENT

ACCELERATOR

6.1 Introduction

The aim of the experimental laboratory work in this research is to investigate the
potential use of EFB fibre for cement composite materials by reviewing its
compatibility with cement based on mechanical and physical properties. This chapter
describes in detail the effectiveness of incorporating EFB fibre into cement boards. It
also presents the effects of EFB fibre size on the mechanical and physical properties
of EFB-CB as well as EFB fibre treatment using different concentrations of Sodium
Hydroxide (NaOH) and cement accelerators (MgCl2 and CaCl2).

6.2 EFB-CB mechanical properties based on different percentage of NaOH

treatment and cement accelerators

The mechanical properties of EFB-CB based on different percentages of Sodium

Hydroxide (NaOH) treatment and the use of cement accelerators on EFB-CB were
interpreted and discussed in terms of Modulus of Rupture (MOR), Modulus of
Elasticity (MOE) and Internal Bonding (IB).
 78

6.2.1 Modulus of Rupture (MOR)

The specimens for the Modulus of Rupture (MOR) test were prepared and tested
according to BS EN 310:1993. 1037. The dimensions of the specimens were 300 mm
x 50 mm x 12 mm. The test was carried out using the Instron testing machine. The
average values of MOR for ten sets of cement-bonded fibreboards from five panels are
shown in Figure 6.3 to Figure 6.6. The minimum requirement of BS EN 634-2:2007
for MOR is 9 N/mm2. Many research efforts have taken into consideration the effect
of varying NaOH concentration for fibre treatment on the bending strength of cement
composites (Bin et al., 2014; Cao, Sakamoto, & Goda, 2007). In this study, the
concentrations of NaOH were selected based on early experimental work as discussed
in Chapter 3. The MOR value was obtained for specimens with Untreated (UT) fibre,
specimens with treated fibre (0.4%, 1% and 4% NaOH) with or without the addition
of MgCl2 and CaCl2 as shown in Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.2 respectively.

As demonstrated in the graph, the MOR value rapidly increases with the
increment of NaOH concentration during the EFB fibre treatment. Evidently, 4% of
NaOH concentration for fibre treatment could meet the requirements by British
Standard without any additional cement accelerator. Nevertheless, 1% of NaOH could
meet the BS requirements with the addition of 0.4% MgCl2 or 0.3% CaCl2 and 0.4%
CaCl2. Conversely, the use of untreated EFB fibre and 0.4% NaOH treatment have
proven to be inefficient since the value of MOR could not meet the minimum BS
requirements. In line with a study by Harsono et al. (2015), untreated oil palm fibre
was unable to meet the standard requirements of particle boards. The failure of MOR
may be due to the incompatibility of EFB fibre with the cement mixtures as a result of
carbohydrate content in oil palm fibre.
 79

12.00

10.00

8.00
MOR (N/mm2)
Control/0%
0.1% MgCl₂
6.00 0.2% MgCl₂
0.3% MgCl₂
4.00
0.4% MgCl₂
BS Req.
2.00

0.00
UT/0% 0.4% 1% 4%
% of NaOH treatment

Figure 6.1: MOR of EFB-CB for different percentages NaOH treatment and MgCl2
accelerator

16.00

14.00

12.00
Control/0%
10.00
0.1% CaCl₂
MOR (N/mm2)

8.00 0.2% CaCl₂

0.3% CaCl₂
6.00
0.4% CaCl₂
4.00 BS Req.

2.00

0.00
UT/0% 0.4% 1% 4%
% of NaOH treatment

Figure 6.2: MOR of EFB-CB for different percentages NaOH treatment and CaCl2
accelerator

According to Figure 6.3, MOR values for untreated fibre increased from 2.45
N/mm2 to 5 N/mm2 when 0% to 0.4% of cement accelerators were incorporated into
the specimen respectively. The bending strength increased with the increment of
cement accelerator content in the board samples. Nevertheless, MOR values for all
specimens with untreated fibre obviously did not meet the minimum British Standard
requirements. Thus, the use of untreated fibre in EFB-CB is not recommended even
 80

with the addition of cement accelerators. Untreated EFB fibre is not compatible with
cement due to the inhibitory substances in oil palm fibre (Ibrahim et al., 2015). On the
other hand, CaCl2 can be considered better than MgCl2 as it showed higher MOR value
at all concentrations.

10.00
9.00
8.00
7.00
MOR (N/mm2)

6.00 MgCl₂
5.00
5.00 4.39 CaCl₂
3.90 3.92 3.94
4.00 3.53 3.41 Control/0%
BS Req.
3.00 2.45 2.38
2.00
1.00
0.00
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.3: MOR of EFB-CB (Untreated Fibre)

Figure 6.4 shows the MOR results of EFB-CB specimens treated with 0.4%
NaOH. The MOR results increased almost linearly with the increase in cement
accelerator content. The value of MOR significantly increased from 5.89 N/mm2 to
8.3 N/mm2. Nevertheless, the addition of cement accelerators in all concentrations did
not meet the standard requirements. Results obtained by Onuorah et al. (2015) stated
that the addition of cement accelerators significantly increased the modulus of rupture
of cement-bonded boards. As can be seen from this study, it is also clearly showed that
the addition of CaCl2 was more superior than the addition of MgCl2 for every
percentage added to the EFB-CB. This proves that the addition of CaCl2 rapidly
increases the MOR better than MgCl2.
 81

10.00
9.00 8.30
7.86
8.00 7.32 7.34 7.39 7.44
6.80
7.00
6.14
5.89
MOR (N/mm2)
6.00 MgCl₂
5.00 CaCl₂

4.00 Control/0%
BS Req.
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.4: MOR of EFB-CB (0.4% NaOH treatment)

A similar pattern in terms of MOR value was obtained for EFB fibre treated
with 1% of NaOH (Figure 6.5). The MOR of specimens with additional 0.4% CaCl2
attained an average value of 9.08 N/mm2 which was the highest among all the EFB-
CBs. It was reported that the British Standard (BS EN 634-2:2007) specified a
minimum requirement of 9.0 N/mm2 for bending strength. Hence, the addition of 0.4%
MgCl2, 0.3% and 0.4% CaCl2 met the requirement of BS for the fabrication of EFB-
CB. Additionally, this study investigated fibre treatment by using NaOH to improve
the bending strength of EFB fibre-cement composites. However, not much success
was reported for the maximum MOR obtained for 1% of NaOH. According to Harsono
et al. (2015), a high concentration of up to 2% NaOH for the treatment of EFB fibre
increased the strength of medium density fibreboards.
 82

10.00
9.01 9.06 9.08
9.00 8.54

8.00 7.47
7.72 7.62 7.74
7.33
7.00
MOR (N/mm2)
6.00 MgCl₂
5.00 CaCl₂

4.00 Control/0%
BS Req.
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.5: MOR of EFB-CB (1% NaOH treatment)

It was observed that the EFB fibre with high proportions of NaOH treatment
(4%) in the mixture achieved higher MOR compared to other percentage of NaOH.
The MOR value for 4% of NaOH in Figure 6.6 met the requirements of BS with or
without cement accelerators. It can be concluded that 4% of NaOH for the pre-
treatment of EFB fibres without any accelerators is sufficient to meet the requirements.

16.00
13.82
14.00

12.00 10.94
10.57 10.69
10.22
9.81 9.84 10.09
MOR (N/mm2)

10.00 9.14
MgCl₂
8.00 CaCl₂
Control/0%
6.00
BS Req.
4.00

2.00

0.00
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.6: MOR of EFB-CB (4% NaOH treatment)

 83

6.2.2 Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)

The modulus of elasticity (MOE) is a number that measures the resistance of an object
or substance towards being deformed elastically when a force is applied to it. The
MOE of an object is defined as the slope of its stress–strain curve in the elastic
deformation region (BS EN 310:1993). The average strength values of the Modulus of
Elasticity (MOE) of EFB-CB subjected to different pre-treatments and accelerators are
presented in Figure 6.7 to Figure 6.12. All graphs were reviewed and discussed in
terms of the mechanical properties of EFB-CB.

Figure 6.7 and Figure 6.8 shows a graph of MOE vs EFB fibre treated with
different percentages of NaOH. For both types of cement accelerators, the values
continued to increase starting from untreated fibre to fibre treated with 4% NaOH
where the highest MOE is 8078 N/mm2. Untreated fibre without accelerators recorded
the poorest MOE value which is 955 N/mm2. As predicted, the sodium hydroxide
treatment with the highest concentration tends to achieve the highest MOE value for
both accelerators provided compared to untreated fibre. Furthermore, the results from
the MOE test fulfilled the BS requirement of 0.4% NaOH with additional cement
accelerators starting with 0.2% of CaCl2 and 0.3% MgCl2.

7000

6000

5000
Control/0%
MOE (N/mm2)

4000 0.1% MgCl₂

0.2% MgCl₂
3000 0.3% MgCl₂
0.4% MgCl₂
2000
BS Req.

1000

0
UT/0% 0.4% 1% 4%
% of NaOH treatment

Figure 6.7: MOE of EFB-CB for different concentrations of NaOH treatment and
MgCl2 accelerator
 84

9000

8000

7000

MOE (N/mm2) 6000 Control/0%

0.1% CaCl₂
5000
0.2% CaCl₂
4000 0.3% CaCl₂
3000 0.4% CaCl₂
BS Req.
2000

1000

0
UT/0% 0.4% 1% 4%
% of NaOH treatment

Figure 6.8: MOE of EFB-CB for different concentrations of NaOH treatment and
CaCl2 accelerator

Similar to the results of MOR, the MOE results for untreated fibre could not
fulfill the BS requirements as shown in Figure 6.9. Untreated fibre is incompatible
with cement mixture due to the oil content in oil palm fibre thus reducing the strength
of EFB-CB. Alternatively, EFB fibre treated with 0.4% NaOH rapidly improved the
MOE performance with the addition of 0.2% CaCl2 and 0.3% MgCl2 (Figure 6.10).
The MOE significantly increased to 3157 N/mm2 when the EFB fibre was treated with
0.4% NaOH. In line with the findings by Ibrahim et al. (2016), 0.4% of NaOH
treatment was found to enhance the EFB fibre properties of the MDF product. The
addition of cement accelerators will most likely to increase the compatibility of EFB
fibres with the cement mixture.
 85

4500

4000

3500

3000 2770
2419
MOE (N/mm2)
2400 MgCl₂
2500
2113 2110 CaCl₂
2000 1758
1636 Control/0%
1379
1500 BS Req.
955
1000

500

0
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.9: MOE of EFB-CB (Untreated Fibre)

6000

4975
5000 4550
4387
4034 4103
4000 3793 3823
3478
MgCl₂
MOE (N/mm2)

3157
3000 CaCl₂
Control/0%

2000 BS Req.

1000

0
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.10: MOE of EFB-CB (0.4% NaOH treatment)

From Figure 6.11 and Figure 6.12, all EFB-CB specimens treated with 1% and
4% of NaOH complied with the British standard specifications (BS EN 634-2:2007)
which fulfill the requirements for OPC bonded particle boards for use in dry, humid
and external conditions (class 1 and class 2). For EFB fibre treated with 1% NaOH,
the MOE value slightly increased from the control sample (without accelerator) to
0.4% accelerator which is 5141 N/mm2. Moreover, the use of CaCl2 resulted in a higher
MOE than MgCl2. This finding was similar to the MOR results where CaCl2 was found
 86

to be more effective in increasing the MOE values. Furthermore, 1% of NaOH would

be sufficient to treat EFB fibre and enhance its compatibility with cement mixtures.
Meanwhile, 4% of NaOH fibre treatment enhances the MOE properties with or without
the use of cement accelerators. Ultimately, both 1% NaOH and 4% NaOH fibre
treatment met the minimum BS requirements.

6000
5145
4973 4911
5000 4679 4730
4520 4408
4281
4113
4000
MOE (N/mm2)

MgCl₂
3000 CaCl₂
Control/0%
2000 BS Req.

1000

0
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.11: MOE of EFB-CB (1% NaOH treatment)

9000
8078
8000

7000 6550 6564

6128 6142
5853 5867
6000 5607
5395
MOE (N/mm2)

MgCl₂
5000
CaCl₂
4000
Control/0%
3000 BS Req.

2000

1000

0
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.12: MOE of EFB-CB (4% NaOH treatment)

 87

6.2.3 Internal Bonding (IB)

Tensile strength perpendicular to the surface is generally used as a measure of the

internal bond of cement fibreboards. The Internal bonding (IB) specimens were 50 x
50 mm and had the same thickness as EFB-CB. The minimum BS requirement (BS
EN 634-2:2007) for IB is 0.5 N/mm2. The samples adhered to the epoxy adhesive from
both their upper and lower faces with a couple of steel blocks.

Figure 6.13 and Figure 6.14 show graphs displaying internal bonding values
(IB) vs NaOH treatment with MgCl2 and CaCl2 as the respective cement accelerators.
For the case of EFB-CB with untreated fibre, the lowest value of IB is 0.0016 N/mm2
for untreated fibre. 0.4% of CaCl2 obtained the highest value at 0.098 N/mm2, followed
by 0.3% CaCl2 at 0.0077 N/mm2. Nevertheless, the highest value of untreated fibre did
not fulfill the BS requirements. In contrast, EFB fibre treated with 0.4% of NaOH
significantly increased the IB value up to 0.357 N/mm2 with the addition of cement
accelerators but remained below the minimum BS requirement. The value of IB
increased and fulfilled the BS requirement when EFB fibre treated with 1% NaOH
with the addition of 0.3% of MgCl2 (Figure 6.13) and 0.3% and 0.4% of CaCl2 (Figure
6.14) cement accelerators.

0.800

0.700
Internal Bonding (N/mm2)

0.600
Control/0%
0.500 0.1% MgCl₂

0.400 0.2% MgCl₂

0.3% MgCl₂
0.300
0.4% MgCl₂
0.200 BS Req.

0.100

0.000
UT/0% 0.4% 1.0% 4.0%
% of NaOH treatment

Figure 6.13: IB of EFB-CB for different concentrations of NaOH treatment and

MgCl2 accelerator
 88

0.900

0.800

0.700
Internal Bonding (N/mm2) 0.600 Control/0%
0.1% CaCl₂
0.500
0.2% CaCl₂
0.400 0.3% CaCl₂
0.300 0.4% CaCl₂
BS Req.
0.200

0.100

0.000
UT/0% 0.4% 1.0% 4.0%
% of NaOH treatment

Figure 6.14: IB of EFB-CB for different concentrations of NaOH treatment and

CaCl2 accelerator
Similar to the mechanical performance of MOR, specimens with untreated
fibre (Figure 6.15) and fibre treated with 0.4% (Figure 6.16) NaOH nonetheless met
the standard requirement. The IB values for untreated fibre and fibre treated with 0.4%
NaOH were 0.098 N/mm2 and 0.357 N/mm2 respectively with the addition of 0.4%
CaCl2. For additional MgCl2, the IB values were a bit lower than CaCl2 which were
0.076 N/mm2 and 0.311 N/mm2 for untreated fibre and fibre treated with 0.4% NaOH
respectively. Consequently, the addition of CaCl2 cement accelerator to the EFB-CB
mixture was significantly better than MgCl2.

0.600

0.500

0.400
IB (N/mm2)

MgCl₂
0.300 CaCl₂
Control/0%
0.200 BS Req.

0.098
0.100 0.077 0.076
0.046 0.051
0.016 0.021 0.031 0.030
0.000
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement acelerator

Figure 6.15: IB of EFB-CB (Untreated Fibre)

 89

0.600

0.500

IB (N/mm2) 0.400 0.357

0.325 MgCl₂
0.311
0.300 0.268 CaCl₂
0.262
0.216 Control
0.210
0.186 BS Req.
0.200 0.170

0.100

0.000
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.16: IB of EFB-CB (0.4% NaOH Treatment)

The IB values for fibre treated with 1% (Figure 6.17) and 4% (Figure 6.18)
NaOH were significantly higher than untreated fibre. Similar with the MOR result, 1%
of NaOH treatment increased the IB performance up to 0.516 N/mm2 with the addition
of 0.4% CaCl2 thus fulfilling the minimum BS requirement. Similarly, the addition of
0.3% CaCl2 and 0.4% MgCl2 also complied with the minimum requirements for
cement-bonded boards. Conversely, the value of IB for EFB fibre treated with 4%
NaOH met the BS requirements without the use of any accelerator as shown in Figure
6.18. It is clear that the IB values slightly increased from 0.526 N/mm2 to 0.852 N/mm2
with the addition of cement accelerators.

0.600

0.508 0.516
0.488 0.492 0.505
0.500 0.468 0.452
0.409
0.383
0.400
IB (N/mm2)

MgCl₂

0.300 CaCl₂
Control
0.200 BS Req.

0.100

0.000
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.17: IB of EFB-CB (1% NaOH Treatment)

 90

0.900 0.852

0.800
0.687
0.700 0.663
0.585 0.580
0.600 0.533 0.545 0.549
0.526
IB (N/mm2)

MgCl₂
0.500
CaCl₂
0.400 Control

0.300 BS Req.

0.200

0.100

0.000
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.18: IB of EFB-CB (4% NaOH Treatment)

6.3 EFB-CB physical performance based on different percentage of NaOH

treatment and cement accelerator

The physical properties of EFB-CB according to different percentages of Sodium

Hydroxide (NaOH) pre-treatment and cement accelerators were interpreted and
discussed in terms of Thickness Swelling (TS) performance. The thickness swelling
was determined by measuring the increase in thickness of the test piece after complete
immersion in water. This test was carried out as specified by the British Standard BS
EN 317:1993.

6.3.1 Thickness Swelling (TS)

The test pieces were square in shape, with a side length of (50±1) mm. The samples
were immersed in water for 24 hours. The immersed samples were taken out and wiped
with a piece of dry cloth to remove water from the surface. The thickness was
measured using a digital micrometer to the nearest 0.01mm along the length and the
average results were recorded. The thickness swelling requirement according to BS
 91

EN 634-2:2007 is 1.5%. All graphs were reviewed and discussed according to Figure
6.19 to Figure 6.24.

The results of the specimens were shown separately according to the type of
accelerator. Figure 6.19 shows the EFB-CB specimen which contains MgCl2 whereas
Figure 6.20 shows the EFB-CB specimen which contains CaCl2. These figures show
that the TS (%) for untreated fibre did not comply with the BS requirements. However,
the percentage of thickness swelling of EFB-CB rapidly dropped when EFB fibre was
treated with 4% NaOH was used. The percentage of thickness swelling of EFB-CB
treated with 1% NaOH without the use of any cement accelerators met the BS
requirements. Fibre treated with 1% and 4% NaOH without any accelerator achieved
thickness swelling values of 1.22% and 0.63% respectively. These values were below
the maximum thickness swelling value recommended by BS. The use of treated fibre
for cement boards was supported by Bin et al. (2014) who suggested the use of NaOH
as a treatment method to improve the compatibility of fibre with cement mixtures.

10.00

9.00

8.00
Thickness Swelling (%)

7.00
Control/0%
6.00 0.1% MgCl₂
5.00 0.2% MgCl₂

4.00 0.3% MgCl₂

0.4% MgCl₂
3.00
BS Req.
2.00

1.00

0.00
UT/0% 0.4% 1.0% 4.0%
% of NaOH treatment

Figure 6.19: Thickness Swelling (TS) of EFB-CB for different percentages of NaOH
treatment and MgCl2 accelerator
 92

10.00
9.00
8.00

Thickness Swelling (%)

7.00 Control/0%
6.00 0.1% CaCl₂
5.00 0.2% CaCl₂

4.00 0.3% CaCl₂

3.00 0.4% CaCl₂

BS Req.
2.00
1.00
0.00
UT/0% 0.4% 1.0% 4.0%
% of NaOH treatment

Figure 6.20: Thickness Swelling (TS) EFB-CB for different percentages of NaOH
treatment and CaCl2 accelerator

Figure 6.21 shows the decreasing thickness swelling percentage for untreated
fibre with additional cement accelerator. Evidently, the increasing percentage of
cement accelerator could affect the physical properties of EFB-CB. However,
additional cement accelerator for untreated fibre in EFB-CB did not comply with the
British Standard requirements. Nevertheless, Figure 6.22 shows the results of TS
reveal that the 0.4% of NaOH treatment is not enough and the TS slightly above the
maximum TS of 1.5% as required by British Standard.

10.00
9.16
8.76
9.00
8.00
7.21
6.97
7.00 6.36
6.03
6.00 5.39 5.40 MgCl₂
TS (%)

5.00 CaCl₂
4.22
Control
4.00
BS Req.
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.21: Thickness Swelling of EFB-CB (Untreated fibre)

 93

1.80
1.63
1.60
1.50 1.48
1.43
1.39
1.40 1.35
1.31
MgCl₂
1.20
TS (%)

1.20 CaCl₂
Control/0%
BS Req.
1.00
0.86

0.80

0.60
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.22: Thickness Swelling of EFB-CB (0.4% NaOH treatment)

Figure 6.23 and Figure 6.24 show the thickness swelling percentage attained
by EFB fibre treated with 1% NaOH and 4% NaOH, respectively. It is clear from the
graph that thickness swelling values are always associated with the of addition CaCl2.
The highest thickness swelling value (1.22%) was found experienced by the control
specimen (0% accelerator) containing fibre treated with 1% NaOH which complies to
the British Standards. The thickness swelling for both 1% and 4% NaOH was below
than 1.5% of the TS that complies favourably with the specifications outlined in the
British Standards.

1.60

1.40
1.22
1.20
1.03
1.00 0.92
0.87 0.84 MgCl₂
TS (%)

0.80 0.78
0.80 0.74 CaCl₂
0.67
Control/0%
0.60
BS Req.
0.40

0.20

0.00
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.23: Thickness Swelling of EFB-CB (1% NaOH Treatment)

 94

1.60

1.40

1.20

1.00
MgCl₂
TS (%)

0.80 CaCl₂
0.63
0.57 Control
0.60 0.52 0.51
0.42 BS Req.
0.39 0.38
0.40
0.27 0.24

0.20

0.00
Control/0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
% of cement accelerator

Figure 6.24: Thickness Swelling of EFB-CB (4% NaOH Treatment)

6.4 Surface morphology analyses

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images of EFB-CB samples were studied to

investigate the interfacial compatibility of the EFB fibre-cement matrix. The failed
sample specimens were examined to observe the morphology of the composite surface.
The SEM analysis was done for EFB-CB to investigate the interaction between the
untreated EFB fibre and the treated EFB fibre with the cement matrix.

The microstructure of the EFB-CB specimens for untreated fibre and treated
fibre is shown in Figure 6.25. The presence of surface impurities on untreated EFB
fibre surface as shown in Figure 6.25 (a) is very obvious. Hence, it inhibits the bonding
between cement and fibre. As mentioned by Aggarwal (1992) and Nasser et al. (2016),
the presence of silica bodies is known to inhibit the crystallization of cement thus
affecting the compatibility of the mixtures. The result of using fibre treated with 0.4%
NaOH can clearly be observed in Figure 6.25 (b). The interaction between the treated
EFB fibres and cement matrix seemed to be better than untreated EFB fibres. However,
the microstructure showed a breakage between the fibres and the matrix. These
observations revealed a relatively poor interfacial adhesion in EFB-CB.
 95

This effect can also be clearly observed in the electron micrograph images
presented in Figure 6.25 (c). The EFB-CB surface showed a significant improvement
than fibre which underwent 0.4% NaOH treatment and untreated fibre. The fibre was
fully coated by the cement. The interaction between the EFB fibre treated with 4%
NaOH and the cement matrix was enhanced (Figure 6.25 (d). This could be attributed
to good adhesion in between 4% NaOH treated fibres and cement matrix. This could
be attributed to the good adhesion between the treated fibre and the cement matrix. As
mentioned by Khalid et al. (2008), treated fibre in reinforced cement composites
decreases fibre pull-out and increases matrix crystallinity. In line with the results by
Ibrahim et al. (2010), fibre treated with 4% NaOH was found to enhance the properties
of composite material.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 6.25: Electron micrographs images for EFB-CB specimens with different
percentages of NaOH fibre treatment: (a) 0% NaOH (untreated fibre) (b) 0.4%
NaOH (c) 1% NaOH (d) 4% NaOH
 96

Other than that, surface morphology observation was done on EFB-CBs added
with cement accelerators as shown in APPENDIX A1-A4. The addition of cement
curing accelerators such as MgCl2 and CaCl2 seems to improve the interaction between
cement and the treated EFB fibre. However, the morphology analysis for additional
cement accelerators showed poor interaction between the untreated fibre and the
cement matrix due to the presence of silica bodies attached to the fibre surface. The
surface of the fibre was not smooth. This indicated that the compatibility between
fibres and cement was poor (Khalid et al., 2008).

6.5 Summary

The highest mechanical and physical properties were observed among panels which
had higher proportions of NaOH treatment and cement accelerators. The Modulus of
Rupture (MOR) and Internal Bonding (IB) strength of 4% NaOH fibre treatment
exceeded the minimum specifications set by the British Standard (BS EN 634-2:2007).
In contrast, the addition of 0.3% CaCl2 or 0.4% MgCl2 in EFB-CB treated with 1%
NaOH fulfilled the requirements by British Standard. Table 6.1 shows the summary of
the optimum mechanical and physical properties based on different percentages of
NaOH treatment and cement accelerators. Evidently, untreated fibre did not meet the
minimum requirements set by British Standard. Similarly, fibres treated with 0.4%
NaOH with or without the addition of cement accelerators could not fulfill the BS
requirements.
On the other hand, 1% NaOH treatment and the addition of 0.3% CaCl2
increased the performance of EFB-CB thus satisfying the British Standards.
Meanwhile, EFB fibre treated with 4% NaOH without any cement accelerator fulfilled
the requirement for OPC bonded particle boards for use in dry, humid and external
conditions (BS EN 634-2:2007).
 97

Table 6.1: Optimum mechanical and physical properties of EFB-CB based on

different percentage of NaOH treatment and cement accelerator

Physical
Mechanical Properties
Properties
MOR MOE IB TS
BS Requirement > 9 N/mm2 > 4000 N/mm2 > 0.5 N/mm2 < 1.5 %
Cement
NaOH Accelerator MgCl2 CaCl2 MgCl2 CaCl2 MgCl2 CaCl2 MgCl2 CaCl2
(%)
Control 2.45 955 0.016 9.16
0.1% 2.38 3.53 1379 1636 0.021 0.031 8.76 6.97
UT 0.2% 3.41 3.90 1758 2113 0.030 0.046 7.21 6.03
0.3% 3.92 3.94 2110 2419 0.051 0.077 6.36 5.39
0.4% 4.39 5.00 2400 2770 0.076 0.098 5.40 4.22
Control 5.89 3157 0.170 1.63
0.1% 6.14 6.80 3478 3793 0.186 0.216 1.50 1.48
0.4% 0.2% 7.32 7.34 3823 4034 0.210 0.268 1.43 1.35
0.3% 7.39 7.86 4103 4550 0.262 0.325 1.39 1.20
0.4% 7.44 8.30 4387 4975 0.311 0.357 1.31 0.86
Control 7.33 4113 0.383 1.22
0.1% 7.47 7.72 4281 4520 0.409 0.468 1.03 0.92
1% 0.2% 7.62 7.74 4408 4679 0.452 0.488 0.87 0.80
0.3% 8.54 9.01 4730 4973 0.492 0.505 0.84 0.78
0.4% 9.06 9.08 4911 5145 0.508 0.516 0.74 0.67
Control 9.14 5395 0.526 0.63
0.1% 9.81 9.84 5607 5853 0.533 0.545 0.57 0.52
4% 0.2% 10.09 10.22 5867 6128 0.549 0.585 0.51 0.42
0.3% 10.57 10.94 6142 6550 0.580 0.663 0.39 0.38
0.4% 10.69 13.82 6564 8078 0.687 0.852 0.27 0.24

Notes;
Fulfilled allowable requirement by BS EN 634-2:2007
 7 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

7.1 Introduction

This chapter provides the concluding remarks of this study. The data is based on the
analysis of EFB fibre and its performance in terms of mechanical and physical
properties. This includes the optimum concentration of NaOH treatment and cement
accelerator that contributes to the fabrication of Empty Fruit Bunch Cement Boards
(EFB-CB). This chapter also provides suggestions and recommendations for further
studies based on the research outcomes.

7.2 Conclusion

The main objective of this study was to investigate the possibility of recycling EFB
fibre to be used as part of cement-bonded fibreboards. The results of the investigation
were very encouraging. The following conclusions may be drawn according to the
objectives of the study;

Objective 1;

➢ EFB-CB thickness (mm) generally increases with the decrease in EFB-CB

density.
➢ The lowest density of 1217 kg/m3 was obtained by R7M with a thickness of 13.87
mm which exceeded the thickness allowed by the British Standard.
 99

➢ The flexural behaviour of EFB-CB made of EFB with the shortest length
(R80M) was very low (2068 N/mm2, 4.40 N/mm2 and 0.056 N/mm2 for MOE,
MOR and IB respectively).
➢ The highest performance in terms of mechanical properties was achieved by
the fibreboard fabricated with R14M with its MOE, MOR and IB measuring
2986 N/mm2, 5.53 N/mm2 and 0.203 N/mm2 respectively.
➢ Specimens with 100% of fibre size retained on 7 mesh have the highest
thickness swelling percentage.
➢ The resulting mechanical and physical properties indicated that the optimum
performance can be obtained by EFB-CB made from 35% of R7M + 45% of
R14M + 20% of R80M (SD).
➢ This proves that the use of various fibre lengths is able to enhance the
mechanical performance of EFB-CB due to the interconnected role of short
fibres (filler) and long fibres (reinforcement).

Objective 2;

➢ The temperature of untreated fibre mixed with cement showed an increase at

30.5°C after the first 2 hours and then gradually dropped for the remaining
duration until it reached the lowest temperature at 28°C.
➢ Cement mixed with fibre treated with 0.4% NaOH reached the maximum
temperature (Tmax) at 39.2°C. The Tmax of EFB-CB treated with 1% of
NaOH was 40.6°C whereas the Tmax of EFB-CB treated with 4% of NaOH
was 41.5°C.
➢ The addition of low concentrations of cement curing accelerators between
0.1% - 0.4% slightly increased the hydration temperature.
➢ The presence of embedded silica bodies was found on untreated EFB fibre
strands.
➢ OPEFB treated with Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) showed a reduction in the
presence of silica bodies.
➢ EFB fibre treated with 4% of NaOH has the highest cellulose content which
increases fibre strength.
➢ The increase in cellulose content found in EFB fibre treated with up to 4%
NaOH led to higher tensile strength.
 100

Objective 3;

➢ Pre-treatment and chemical accelerator are proven in enhancing the mechanical

and physical properties.
➢ A fibres that not undergone the pre-treatment was found not suitable to be
incorporating in board as the results of the particular board not fulfilled
standard requirement such board failed to achieve minimum requirement of
MOE, MOR, IB and TS.
➢ The best percentage of NaOH is 1% as pre-treatment for the fibres, meanwhile
minimum percentage of 0.3% and 0.4% CaCl2 or 0.4% MgCl2 should be
consider as cement accelerator in board production.
➢ The minimum property requirements of the British Standard (BS EN 634-
2:2007) for physical and mechanical properties were met or exceeded by EFB
fibre treated with 4% NaOH with or without cement accelerators.
➢ The microstructure analysis for EFB-CB shows the presence of surface
impurities on untreated EFB fibre surface which inhibits the bonding between
cement and fibre.
➢ The microstructure interaction between the EFB fibre and cement matrix
improved after the EFB fibre went through pre-treatment.

It can be concluded that this recycling approach has two main benefits. Firstly,
a potential new construction material can be produced. The results indicated that EFB
fibre can be regarded as a potential replacement material in the manufacturing of
cement-bonded fibreboards for non-load-bearing applications. This can only be done
along with compatibility improvement methods where the mix is appropriately
designed and prepared to meet the requirements. Secondly, considering the huge
quantities of OPEFB produced annually in Malaysia, recycling EFB fibre by
incorporating them in cement boards is a practical and potentially significant
contribution to a sustainable construction industry in Malaysia.
 101

7.3 Recommendation

There are few recommendations to improve the production of cement-bonded

fibreboards by enhancing the mechanical and physical properties of EFB fibre;

• More extensive experimental work on the use of different types of curing

methods in board manufacturing to develop a broader understanding of the
properties of manufactured EFB-CB is recommended. Method of curing such
as CO2 gas curing and supercritical CO2 curing.
• The effects of other processing parameters such as thermal comfort and
durability to the short and long term properties of EFB-CB should be tested.
• The suitability of other widely cultivated crop residues or any suitable source
of lignocellulosic materials in Malaysia for the production of cement-bonded
fibreboards should be studied to extend the raw material base for this product
using methods and procedures developed in this study.
• Different fibre-cement ratios should also be used to study their effects on EFB-
CB properties.
• The effects of other cement setting accelerators such as aluminum sulfate as
hardeners for cement should be tested to evaluate their effects on the
mechanical and physical properties of EFB-CB since this type of cement
accelerator have been used by previous study for wood and kenaf fibre.
• The production of layered cement board types with the manipulation of
different mixtures of surface and core particles should be carried out to observe
their effects on board properties.
 102

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9 APPENDIX
APPENDIX A1

SEM of untreated fibre into EFB-CB

Surface Morphology (SEM)

%
MgCl2 CaCl2

0.1%

0.2%

0.3%

0.4%
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APPENDIX A2

SEM of treated fibre with 0.4% NaOH into EFB-CB

Surface Morphology (SEM)

%
MgCl2 CaCl2

0.1%

0.2%

0.3%

0.4%
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APPENDIX A3

SEM of treated fibre with 1% NaOH into EFB-CB

Surface Morphology (SEM)

%
MgCl2 CaCl2

0.1%

0.2%

0.3%

0.4%
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APPENDIX A4

SEM of treated fibre with 4% NaOH into EFB-CB

Surface Morphology (SEM)

%
MgCl2 CaCl2

0.1%

0.2%

0.3%

0.4%
 116

APPENDIX A5

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS AND ACHIEVEMENTS

PUBLICATIONS

Dullah, H., Akasah, Z. A., Soh, N. M. Z. N., & Mangi, S. A. (2017). Compatibility
improvement method of empty fruit bunch fibre as a replacement material in cement
bonded boards: A review. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and
Engineering, 271(1), 012076. IOP Publishing. -Indexed by Scopus
Soh, N. M. Z. N., Akasah, Z. A., Dullah, H., Astimar, A. A., & Aminudin, E., (2017).
Alkaline Treatments on EFB Fibre: The Effect on Mechanical-Physical Properties
and Fibre- Cement Hydration Rate. Malaysian Construction Research Journal
(MCRJ). -Indexed by Scopus (Q3)
Akasah, Z. A., Dullah, H,, Soh, N. M. Z. N., Astimar, A. A., & Aminudin, E., (2018).
The Influence of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Fibre Geometry on Mechanical
Performance of Cement Bonded Fibre Boards. International Journal of Mechanical
Engineering and Robotics Research (ICITM 2018), Oxford University.
-Indexed by Scopus
Akasah, Z. A., Dullah, H,, Soh, N. M. Z. N., & Peter, P., (2017). The Effect of
Different Concentration Sodium Hydroxide Treatment of Oil Palm Empty Fruit
Bunch Fibre on Surface Morphology and Cement-EFB Fibre Hydration Rate. e-
Proceedings iCompEx17. -Published in google scholar

ACHIEVEMENTS

o GOLD MEDAL award for innovation Unsanded Empty Fruit Bunch Cement Board
(EFB-CB) in “iCompex’17 National Innovation and Invention Competition
Through Exhibition 2017.
o BRONZE award for innovation Unsanded Empty Fruit Bunch Cement Board (EFB-
CB) in “FKAAS Innovation Festival 2017 (InnoFEST’17).

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