SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

A STUDY OF POLYSTYRENE LIGHTWEIGHT

CONCRETE AND SELF-HEALING APPLICATIONS

Capstone Design
May 2023
Aisha Sabet

Supervised by
Dr. A. Khaldoun

© SCHOOL OF SCIENCE & ENGINEERING – AL AKHAWAYN UNIVERSITY

A STUDY OF POLYSTYRENE LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE AND SELF-HEALING
APPLICATIONS

Capstone Report
Student Statement:
A statement affirming that “The designer has applied ethics to the design process and in the
selection of the final proposed design. And that, the designer has held the safety of the public
to be paramount and has addressed this in the presented design wherever may be applicable.”

_____________________________________________________
Aisha Sabet

Approved by the Supervisor

_____________________________________________________
Dr. A. Khaldoun

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ABSTRACT
This capstone report presents a study of polystyrene lightweight concrete, also known as
Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) concrete, and its potential applications for self-healing
concrete. The purpose of this report is to investigate the effects of using EPS as a light weight
aggregate in concrete bricks on the bricks mechanical properties.

The report begins with a theoretical framework that covers the types of masonry bricks and
concrete mixtures used in the construction industry, and the microstructure and composition of
both concrete and EPS. The different mechanical properties that are affected by EPS are also
discussed and explained along with a more in-depth discussion on its effect on crack
propagation within the material. Similarities are then drawn between EPS concrete and natural
fiber additives in concrete in regards to their influence on concrete as well as the aggregates
themselves. Lastly, the theoretical frameworks concludes with the examination of bacterial self-
healing applications through encapsulation.

The next section addresses the experimentation done which includes two compressive strength
tests on sample EPS concrete bricks with different EPS concentrations as well as simulation
done on SolidWorks to analyze stress distribution throughout a sample brick under loading.
Overall, the study recognizes the potential in using EPS as an alternative to traditional
aggregates to decrease the density of concrete bricks with the potential for self-healing
capabilities.

Keywords: Expanded Polystyrene, Lightweight Concrete, Bio Self-Healing Concrete, MICP,

Crack Propagation

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to extend my sincere appreciation to those who have supported me throughout my
academic journey towards getting my bachelor’s degree.

Firstly, I would like give my thanks and gratitude to Dr. Asmae Khaldoun for willing to be my
supervisor and guide my through completing this Capstone project. I am grateful for her
patience, experienced input and invaluable help. The excitement Dr. Khaldoun displayed since
I first approached her regarding the project idea, the process of modifying, and fulfilling the
project has motivated me and encouraged me to keep pushing.

I would also like to thank Yasmine Abdellaoui for allowing me to use her samples and her
contribution in making this project possible.

Finally, I would like to dedicate this work to my mother, may she rest in peace, for all her
support and sacrifices throughout my whole life that shaped me to person I am today and made
all achievements made possible. I hope I have made her proud with this accomplishment and
continue to do so from here on forth.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III
TABLE OF CONTENTS IV
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS VI
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS 2
2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 3
2.1 TYPES OF MASONRY BRICKS 3
2.1.1 Common Burnt Clay Bricks 3
2.1.2 Concrete Bricks 4
2.1.3 Sand Lime Bricks 4
2.1.4 Fly Ash Clay Bricks 5
2.1.5 Engineering Bricks 5
2.1.6 Other Brick Types 6
2.2 TYPES OF CONCRETE MIXTURES 6
2.2.1 Normal Concrete 6
2.2.2 High Performance Concrete 7
2.2.3 High Strength Concrete 7
2.2.4 Air Entrained Concrete 8
2.2.5 Lightweight Concrete 8
2.2 MICROSTRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF CONCRETE 9
2.2.1 Microstructure 9
2.2.2 Composition 10
2.3 MICROSTRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF POLYSTYRENE 11
2.3.1 Microstructure of EPS Beads 11
2.3.2 Composition of EPS Beads 11
2.3 POLYSTYRENE CONCRETE 12
2.3.1 Mechanical Properties 12
2.3.2 Crack Propagation 13
2.3.3 Comparison with Natural Fibers 14
2.3.4 Self-healing Applications 15
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3 EXPERIMENTATION 18
3.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH 18
3.2 SOLIDWORKS SIMULATION 20
3.3.1 Procedure 20
3.3.2 Results 22
4 STEEPLE ANALYSIS 24
4.1 SOCIAL 24
4.2 TECHNOLOGICAL 24
4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL 24
4.4 ECONOMICAL 24
4.5 POLITICAL 24
4.6 LEGAL 25
4.7 ETHICAL 25
5 INVESTIGATION ON RELATED ENGINEERING STANDARDS 26
6 CONCLUSION 27
REFERENCES 28
APPENDIX A 32
APPENDIX B 37

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ACI: American Concrete Institution
ASTM: American Society for Testing Materials
Ca(OH)2: Calcium Hydroxide
C-S-H: Calcium Silicate Hydrates
EPS: Expanded Polystyrene
FEA: Finite Element Analysis
HPC: High Performance Concrete
ISO: International Organization for Standardization
LPEE: Laboratoire Public d’Essais et d’Etudes
LWA: Lightweight Aggregate
MICP: Microbial Induced Calcite Precipitation
PS: Polystyrene

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1 INTRODUCTION
The country’s infrastructure and economy is largely affected by the construction industry.
Evolution and discoveries within the construction industry greatly influence the improvement of
the lifestyle and wellbeing of a society. For that reason, there is always research for ways to
improve the building blocks of infrastructures whether that be to limit negative effects on the
environment, decrease costs, availability of raw materials constraints, or provide stronger and more
durable buildings and construction. It is important to look at the smallest component to optimize
any process, in the case of infrastructure and buildings that would be bricks. One of the most
extensively used materials in construction is concrete because of its durability, compressive
strength, workability and easy access to its foundation raw materials which consist of cement,
water, and aggregates. Certain properties can be modified according to needs and applications by
adding other materials to the concrete mixture.

Concrete, by definition, “is a composite material [and] may be considered to consist of three
phases: a cement paste, the aggregate, and the interfacial transition zone between them” [1]. There
are many different types and sizes of aggregates that can be utilized to get the most desired
properties out of concrete bricks. However, it is imperative to keep in mind that the dimensions
and properties of bricks should abide by specific rules and regulations that are put in place to
ensure safety and durability of buildings. The regulations include dimensions of such bricks as
well as its compressive strength, and other changes within that include reactions to certain climates
or environments [2].

One way of modifying traditional concrete is partial or total replacement of raw aggregates with
expanded polystyrene (EPS) beads to make lightweight concrete [3]. This utilizes polystyrene, that
would otherwise be wasted, that is difficult to decompose to reduce the density and weight of
concrete making it fairly environmentally friendly. EPS concrete would also have the ability to
stop the propagation of cracks similar to how natural fiber additives, such as straw or wool, would
for concrete bricks.

This paper looks into masonry bricks and specifically investigates the characteristics and
properties of EPS lightweight concrete, ability to stop the propagation of cracks, and the
application of bio self-healing. Collected data of the compressive strength of EPS concrete with
different concentrations of EPS will be used and compared to results of the compressive strength
of these same samples after some time to see if there is evidence of crack repair and elasticity. The

1
goal is to study and understand the effect of EPS on concrete and with that possibly be able to
determine what concertation of EPS is optimal to retain these properties without sacrificing much
compressive strength. A simulation using SolidWorks is also done to view the distribution of
stresses after adding load on the material. Since EPS lightweight concrete is not available in the
material directory of SolidWorks, it will have to be customized based the properties of general
lightweight concrete and on the material properties that can be estimated to support understanding
of EPS concrete.

With that, a discussion on the similarities between EPS concrete and concrete with natural fiber
additives and on applying self-healing techniques to this material will also be discussed
theoretically.

1.1 Feasibility Analysis

The time allocated to complete this Capstone project is approximately nine weeks. The project is
split into two parts in order to reach the main objective; the literature review and research. During
this phase, all the research and information regarding lightweight concrete using polystyrene as
well as using straw or wool will be done. This also includes looking into applications of EPS
concrete such as with autonomous self-healing. The second part is the actual experimentation of
the bricks as well as simulations done on SolidWorks. For the experimentation, the samples used
are in collaboration another student who is working with EPS concrete and therefore saves time
on the making and curing process for the bricks. As for the simulations, SolidWorks is available
for use through the university and therefore is easily accessible.

Tools used to complete the project are available when it comes to the literature review as well as
the software SolidWorks for the simulation. It is also feasible for the experimentation as the
samples are available thanks to Yasmine Abdellaoui and experiments are done in a testing facility
in Meknes. For SolidWorks, the software is available to access on my personal laptop through
“My VLab” that is made accessible by the University which therefore does not require financial
resources. The same goes for tests run on the samples as it will be done in the university lab. For
that reason, there are no issues when it comes to financial feasibility as all tool are readily available
within the university.

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2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Types of Masonry Bricks

Masonry involves building structures from single units bound together with mortar. The term
masonry refers to the structure however can also be used for the single units used. Masonry can be
categorized into three main categories based on the type of bricks or units used within the masonry.
These categories includes brick masonry, concrete block masonry, and stone masonry [4].

For safety reasons, the properties and dimensions of bricks are standardized based on what they
are used for. The standardization may also slightly differ based on the country however they are
generally similar. The most used type of bricks and units include common burnt clay, concrete,
sand like, fly ash clay, and engineering bricks [5].

2.1.1 Common Burnt Clay Bricks

Common burnt clay bricks, shown in Figure 1, are made using clay that is molded and then placed
in a kiln to harden. This impacts the durability of the clay and is what gives this type of bricks that
property. For that reason, within the construction industry, it is a highly used building material,
especially with its cost kept in mind. It is known to have properties such as durability therefore
having a lifespan of up to 100 years as well as having good thermal and sound insulation [5]. They
are highly heat resistant making them have great fire resistance with low water absorption
properties which helps make them also be resistant to water damage [5]. From constructing
buildings and walls to chimneys and fireplaces, burnt clay bricks have many useful applications
within the construction industry thanks to the properties that were previously mentioned.

Figure 1 Common Burnt Clay Bricks

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 2.1.2 Concrete Bricks
To produce concrete bricks, shown in Figure 2, a thick paste like mixture is made from cement,
sand, aggregates, and water which is then molded into the desired brick dimensions and allowed
to cure. Concrete bricks are known for their compressive strength and durability which is the
reason behind their common use in applications that involve direct or in-direct load-bearing [5].
They also have decent thermal and sound insulation while being relatively low maintenance.
Concrete bricks are considered as versatile building material that can be used for multiple
applications as certain properties can be enhanced, sometimes at the expense of others, depending
on the aggregates used, reinforcements, or mixing ratios. These applications of concrete bricks
include, but are not limited to, building walls, paving, landscaping, soundproofing, etc. [5].

Figure 2 Concrete Bricks

2.1.3 Sand Lime Bricks

Sand lime bricks, also known as calcium silicate bricks, shown in Figure 3, are building materials
that include a small amount of cement mixed with sand, lime, and water that, unlike concrete
bricks, are molded under pressure before it is allowed to cure [5]. Its properties include high
compressive strength as well as good thermal insulation and fire resistance. It also has low
shrinkage which improves durability as it decreases the risk of cracking [5]. For these reasons,
sand lime bricks are commonly used in load-bearing applications, industrial flooring, chimneys,
etc. due to its high durability and compressive strength [5].

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 Figure 3 Sand Lime Bricks

2.1.4 Fly Ash Clay Bricks

Fly ash clay bricks are another versatile building material with multiple applications ranging from
load-bearing walls to landscaping. These bricks are made from a mixture of fly ash, clay, and water
that is then molded under high pressure and, similar to burnt clay bricks, requires high temperatures
to harden [5]. Its most known properties include high compressive strength, good thermal
insulation, and environmentally friendly that does not risk damage due to moisture because of its
low water absorption quality [5].

2.1.5 Engineering Bricks

Engineering bricks are specifically designed to have high strength and durability that are made
from high-density clay that is then hardened using high temperatures [5]. Although it sounds the
same as burnt clay bricks since both are made from clay, the main difference is the type of clay
used and that engineering bricks are fired at a higher temperature than burnt clay bricks. As
mentioned, engineering bricks are made from high-density clay while burnt clay utilizes natural
clay [5]. Another main difference is their densities as engineering bricks are denser and less porous
which results in less water absorption in comparison [5]. Its properties include chemical resistance
and similar properties as burnt clay bricks that are otherwise improved [5]. Therefore applications
are also similar to burnt clay bricks as well as including drainage and foundation construction
because of its improved mechanical properties [5].

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 2.1.6 Other Brick Types
There are other brick types that are mainly differentiated by their shape rather than what
components are used to make it. It is crucial to choose the right brick type based on requirements
of a project as it makes it possible to achieve long-lasting structures that provide the desired look
and functionality. The different types of bricks are:

1. Bullnose Bricks: As evident in its name, these bricks have at least one rounded edge which helps
create smooth finishings and typically used for aesthetically pleasing architectural structures [5].

2. Channel Bricks: Generally used along with other bricks to create patterns or drainage systems
within walls, channel bricks have grooves that resemble channels along one or more of its sides
[5].

3. Coping Bricks: As a form of capping the top of walls, coping bricks are made in specific
dimensions to fit those spaces [5]. Its main purpose is smoother aesthetic finish and protection
from weathering [5].

4. Cownose Bricks: Similar to bullnose bricks, cownose bricks have rounded edges however the
main difference is that they are usually larger with more prominent curves that are typically used
for decorative purposes [5].

5. Hollow Bricks: Hollow bricks are one of the most used types of bricks when it comes to building
construction. Since they are hollow inside, this makes them lighter and easier to handle. Its
common applications include high-rise buildings, areas of poor soil, as well as insulation [6].

2.2 Types of Concrete Mixtures

It is known that the basic components in concrete are cement, water, aggregate and sand however
there are different types of concrete based on the ratio of the mixtures or additives added to the
mixture.

2.2.1 Normal Concrete

Normal concrete is the most common and basic type of concrete mixture that include cement,
water, and aggregates (fine or coarse or both). It includes the basic properties that are expected in
concrete such as good compressive strength and low tensile strength while not being able to
withstand extreme weather conditions unless it is externally treated [7].

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The ratio of the components in the mixture can change certain properties as desired for specific
applications. The type and volume of cement used can affect certain properties. For example,
typical cement volumes can range anywhere between 10% to 15% while there are around 15
different types of cement however the most commonly used one is Ordinary Portland cement [8].
Another important factor that affects certain mechanical properties of normal concrete mixtures is
the water-cement ratio. The main properties affected by this ratio are the strength of the concrete
once it is cured as well as the workability of the mixture which represents how fluid or stiff the
mixture is [7]. The reason workability is important is because it influences the casting of concrete
mixture for curing. More often than not, normal concrete compressive strength ranges between 20
to 40 MPa depending on the curing processes and ratio of components in the mixture.

2.2.2 High Performance Concrete

High performance concrete (HPC) highly focuses on workability and having better overall
properties in comparison to normal concrete. In order to enhance the workability of the mixture
plasticizers, which are chemical admixtures that help reduce the amount of water needed to reach
a certain workable consistency of in concrete [9]. Other properties include high compressive
strength that is gained early, better permeability and durability, higher density and resistance
freezing though the addition of air entraining agents into the mixture [7].

Unlike normal concrete, HPC has higher volumes of cement and other cementitious material (e.g.
fly ash or slag) which causes the increase in strength and durability [10]. It was discussed earlier
the importance of w/c ratio and its impact on compressive strength and as such, HPC generally has
a lower w/c ratio which explains its increased compressive strength and reduced permeability [7].
This however decreases workability because of the low ratio and therefore chemical admixtures,
such as superplasticizers, are often used to improve the workability of HPC [10]. It is also possible,
similar to normal concrete, to select certain aggregates to incorporate to the mixture to achieve
certain qualities as well as add fiber reinforcements, such as synthetic fibers, glass or steel, to
increase tensile strength [10].

2.2.3 High Strength Concrete

As the name entails, high strength concrete focuses on increasing the compressive strength as well
as preventing strength reductions that may occur during the curing and hardening process. Like
HPC, this is done by having a lower w/c ratio and adding silica for strength reduction prevention

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[7]. However, this decreases the workability of the concrete because of the lowered w/c ratio.
Choice of aggregate is important here to make sure strength and durability are maintained.

Similar to other concrete mixtures, different materials and additives can be added to enhance
certain properties as desired, such as strength, durability, workability, and/or setting time [7]. Some
of these additives or materials include high-strength aggregates, chemical additives (e.g.
superplasticizers or accelerators), and pozzolanic materials (e.g. fly ash or silica fume) [9]. Since
high strength concrete is characterized with increase compressive strength, this makes this type of
concrete mixture especially useful for heavy load applications that are large scale such as the
construction of high-rise buildings and bridges. Another key property of high strength concrete is
its extended lifespan in comparison to other concrete mixtures and this is due to its increase
durability as well as resistance to other possible damaging factors like weathering and chemical
damage [7].

2.2.4 Air Entrained Concrete

Air entraining agents can be added to concrete mixture to add small bubbles of air into a concrete
mix which then has the ability to increase the concretes resistance to freezing which in turn
increases the durability of the concrete [7]. As a result, air entrained concrete is an ideal choice for
construction material in areas with cold weather and lower temperatures. This also makes the
concrete less dense because of the air bubbles and therefore, unlike HPC and high strength
concrete, results in a lower compressive strength in comparison to normal concrete [7]. That said,
another benefit is related to increased workability due to the air bubbles caused by the air entrained
additives. These air pockets improve the flowability of the mixture and therefore does not require
as much water to be added to the mixture [7].

2.2.5 Lightweight Concrete

Lightweight concrete is characterized with lower density and mass as well as lower compressive
strength which is the reason behind their use in areas where less load is needed [7]. To achieve
lightweight concrete mixtures, lightweight aggregates (LWA) are added into the concrete mix
along with cement, water and sand. Examples of LWA include expanded shale, expanded clay,
expanded slag, and synthetic aggregates like EPS, fly ash, or glass [11]. Since lightweight concrete
has a lower density and weight, it is therefore easier to transport and handle. Other benefits include
increased thermal and sound insulation as well as fire resistance depending on the aggregate [7].
An example of this is aerated concrete, known for its high fire resistance and thermal insulation,

8
which is made by introducing aluminum powder to the concrete mix that causes a chemical
reaction for the production of bubbles [11]. The main downside of lightweight concrete however
is the decrease in compressive strength.

2.2 Microstructure and Composition of Concrete

The multiple and different components of concrete play a large role in the properties, such as its
durability, strength and versatility that appear in the concrete as well as its microstructure and
composition. Through better understanding of the microstructure and composition of concrete as
well as its effects on the mechanical properties, more durable and long-lasting structures and
buildings can be constructed.

2.2.1 Microstructure
The internal structure, known as the microstructure, has several components that it is composed of
with include the cement paste, aggregates, and any voids that are present within the structure. As
such, the mechanical and physical properties of concrete, like strength and durability, are greatly
influenced by these components.

The main and primary component of concrete, which general takes up the largest portion of the
volume, is the cement paste. Cement comes in the form of as powder that is made from limestone
and other materials that is heated at high temperatures [12]. The paste, which is the main thing that
binds any aggregates or additives added, is then formed through a reaction that happens once water
is added to the cement powder. The compounds that form the cement paste include calcium silicate
hydrates (C-S-H), which acts as the primary binder that results from the reaction that occurs when
water is added to cement, and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) as well as other chemical compounds
[13]. Therefore, it can be inferred that the compound C-S-H is the main factor that is responsible
for the microstructure of the cement paste, the strength, and the durability of concrete [13].

Inert materials such as sand, crushed stones, or other materials are used as aggregates to be added
to the mixture with the cement paste. Although these do not have significant physical or chemical
transformations, their role within the concretes microstructure is essential thanks to the shape, size,
and texture of such aggregates [14]. Similar to cement paste, aggregates effect the strength and
durability of the concrete however, this is done by evenly distributing the stresses throughout the
matrix [13]. Adding aggregates also naturally increases the total volume of the concrete and
therefore requiring less cement paste which helps in increasing workability based on the aggregate
as well as reduce costs since many aggregate are recycled material or easily accessible.
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Within the concrete matrix there are spaces that are occupied by neither aggregates nor cement
paste and these are voids or empty spaces [13]. Like aggregates, the size, shape, and distribution
of these voids affect the microstructure of concrete and therefore changes some of the mechanical
properties. Depending on the application of the concrete, having more or less of these voids may
be beneficial as well as harmful. Take for example HPC which, as mentioned previously, is known
for its high compressive strength and this is because the presence of such voids is reduced which
is evident by the increased density of the concrete. On the other hand, in cases such as air entrained
or lightweight concrete, these voids or aggregates that mimic such voids are necessary to achieve
the desired lower density and insulation properties. However, having these voids causes certain
unfavorable results when it comes to strength of the concrete as well as providing a path for
possibly harmful substances to penetrate the concrete matrix [13].

2.2.2 Composition
Composition refers to the materials and their proportions that make up the concrete matrix. Similar
to the microstructure, the composition also affects mechanical properties like strength, durability,
and workability [12]. A main component that makes up the composition of concrete is cement. As
mentioned previously, Portland cement is the most common type of cement used which is a
mixture of limestones, clay and other materials that are heated at high temperatures and then
ground which results in the fine powder [14]. Based on the durability and strength required for the
concrete application, the type and amount of cement included in the concrete mixture is crucial.
Similarly, strength and durability of concrete is greatly affected by the amount of aggregates used.

Another main component is water which is necessary to activate the chemical reaction and hydrate
the cement in order to form the paste needed to make concrete. Like other components, the amount
of water added as well as the quality of water can affect the two main mechanical properties that
concrete is known for which are strength and durability. The importance of w/c ratio was
previously brought up, which refers to the ratio between the amount of the water versus cement in
regards to these properties. To reiterate, improvements in strength and durability with a decrease
in workability is evident as the w/c ratio is decreased.

On the other hand, admixtures are another component that may be included in the composition of
concrete however is not necessarily essential. These are chemical compound additives that can be
used to modify or improve certain properties for desirable application [13]. Air entraining agents,
water reducing agents, and superplasticizers are examples of admixtures that are most widely used

10
within the construction industry. Based on the additives added to the mixture, it is possible to
control the setting time of concrete and improve strength, durability, and/or workability of the
concrete mixture [14].

More often than not, some form of reinforcement is often added so as to improve the durability
and strength of concrete. It is embedded within the concrete and generally consists of steel bars or
fibers. This is known as reinforced concrete and its purpose is to limit damage and cracks that
would otherwise lead to failure by distributing the stresses throughout the concrete [13].

2.3 Microstructure and Composition of Polystyrene

Polystyrene (PS) is a stiff thermoplastic material that is produced through the polymerization of
styrene [15]. Some examples of applications that use polystyrene include, but not limited to,
insulation, packaging materials, and foamed utensils. Its hardness and rigidity for use in plastic
and rubber products comes from being blended with other polymers, known as copolymerization
however, it is also brittle and flammable [15]. EPS is a form of PS that is lightweight and has the
appearance of a foam-like material known for its excellent insulation properties [16]. EPS beads
are the unit raw material used for foam products using EPS which is what is used for the EPS
concrete.

2.3.1 Microstructure of EPS Beads

Evident from the name, the shape of EPS beads are spherical that have a wide range of diameters
ranging anywhere between 0.2 mm to 3.0 mm [15]. Regarding its microstructure, EPS beads have
a closed-cell foam structure that is uniform with a smooth surface finishing [16]. This is achieved
during the manufacturing process where PS is heated and expanded with the help of a blowing
agent, usually pentane or carbon dioxide [15]. This gives it a high surface area to volume ratio
with a cellular structure that has thin walls [16]. This foam structure is what gives it its insulation
and lightweight property.

2.3.2 Composition of EPS Beads

EPS beads are composed of mainly PS along with small amounts of additives. As previously
mentioned, PS is a thermoplastic polymer made from styrene as monomers which is then used to
make EPS beads. Derived from petroleum, styrene is a colorless liquid that is a building block
monomer in many polymers [15]. Small amounts of additives are added to make EPS beads as a
form of controlling the foam material properties. The additives include carbon dioxide or pentane
11
as blowing agents in order to expand the PS beads and give EPS its lightweight property and foam
structure [16]. Other additives may be included to improve the fire resistance in EPS products such
as flame retardants as well as stabilizers that help prevent the degradation that PS can go through
during the manufacturing process [16]. As such, the properties that EPS beads are known for such
as excellent insulation properties and how lightweight it is comes from its composition as well as
its microstructure which is what makes it ideal for applications like consumer goods and
packaging.

2.3 Polystyrene Concrete

As mentioned, polystyrene is a thermoplastic which can be molded into different desired shapes
and sized. Once added to concrete, usually in the form of EPS beads, it produces the composite
material known as polystyrene concrete or EPS concrete that fits within the category of lightweight
concrete. The purpose of adding EPS beads to a concrete mixture, as is with adding different
additives or aggregates to concrete, results in some changes that are present in the physical and
mechanical properties of the concrete. Concrete as it is a versatile material and it is useful to have
lightweight concrete with better insulation and thermal properties such as those achieved through
EPS concrete for different applications in the construction industry.

2.3.1 Mechanical Properties

The main mechanical property that is advantageous when it comes to EPS concrete is its low
density in comparison to other concrete types. That same property in turn also effects other
mechanical properties such as compressive strength, flexural strength, durability, sound insulation,
and thermal insulation that is ideal for use in applications regarding lightweight walls, roofs, floors,
and construction in areas that are prone to earthquakes [17].

As mentioned, a lower density is one of, if not the most, significant mechanical property that is a
signature of EPS concrete. Based on the amount of EPS beads added to the concrete mixture, the
typical density of EPS lightweight concrete ranges between 300 and 1800 kg/m3 [18].

Another important mechanical property of concrete is its compressive strength. Due to the reduced
density observed in EPS concrete, the compressive strength of such concrete is decreased in
comparison to that of traditional concrete and other types of concrete mixtures [19]. However, it
is possible to improve the compressive strength of this lightweight concrete through the addition
of other materials to the concrete matrix such as fly ash, superplasticizers, and silica fumes [20].
Typical compressive strength of EPS concrete may range from 0.7 MPa to 15 MPa depending on
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the curing process and the composition of the mixture [17]. On account of that, EPS concrete
cannot be used for applications where strength or direct load-bearing is required.

In conjunction with its compressive strength, a mechanical property that may be enhanced with
the addition of EPS is flexural strength, which is the ability to resist damage due to bending forces.
With that, EPS concrete is more resistant to deformations and damage due to tensile or bending
forces unlike other concrete mixtures such as normal concrete. Once again, depending on the
specific composition of the EPS concrete, the typical range for its flexural strength ranges between
0.5 MPa and 5 MPa [20].

EPS concrete is also known for its excellent thermal insulation properties due to the EPS beads
that are spread out throughout the concrete matrix that act as insulators therefore reducing the
thermal conductivity of the concrete [19]. Thus, applications such as walls, roofs, or floors where
thermal insulation properties are preferred are ideal for the use of EPS concrete.

Lastly, the inclusion of EPS beads to the concrete may enhance the durability of the concrete. This
is owing to an increase in its resistance to corrosion, abrasion, and weathering though it can be
further improved through special coatings that may further protect the surface of the material [20].

2.3.2 Crack Propagation

A complex phenomenon in concrete is crack propagation that may be due to a multitude of factors
including the properties of the material, its loading conditions, as well as environmental factors.
The reduced density evident in EPS concrete contributes to its resistance to cracking as a lower
density means a lower weight therefore decreasing the dead loads that acts on it. However, the
other possible main reason for increased resistance to cracking is due to the fact that the EPS beads
act as barriers or walls that in turn limit or stop the propagation of cracks. Once a crack is formed
in the concrete, it will eventually encounter an EPS bead which is then able to absorb energy of
the crack and therefore limiting and stopping the crack from further propagating to the rest of the
concrete [21].

An important property that effects the crack propagation in EPS concrete is the size of the EPS
beads as well as its distribution throughout the concrete matrix. The distribution of EPS beads
throughout the concrete determines the distribution of stress throughout the brick. Once a load is
applied to the concrete, the stress is concentrated to the points where the EPS beads are located
which can lead to cracking in the surrounding area of the beads when the stress exceeds the strength
of the concrete [18].
13
Another factor effecting crack propagation in EPS concrete is the bond between the EPS beads
and the concrete matrix that surrounds it. This bonding property is in turn influenced by a number
of other factors such as the conditions during the curing process and porosity of the concrete [16].
In regards to this, there are two ends of the spectrum when it comes to the effect of the bonding
between EPS and concrete matrix on the crack propagation properties of the concrete as a whole.
Weak bonding between the EPS beads and the matrix cause the cracks to easily propagate
throughout the material since the points in the concrete where the beads are located act as weak
points and vice versa [21].

Other than the size and distribution of the EPS beads, the amount used in the concrete mixture is
another factor that effects crack propagation. The stress concentration at the points of EPS beads
in the concrete decreases as the volume fraction of EPS decreases in the mixture which in turn
enhances the toughness and durability of the material as a whole [22]. On the other hand, having
a high volume fraction of EPS beads in the concrete mixture increases the stress concentration at
the bead locations leading to cracking and reduced durability.

The next factor effecting crack propagation is the orientation and arrangement of the beads in the
EPS concrete. Random distribution of EPS beads through the concrete matrix may lead to a
decrease in strength and durability due to the cracks propagating in multiple directions [22]. This
means that it is beneficial to have the EPS beads aligned in a specific direction, preferably along
the loading direction, so as to confine the path or direction of crack propagation which will then
increase the material's toughness and durability [22].

Lastly, admixtures and additives, for example fibers such as steel, can also affect crack propagation
by causing a more uniform distribution of stress throughout the matrix [17]. This increases the
toughness of the concrete and crack resistance. Likewise, increasing the workability and durability
of the EPS concrete using chemical admixture, such as superplasticizers, can also reduce the
likelihood of cracks forming and propagating [9].

2.3.3 Comparison with Natural Fibers

Normal concrete is known to have low tensile strength that is prone to cracking. For that reason,
various research has been conducted on additives and reinforcements to address such issues
through modifying the composition of the concrete mixture. Examples of such modifications
include the addition of natural fibers which are derived from plants or animals as renewable
sources, unlike EPS with requires petroleum as a main raw material, which can then be added to

14
concrete to improve certain properties. Regardless of their different compositions and nature, there
are several similarities between the addition of EPS and natural fibers to concrete.

An important similarity between natural fiber additives and EPS in concrete is the ability to absorb
some of the stresses applied to the concrete therefore limiting crack propagation. By acting as a
barrier between cracks, both EPS and natural fibers, such as straw, can improve the tensile strength
of the concrete [23]. This results in a more durable concrete structure.

Another similarity is the ability to reduce the density of the concrete. It is beneficial for certain
application to have lighter concrete since normal concrete can be difficult or expensive to transport
and handle. An example of this is the use of straw as LWA in concrete mixtures to decrease the
density and therefore the weight of the concrete. Similar to EPS, the addition of straw mimics air
pockets or voids in the concrete mixture thereby reducing the overall density of the concrete [24].

Another property that is improved when EPS is added to concrete that is similar to that of natural
additives is thermal and sound insulation of the concrete. Thermal insulation properties are
enhanced by reducing the heat transfer throughout the material which is possible due to the voids
or void like elements created due to the addition of natural fibers [25]. Same can be said for sound
insulation properties of EPS concrete and concrete with natural fiber additives. Noise levels are
reduced as the LWA absorb sound waves and increase sound insulation [26].

An emblematic property of concrete bricks or materials is its durability. Environmental factors

such as weather and temperature changes, moisture, as well as chemical exposure may cause
damage and deterioration of the concrete over time. Resistance to such factors can be increased
using natural fibers, the same way the EPS does, which in turn increases durability and the lifespan
of the concrete as it would need less maintenance. An example of this can be seen in wool-
reinforced concrete as it increases the bond strength within the concrete matrix [27].

2.3.4 Self-healing Applications

In recent years, research had been done to develop self-healing methods that are convenient,
achievable, affordable, and limit harmful environmental factors. Giving concrete the ability to
repair cracks on its own without human intervention becoming a great technological advancement
that helps decrease maintenance costs as well as extend the lifespan of structures. There are several
approaches to self-healing concrete however, one that is promising is the use of microorganisms
such as bacteria to heal cracks, specifically microbial induced calcium carbonate precipitation
(MICP) bacteria which can be used with the help of EPS beads [28].
15
MICP bacteria are a specific type of bacteria that produces calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the
presence of calcium ions and carbon dioxide (CO2) [29]. CaCO3 is a mineral that has the ability
to fill the cracks or gaps in concrete therefore 'healing' it and extending its lifespan. The MICP
process involves an enzyme known as urease that is produced by such bacterium with the purpose
of breaking down urea into CO2 and ammonia. The CO2 then combines with the calcium ions in
the concrete matrix to form CaCO3 in order to fill the cracks [30].

One of the main challenges when it comes to bacterial self-healing is making sure there is sufficient
amount of bacteria to achieve the healing affect in the concrete and make sure such bacterium can
indeed survive in the concrete. In order for the bacteria to survive and reproduce, it is necessary to
provide a suitable environment where MICP process is possible with a source of nutrients. It was
found that the environment within EPS beads can be suitable for bacteria to live and grow [31].
The Porous structure of EPS also allows for storage and diffusion of nutrients and oxygen to the
bacteria [28]. Once the EPS beads are impregnated with the bacteria and nutrients, it is then added
to the concrete mixture. When a crack is present in the concrete and propagates, it will break the
barrier of the EPS bead releasing its contents and the MICP process begins to fill the cracks with
CaCO3 [31].

There are several advantages when it comes to using MICP bacteria, such as Sporosarcina
Pasteurii, for self-healing concrete. Firstly, it is environmentally friendly in comparison to typical
concrete maintenance or repair methods that use synthetic materials that may be more harmful
towards the environment. This is due to the fact that the MICP process uses CO2 and natural
nutrients added to the concrete, such as calcium lactate, to produce CaCO3 which is also a natural
mineral [30]. The second advantage involves the cost as using EPS beads with MICP bacteria is a
relatively inexpensive process. Bacterial self-healing concrete is an attractive option in many
construction projects since EPS beads are a low cost material while the bacteria can also be
produced at a low cost since the bacteria strain needed for effective self-healing are soil-borne
bacteria [32].

Keeping the mechanical properties of EPS concrete discussed earlier in mind, adding the ability to
self-heal cracks would further increase the durability of EPS concrete as it is highly likely that the
appearance of micro cracks would be present because of the lowered compressive strength.

However, there are some challenges present with using MICP to self-heal concrete as it may be
difficult for the bacteria to remain viable during the mixing, pouring, and curing process as bacteria

16
are sensitive to changes in their environment such as temperature and pH [33]. For that reason, the
encapsulation method is ideal to solve this complication as it separates the bacteria from the
concrete matrix environment that would otherwise make the bacteria non-viable for MICP after
some time. Another challenge is making sure that the EPS beads carrying the bacteria is evenly
distributed throughout the concrete as to make sure that the self-healing capabilities is effective
and efficient throughout the whole concrete brick.

17
3 EXPERIMENTATION
3.1 Compressive Strength

The samples of EPS concrete bricks were made to test the compressive strength. The composition
of the bricks included no extra additives other than cement, EPS beads, water, and sand. The
procedure of making the EPS samples involved mixing the dry ingredients well first before
gradually adding the water to activate the cement. It is important to mix well in order to make sure
the components, mainly EPS beads, are well bonded together and spread as evenly as possible
before placing the mixture into a mold to set before the curing process begins. The samples were
allowed to cure for 30 days before the first compressive test was conducted; images of the bricks
after first compression testing can be seen in Appendix A. The second compressive test, after
allowing the samples to settle again were done approximately two months after the first test.
Compressive Testing were conducted at Laboratoire Public d’Essais et d’Etudes (LPEE) in
Meknes, Morocco. Table 1 below shows the content amount of each component that was used for
the concrete mixture of each sample, labeled T1 through T9. The densities in kilo-grams per meter
cubed (kg/m3) observed throughout the samples can be seen in Figure 3.1.1 which shows a general
pattern of decreasing density as EPS volume is increased. The table also shows the results of both
compressive strength tests done on the bricks.

Table 1 EPS Samples Composition

18
For the compressive strength, as mentioned, the first tests were done after a month of making the
samples therefore giving them a 30 day curing period so as to see the maximum compressive
strength. As expected, a decreasing trend in compressive strength is observed as the density of EPS
concrete brick decreases, shown in Table 1.

Figure 4 Graph Comparing Results from the First (Grey) and Second Compression
(Yellow) Test

Figure 4 also shows the comparison between results of the first and second compressive strength
tests. Both tests were done two months apart with the purpose of observing the effects of adding
EPS to the concrete on its strength when time is given to ‘rest’ between loads. From these results,
sample T8 had the highest compressive strength observed during both testing instances however,
taking T6 as an outlier, T7 had the lowest strength drop between both tests at 1.43 MPa, even lower
than the total average strength drop which is 2.31 MPa. With that, it is concluded that the optimal
EPS volume percentage that has the least compromise in strength while maintaining the
lightweight low density quality is within the range of 46% to 51%.

Additionally, the results of Figure 4 also shows the capability of EPS concrete to bounce back after
the first compressive testing since the second testing showed some strength remaining due to the

19
high elasticity of EPS that was included in the concrete. In comparison to other materials in
concrete, EPS beads have a low Young's modulus which means it is easily deformed due to applied
forces however, has a rebounding effect and therefore able to return to its original shape [34]. The
Young's modulus measures a materials' stiffness which is the stress-strain ratio during elastic
deformation therefore, since concrete is a composite material, it is influenced by the properties of
the materials in it which explains this unique property that can be found in EPS concrete including
having a lower Young's modulus than traditional concrete [34]. According to the results of the
experiment, this does not mean that EPS concrete bricks would continuously deform and rebound
to its original shape however it is possible to a certain extent based on amount of EPS beads are
included in the mixture. This explains samples T7 and T8 having the lowest compressive strength
drop as they also have a relatively higher EPS concentration within the concrete mixture.

3.2 Solidworks Simulation

3.3.1 Procedure
The software SolidWorks is used for simulating and analyzing materials and structures and one
method commonly used for such analysis is the Finite Element Analysis (FEA). This method
makes it possible to simulate and gain visual representation to solve engineering problems related
to thermal and mechanical properties. The simulation conducted in this section models sample T8
using available data as well as estimations using information of general lightweight concrete
available on SolidWorks of required properties to configure the material and run the simulations.
The VON mises stress equation is used by SolidWorks analysis tools to study and interpret the
mechanical reactions present in the material or structure, seen below in Figure 5.

Figure 5 VON Mises Stress Equation

The first step is to model the desired brick shape by sketching the 3D model onto SolidWorks with
the dimensions 20cm*5cm*6cm. Example of that is shown in Figure 6.

20
 Figure 6 SolidWorks Model Sketch of Sample T8

Next step is to input the properties of the material. For Young’s Modulus, an estimate equation
was used using information from theoretical research on the composite materials to estimate the
value. This is done by summing the multiple of fractional weight and Young’s Modulus for each
component in concrete mixture. Below shows the calculations to determine the force to be applied
and Young’s Modulus.

Young’s Modulus:

Force Applied:

21
The remaining properties that have been plugged in is shown in Figure 7 where real data of these
properties for the sample have been set similar to that of general lightweight concrete.

Figure 7 Input Properties in SolidWorks

3.3.2 Results

Figure 8 Stress Results of Applied Compressive Force on T8 Sample Model

22
According to Figure 8, the bottom side of the brick, especially the corners, seem to experience the
highest stress but the difference is not significant. This supports previous data about EPS beads
aiding in evenly distributing stress throughout the concrete.

As not enough real data is available regarding the samples, it is difficult to have an accurate
simulation regarding the effect of EPS on the mechanical properties of the concrete as a whole
however, with the available data, it was possible to mimic the results achieved with the sample
during real like compression testing. The simulation also gives an idea of the stress distribution
throughout the material and helps give a visual representation of it.

23
4 STEEPLE ANALYSIS
4.1 Social

The main purpose of this project is to study and investigate EPS lightweight concrete. This includes
its structure and properties which include its capability in stopping crack propagation. This can be
applied and used to limit seismic affects from earthquakes that causes major destructions and high
death tolls as an example. Moreover, there is a possibility of using self-healing techniques through
encapsulating healing agents within the EPS beads before adding them into the concrete mixture
to increase durability of the concrete.

4.2 Technological

The use of EPS concrete can be considered as new technological advancements in construction
especially when looked into its quality of resisting seismic movements, for example from
earthquakes. This can especially be said with the possible application and addition of healing
agents alongside the polystyrene.

4.3 Environmental

Adding polystyrene to concrete does not directly harm the environment. Since polystyrene has
other uses that are used widely such as for packaging, it can be recycled and added to concrete. As
it is difficult for polystyrene to degrade, it causes a concern for piling plastic waste however, it can
be put to use with EPS concrete.

4.4 Economical

The purpose of these bricks is to provide lightweight concrete bricks using materials that are easily
available without greatly affecting the properties of the concrete. It is also possible to use recycled
material such as polystyrene that would otherwise simply fill landfills as they are difficult to
degrade. If bacterial self-healing is applied to it then it could also potentially increase durability
which is economical as it decreases the need for maintenance or replacements.

4.5 Political

Having these bricks does not affiliate or contradict any political party.

24
4.6 Legal

In terms of legality, safety regulations are highly considered in this capstone to avoid legal non-
compliance as all materials used are legal and non-harmful. The bricks will not be competing in
any markets as they are for research purposes only.

4.7 Ethical

This project has no hidden nor harmful intentions and results will be reported as accurately and
precisely as possible. Permission for samples used in testing were taken from the party that made
them and credit is given to owners where it is due for any and all information used.

25
5 INVESTIGATION ON RELATED ENGINEERING
STANDARDS
According to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), a standard is defined “as a
document that provides requirements, specifications, guidelines or characteristics that can be used
consistently to ensure that materials, products, processes and services are fit for their purpose” [2].
This includes specifications and guidelines that may specify mechanical, electrical, or functional
aspects of specific components such as, for example, range of dimensions for bricks. There are
different categories when it comes to standards that comprise of process standards, standard test
methodologies, and performance standards [2].

Since this capstone revolves around the study of lightweight concrete, the potential standards to
be kept in mind would generally be under the American Concrete Institution (ACI) and American
Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) [35]. The list of specifications, standards, and guides is
highly detailed and extensive. For the sake of this project specifically, the codes to be kept in mind
are ASTM C33 which discusses the specification for concrete aggregates, ASTM C31 discussed
the practice for making and curing concrete test specimens in the field, ACI 308.1 discussed the
specification for curing concrete, and finally ACI 213R-14 which is the guide for structural
lightweight-aggregate concrete[36].

According to ACI in code ACI 213R-14, low-density concrete is defined with having a density
that is less than 1850 kg/m3 and a minimum 28-day compressive strength of 17 MPa [37]. There
is no specific code regarding strength of non-structural lightweight concrete since they can vary
depending on the application purpose without focusing on strength. Keeping that in mind, the
samples made for this project do not meet the requirement for structural light weight concrete since
the maximum compressive strength recorded was 6.32 MPa (sample T8).

26
6 CONCLUSION
The aim of this capstone report was to study the potential of adding EPS to concrete and its
mechanical properties and applications in self-healing. In the theoretical framework, various
aspects of concrete were explored including the types of masonry bricks, types of concrete
mixtures, microstructure and composition of concrete, microstructure and composition of EPS,
mechanical properties of EPS concrete, effect of EPS on crack propagation in concrete, similarities
between EPS concrete and natural fiber additives in concrete, and self-healing applications in
concrete using EPS beads. Several conclusions have been made throughout the report which can
be summarized in the following:

• As EPS aggregate concentration increases, a decrease in the density of the concrete was
observed.

• Compressive strength tests done on sample EPS concrete bricks showed that an increase in
EPS concentration yields lower compressive strength.

• Experimental results showed samples T1, T2, and T3 had the lowest compressive strength
and also had the least amount of cement over all at 410 kg/m3 in comparison with T7 and T8 which
were considered most optimal with cement amount at 594 kg/m3. Therefore it was established that
an optimal EPS volume in concrete is between 46% to 51%.

• EPS concrete is able to rebound to its original shape because it has a Young’s Modulus that
is lower than traditional concrete due to the elasticity of the EPS beads. The amount of EPS bead
in the concrete mixture affect this attribute.

• The SolidWorks simulation of sample T8 supported the idea of stress being evenly
distributed throughout the concrete thanks to the EPS beads.

27
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31
Appendix A
Sample Images After 1st Compression Testing (T1 through T9 in Order)

32
33
34
35
36
Appendix B
CAPSTONE SPECIFICATIONS

SABET Aisha
EMS
A STUDY OF POLYSTYRENE LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE AND SELF-HEALING
APPLICATIONS
KHALDOUNE A.
Spring 2023

The main objective of this capstone is to study the use of Expended Polystyrene (EPS) as a
lightweight aggregate in concrete bricks, its mechanical properties, and bio self-healing
applications.

To achieve this objective, the theoretical framework includes looking at the different masonry
bricks available with a focus on concrete, the mechanical and thermal properties of the material,
and the effect of EPS lightweight aggregate as well as self-healing applications through
microencapsulation. This project is in collaboration with Yasmine Abdellaoui who is currently
working on her thesis surrounding EPS concrete. For the experimentation, her samples will be
used to test compressive strength twice approximately two months apart and compare the effected
of having different concrete compositions, mainly EPS concentration. Along with the
experimentation, the plan is to also use SolidWorks simulation analysis in order to compare results
with that of the experimentation.
The STEEPLE implications of the work include the social aspect where the purpose is to find the
optimal concentration of EPS beads to introduce to concrete bricks that would decrease the density
of concrete, enhance insulation without high sacrifice of compressive strength which can therefore
be considered as innovative technology. This can be considered as an economical option for
lightweight concrete that is also not harmful to the environment as it is possible to put to use
recycled EPS rather than keeping them as nondegradable waste. Having these bricks does not
affiliate or contradict any political party. In terms of legality, safety regulations are highly
considered in this capstone. This project has no hidden nor harmful intentions and results will be
reported as accurately and precisely as possible. For the Potential Engineering Standards related
to the capstone include ASTM C33, ASTM C31, ACI 308.1, and ACI 213R-14 which discuss
respectively the specification for concrete aggregates, the practice for making and curing concrete
test specimens, the specification for curing concrete, a guide for structural lightweight-aggregate
concrete.

37