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THE USE OF WASTE GLASS AS FINE AGGREGATE REPLACEMENT IN CONCRETE

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Thesis · June 2011

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THE USE OF WASTE GLASS AS FINE AGGREGATE
REPLACEMENT IN CONCRETE BLOCK
By
SADOON MUSHRIF ABDALLAH
Dissertation submitted in fulfillment of the requirements

For degree of
Master of Science (Structural Engineering)
School of Civil Engineering

Universiti Sains Malaysia
June 2011
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr.
Badorul Hisham b. Abu Bakar and Dr. Izwan b. Johari for encouragement, guidance
and friendship. His dedication and patience will be remembered and appreciated.
I would also like to acknowledge Mr. Shahril, Mr. Fauzi and staffs at the Concrete
Laboratory, School of Civil Engineering Universiti Sains Malaysia, for their assistances
in this research, especially in Laboratory testing.
My sincere appreciation goes to all my colleagues and others who have provided
assistance at various occasions, their views and tip which are useful indeed. Last but
not least, appreciation would go to my family for their continuous encouragement and
support.
Sadoon Mushrif Abdallah
i
ABSTRACT
Solid waste management is one of the major environmental concerns in worldwide.
Unfortunately , post-consumer glass represents a major component of solid waste and
difficulty in locating convenient markets that will accept glass collected for recycling.
The presence and accumulation of this waste caused environmental problems.
Therefore, using waste glass as fine aggregate replacement in concrete is an interesting
possibility for economy on waste disposal sites and conservation of natural resources.
To deal with these problems, this study has been conducted through basic experimental
research in order to investigate the possibilities of using crushed waste glass as fine
aggregate replacement in concrete. An experimental work was performed to study the
slump , unit weight, compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength,
modulus of elasticity, ultrasonic pulse velocity, dry density, water absorption and
alkali-silica reaction under different curing age 7, 14 and 28 days. Four concretes
mixes with 0%, 5%, 15% and 20% replacement by weight of sand with waste glass
were prepared. The compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strength and modulus of
elasticity of specimens with 20% waste glass content were 5.28%, 18.38%, 8.92% and
9.75%, respectively, which is higher than the controlled mix at 28 days.
ii
ABSTRAK
Pengurusan sisa pepejal adalah salah satu masalah persekitaran utama di seluruh dunia.
Malangnya, pasca-pelanggan kaca merupakan komponen utama sisa pepejal dan
kesulitan untuk mencari pasaran yang sesuai yang akan menerima gelas dikumpul
untuk dikitar semula. Lambakkan dan pengumpulan sisa ini menimbulkan masalah
persekitaran. Sehubungan dengan itu, dengan menggunakan sisa kaca sebagai
pengganti aggregate halus dalam konkrit adalah sebuah kemungkinan yang berpontesi
untuk ekonomi pengurusan bagi sisa buangan pepejal dan pemuliharaan sumber alam.
Untuk mengatasi masalah ini, kajian ini telah dilakukan melalui penelitian eksperimen
asas untuk menyiasat kemungkinan penggunaan sisa hancur kaca sebagai pengganti
aggregates halus dalam konkrit. Kajian telah dilakukan untuk mempelajari slump, berat
unit, kekuatan mampatan, belahan tegangan, lenturan, tahap kekenyalan, ujian halaju
dedenyut bunyi, ketumpatan kering, serapan air dan tindak balas alkali silica bagi
tempoh rawatan berbeza 7, 14 dan 28 hari. Empat campuran konkrit dengan 0%, 5%,
15% dan 20% digantikan mengikut berat pasir dengan sisa kaca di sediakan. Ujian
kekuatan mampatan, belahan tegangan, lenturan dan modulus elastisittas dengan kadar
sisa 20% kaca adalah 5.28%, 18.38%, 8.92% dan 9.75%, masing-masing, lebih tinggi
daripada campuran kawalan pada 28 hari. Keputusan ini menunjukkan aktiviti pozzolan
yang terhasil oleh kaca sisa ditumbuk halus selepas 28 hari.
iii
CONTENTS`
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
ABSTRAK iii
CONTENTS iv
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 Glass 2
1.3 Glascrete 3
1.4 Environmental and economic benefits 4
1.5 Problem statement 5
1.6 Objectives 6
1.7 Organization of dissertation 6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 General application of waste glass 7
2.3 Use of waste glass in concrete 9
iv
2.4 Glass aggregate in concrete and the effect on mechanical properties 10
2.5 Use of waste glass powder as cement replacements 14
2.6 Alkali -Silica reaction (ASR) 18
2.7 Alkali -Silica reaction (ASR) in concrete glass 19
2.8 Expansion and cracks in concrete due to ASR reaction 21
2.9 Summary 24
CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
3.1 General 25
3.2 Materials used 25
3.2.1 Cement 25
3.2.2 Coarse aggregate 27
3.2.3 Fine aggregate 27
3.2.4 Glass aggregate 29
3.2.5 Water 31
3.3 Mixture proportioning 31
3.4 Preparation of specimens 32
3.5 Mixing process, casting and curing of specimens 32
3.6 Testing of specimens 33
3.6.1 Test of fresh mortar 33
3.6.1.1 Slump test 33
3.6.1.2 Unit weight test 34
3.6.2 Test of hardened mortar 34
3.6.2.1 Density 34
v
3.6.2.2 Compressive strength test 35
3.6.2.3 Flexural strength test 36
3.6.2.4 Splitting tensile strength test 37
3.6.2.5 Modulus of elasticity test 38
3.6.2.6 Water absorption and porosity test 39
3.6.2.7 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test 40
3.6.2.8 Alkali –silica reaction (ASR) test 42
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
4.1 General 43
4.2 Fresh mortar properties 43
4.2.1 Slump test 43
4.2.2 Unit weight test 45
4.3 Hardened mortar properties 46
4.3.1 Destructive test 46
4.3.1.1 Compressive strength 46
4.3.1.2 Splitting tensile strength 48
4.3.1.3 Flexural strength 51
4.3.1.4 Modulus of elasticity 54
4.3.2 Non-Destructive tests 56
4.3.2.1 Ultrasonic pulse velocity 56
4.3.2.2 Water absorption and porosity 58
4.3.2.3 Dry density 60
4.3.2.4 Alkali silica reaction (ASR) 62
vi
4.4 Relationship between Compressive Strength and Water absorption 64
4.5 Relationship between ultrasonic pulse velocity and water absorption 65
4.6 Relationship between compressive strength and dry density 66
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions 67
5.2 Recommendation 69
REFERENCES 70
vii
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 2.1 Effect of recycled glass sand (RGS) on water absorption of concrete
Figure 2.2 Strength development of each mixes at ages 28,90 and 270 days
Figure 2.3 Effect of replacement fine aggregate by GP on strength development
Figure 2.4 Rate heat evolution of cement pastes containing GGC Dyer )
Figure 2.5 Rate expansion against increasing of waste glass content
Figure 2.6 Expansion of mortar due to ASR at 14 day
Figure 3.1 Sieve analysis of fine aggregate
Figure 3.2 Sieve analysis apparatus
Figure 3.3 Apparatus to crushed waste glass
Figure 3.4 Grading curve for glass aggregate
Figure 3.5 Compressive strength machine
Figure 3.6 Flexural strength machine
Figure 3.7 Universal Testing Machine model UH-F1000 NI
Figure 3.8 Water immersion under vacuum apparatus
Figure 3.9 Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) apparatus
Figure 3.10 The samples of a rapid mortar bar test
Figure 4.1 Result of slump test
Figure 4.2 Fresh unit weight for all mixes (kg/m3)
viii
Figure 4.3 Comparison between the values of the compressive strength for
controlled mix and mixes containing different glass aggregate
replacements for three ages curing
Figure 4.4 Compressive strength development for controlled mix and mixes
containing different glass aggregate replacements
Figure 4.5 Comparison between the values of splitting tensile strength for controlled
mix and mixes containing different glass aggregate replacements
Figure 4.6 Splitting tensile strength development for controlled mix and mixes
Figure 4.7 The comparison between the values of flexural strength for controlled mix
and mixes containing different glass aggregate replacements
Figure 4.8 Flexural strength development for controlled mix and mixes
Figure 4.9 The comparison between the values of modulus of elasticity for controlled
Figure 4.10 Modulus of elasticity development for controlled mix and mixes
containing different glass as fine aggregate replacements
Figure 4.11 The comparison between the values of U.P.V. for controlled mix and
mixes containing different glass replacement
Figure 4.12 The comparison between the values of water absorption for controlled
Figure 4.13 Percentages of reduction water absorption of mixes containing waste

glass replacement at 28 day
Figure 4.14 The comparison between the values of dry density for controlled mix
Figure 4.15 The comparison between the values of expansion for controlled mix and
mixes containing different glass aggregate replacements
Figure 4.16 Expansion of waste glass mortar bars for all mixes
ix
Figure 4.17 Correlation between compressive strength and water absorption for
concrete containing waste glass as fine aggregate replacement
Figure 4.18 Correlation between ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and water absorption
for concrete containing waste glass as fine aggregate replacement
Figure 4.19 Correlation between ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and dry density for
x
LIST OF TABLE
Table 3.1 Chemical composition and physical properties of Portland cement
Table 3.2 Sieve analysis of 20 mm coarse aggregates
Table 3.3 Sieve analysis of fine aggregate
Table 3.4 Grading of waste glass
Table 3.5 Mix proportions
Table 4.1 Results of slump test
Table 4.2 Fresh density for all mixes
Table 4.3 Compressive strength (MPa) for all mixes
Table 4.4 Splitting tensile strength (MPa)
Table 4.5 Percentage of reduction and increases in splitting tensile strength of

mixes containing waste glass compared with controlled mix
Table 4.6 Flexural strength (MPa) for all mixes
Table 4.7 Modulus of elasticity for all mixes
Table 4.8 Ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/sec) for all mixes

Table 4.9 Classification of quality of concrete
Table 4.10 Water absorption for all mixes
Table 4.11 Dry density for all mixes
Table 4.12 Expansion for all mixes
xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AASHTO : American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ASTM : American Society for Testing Materials
BS: British standard
MRF : Material Recycling Facilities
ASR : Alkali-Silica Reaction
WG : Waste glass
GA : Glass Aggregate
GP : Glass Powder
RGS : Recycled glass sand
SF :Silica Fume
FA: Fly ash
GBFS : Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
PC: Portland Cement
UPV : Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
PFA : Pulverized-Fuel Ash
GGC : Green Glass Content
xii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
The reuse of the waste glass is one of the important issues in many countries due to
the increment in solid waste in the environment. The waste glass is considered as an
important solid waste that can be found in the majority of world’s countries and is
being not much affected by weather conditions and its existence leading to
environmental problem Caijun et al (2007). Thus the suitable solutions must be found
to overcome this problem. Accordingly, valuable researches have been conducted to
show the possibility of using the waste glass as a building material and adding it as a
partial replacement to the concrete mixture without affecting the concrete quality.
Therefore the concrete can be produced within acceptable properties.
Many studies aim to replace fine aggregate by certain percentage of crushed waste
glass as a fine aggregate to be added to the concrete mixture. In addition, these studies
focus on the possibility of using the waste glass as partial or wholly alternative for the
conventional concrete materials, that gives a double outcomes, the first is reducing the
depletion of the wealth of nature resources. Secondly, reducing the environmental
risks by producing non-conventional concrete that is called the glascrete.
1
1.2 Glass
Glass is a unique inert material that could be recycled many times without changing its
chemical properties. Unfortunately, a lot of glass become unsuitable for recycling, the
efficiency of this process (i.e. recycling) is affected by several factors. Firstly, the
efficiency of collecting and sorting methods for different glass colors, where, if
different colors (clear, green, amber, etc.) are mixed, they become unsuitable for
manufacturing new glass containers. Secondly, it is affected by the level of
contaminates that might be presented in the stockpile, and finally the shipping costs.
Since not all the cities in countries have the recycling factories. Thus, the main aim of
environmental authorities is to reduce, as far as possible, the disposal of post-consumer
glass in landfill or recycle to glass products. Therefore, it has been supposed that, if
glass could be incorporated in concrete production, it would greatly reduce the disposal
of waste glass or its use in lower valued works such as fill or road base materials
( Shayan, 2002). On the other hand, the major concern regarding the use of glass in
concrete is the chemical reaction that takes place between the silica-rich glass particles
(glass aggregate ) and the alkali in cement i.e. alkali-silica reaction ( Shao et al. 2000 ).
2
1.3 Glascrete
Glascrete is a special type of concrete that can be produced by replacing partially the
sand or the gravel or both of which with the crushed glass material at certain sizes.
Using crushed waste glass as a aggregate have some problems because the chemical
reaction between alkali in cement and silica in glass (Alkali-Silica Reaction ) which
forms gel and its action will lead to swelling in presence of moisture and causes
expansions and leads to deterioration of concrete. This reaction can occur in normal
concrete if normal aggregate contains a big quantity of silica.
There are different ways to mitigate ASR (Meyer ,2000 ) showed some solutions to
reduce the phenomena of alkali-silica reaction. This ways report the ASR problem and
show its negative effects in the long-term. The mentioned solutions are as follows:
1- Grinding the waste glass to pass at least U.S. standard size 300µm.
2- Replacement a part of cement by mineral admixtures such as meta kaolin
because it have ability to adsorption alkalis ions hence mitigate the reaction.
3-Sealing the concrete to protect it from moisture because the reaction occur with
the presence of moisture.
4-Modifying the glass chemistry, some researches reveal that the green
chrome which contains the chrome oxide that does not cause any reaction
between alkalis and silica (Meyer, 2000).
5-Using a low-alkali cement, which is likely to be less effective, unless alkalies
from the environment can be kept away.
3
1.4 Environmental and economic benefits
The utilizing of waste glass as part of concrete ingredients has been given a significant
attention in recent years. It is considered as one of the most valued options that leads
partially to solve the related disposal problem, and at the same time will open up new
possibilities to produce new applications. The reusing of waste glass in concrete has
significant benefits such as :
1-Cuting of waste disposal costs, which are likely to rise due to landfill tax.
2-Keeping costs and the required energy for recycling , where a recycling cost of one
ton of waste glass reaches to $45 and this is considered as very exorbitant costs,
e.g. New York city has accumulated waste glass up to 100.000 ton annually
(Chesner, 1992).
3- Reducing the costs of producing concrete because has been replacement a part of
waste rather than conventional concrete materials that have high cost.
4- Conserving the environment by saving large amount of primary raw materials each
year.
5-Extending the life of our landfill sites, helping to conserve the countryside.
4
1.5 Problem statement
The use of recycled waste glass in concrete has attracted a lot of interest worldwide.
Unfortunately, post-consumer glass represents a major component of solid waste and
difficulty in locating convenient markets that will accept glass collected for recycling,
the presence and accumulation of this waste caused environment problems. In 1994,
approximately 9.2 million metric tons of post-consumer glass were discharged in the
United States. In New York city alone more than 100,000 tons are collected annually
and most of this waste glass was container glass. Material Recycling Facilities
Company (MRFC) pay up to $45 per ton for disposal of these wastes Chesner et
al.(1997). For these reasons, study on the effects of using waste glass is needed to
observe its potential to replace waste glass as a fine aggregate in concrete. On the other
hand, the major concern regarding the use of glass in concrete is the chemical reaction
that takes place between the silica-rich glass particles (glass aggregate ) and the alkali
in cement i.e. alkali-silica reaction (ASR), which forms gel and its action will lead to
swelling in presence of moisture and causes expansions and leads to deterioration of
concrete. The main aim of this study is to investigate the characteristics of concrete
containing fine crushed glass and to obtain the appropriate ratio of fine crushed glass
which leads to good properties of concrete.
5
1.6 Objectives
The objectives of this study are as follows :
1-To investigate the characteristics of concrete containing fine crushed waste glass.
2-To determine the appropriate percentage of replacement to give high strength

concrete.
1.7 Organization of dissertation
The organization of this thesis is presented in the following chapters:
i. Chapter one: Introduction to recycled waste glass, problem statement and
benefits of using waste glass in concrete.
ii. Chapter Two : Review the previous research related to waste glass in concrete.
iii. Chapter Three :This chapter discusses the experimental work and tests.
iv. Chapter Four : Results and discussion.
v. Chapter Five : Conclusions and the recommendations.
6
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The utilization of waste glass as a high value material has received a considerable
attention recently. Waste glass became a major problem for municipalities nationwide
due to the austere changes in the environmental legislations. A matter that is positively
encouraging the use of waste glass in different construction applications.
This chapter presents a review for some of the available literature related to the usage
of waste glass in construction and non-construction applications, but it is specifically
focused on the utilization of waste glass as both fine aggregates and cementitious
material in the concrete system. A considerable attention is directed towards the
possible alkali-silica reaction and the common ways to mitigate its adverse effects.
2.2 General application of wastes glass
Glass cullet is recycled container glass (previously used for bottles, jars and other
similar glass vessels) prior to processing. The material is typically collected via bottle
banks, curbside collection schemes and from premises handling large quantities of
containers. The primary aim for cullet collecting is processing it for returning to the
glassmaking process to manufacture new glass products. The term ―Cullet‖ also refers
to waste glass produced as a result of breakage and rejection on quality control grounds
7
during manufacturing process. Crushed, graded glass cullet has been extensively
investigated and tried in a number of construction and non-construction related
applications (Meyer, 2001).
Reindl (2003) reported that the glass cullet could be exploited in a variety of uses,
including road construction aggregate, asphalt paving, concrete aggregate, building
applications (glass tiles, bricks, wall panels, ... etc), fiber glass insulation, glass fiber,
abrasive, art glass, landscaping, reflective beads, hydraulic cement, and other
applications. The critical requirement in all these applications is that, the correct
characteristics and physical properties of the glass cullet for the targeted application
should be well understood and defined.
Weitz (2005) reported that the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) had recognized the use of recycled materials in
pavement and created a new specification titled ―Glass Cullet Use for Soil Aggregate
Base Course.‖ The specification illustrates that when properly processed, glass cullet
can be expected to provide adequate stability and load support for use as road or
highway bases. Crushed glass cullet that has been used as aggregate in road
construction or bituminous concrete pavements is popularly known as ―glassphalt‖.
A number of field trials of glassphalt pavements have been carried out since 1971. It
was observed that holds heat longer than conventional asphalt. This may be
advantageous when road works are carried out in cold weather or when long transport
distances are required. Furthermore, the glass particles will increase the reflectivity of
the road surface, therefore, improve the night-time road visibility.
8
Smith (2004) indicated that ground glass could be added to clay during manufacturing
of brick to save energy costs and produce bricks that are more resistant to frost damage.
Glass powder will serve as ―fluxing agent‖ through melting process leading to reduce
melting temperature and period. The manufactured brick has also proved lower water
absorption and higher compressive strength.
Hadlington (2002) presented a summary of works conducted by other researchers or
organizations. For example, he quoted from Dryden Aqua Company that tiny glass
particles could be used as filtration media for purifying water. The colored glass (green
or amber) have been ground into particles of less than a tenth of a millimeter, during
this process a net negative electrical charge will be left on the particles surfaces, which
enables them to attract grays. A second effect can occur in filters made from colored
glass grains. Those filters can split oxygen molecules into single highly reactive
oxygen, which is responsible for drawing microbes to the surface of the grains and
killing them.
2.3 Use of waste glass in concrete
A lot of studies have been conducted about the possibility of using ground waste glass
since 1960s,1970s and 1980s , as aggregates or cement replacement (Pike et al. (1960),
Scmidt et al( 1963), Phillips et al (1972) and Johnston (1974) ) .However this studies
9
were not accuracy . In the past 10 years, the use of glass as cement concrete aggregates
has again come under investigation due to high disposal costs for waste glasses and
environmental regulations.
2.4 Glass aggregate in concrete and their effect on mechanical properties
Many studies and attempts had been conducted in recent years to use crushed wastes
glass as a partial replacement for both coarse and fine aggregates. This studies showed
some conclusion like using crushed waste glass by good method making them has a
good resistance for abrasion and lower shrinkage in dry situation comparing with plain
concrete. Furthermore, the concrete with waste glass has lower ability to water
absorption compared with plain concrete. (Concrete Technology Unit, 2003 )
Jin et al. ( 2000) have conducted a study to use colored glass aggregate as a partial
replacement of fine and coarse aggregate. The results showed that the concrete with
non-colored waste glass recoded a large expansion caused by ASR reaction compared
with concrete with colored waste glass.
Meyer (2000) reported that the presence of glass as aggregate will affect the
mechanical properties of concrete, due to the lower adhesion and bond strength
between glass aggregate and cement paste, due to the relatively smooth surfaces of
glass comparing with relatively rough surfaces of natural aggregate.
10
Park (2004) reported that use of waste glass as fine aggregate will decrease the slump
value with increase the replacement level of waste glass and observed that the
mechanical properties ( compressive, tensile and flexural strength) of concrete
containing waste glass as fine aggregate decreased with increase waste glass
replacement level.
Corinaldesi et al. (2005) has investigated that by using 30–70% of waste glass as a
fine aggregate in concrete and it shows that no deleterious effect has been detected at a
macroscopic level due to the reaction between cement paste and crushed waste glass
with particle size up to 100 µm. On the contrary, a strong improvement of the mortar
mechanical performance was detected, due to the positive contribution of the waste
glass to the micro-structural properties. It was observed that no alkali-silica (ASR)
reaction has been noticed with particle sizes up to 100 µm, thus reflecting the feasibility
of waste glass to be used as fine aggregate in mortars and concrete.
Topçu and Canbaz (2004) noticed that mechanical properties of concrete containing
waste glass decreased with the increase in the content of waste glass as coarse
aggregate in concrete mixtures.
Shehata et al (2005) reported that the effect of using waste glass as partial volume
replacement of fine aggregate on mechanical properties of the concrete composites has
higher modulus of rupture values for all glascrete mixes relative to reference mix. The
main findings of using waste glass as a fine aggregate are good interfacial bonding
between cement paste and glass aggregates, and that the glass aggregates act as crack
arrestors, preventing cracks from propagating through them.
11
Shayan (2002) pointed out that not more than 50% by weight of the normal aggregate
could be replaced with a mixture of coarse and fine glass aggregate for structural and
non-structural applications. However, appropriate precautions should be taken to
minimize the detrimental effects of the alkali-silica reaction, such as using suitable
pozzolanic materials in appropriate proportions.
Seung et al. (2004) observed that the slump and compacting factor of concrete
containing waste glass aggregates decreased with increase wastes glass content that
attributed to the angular grain shapes of waste glass. And the strength of concrete
containing waste glass as fine aggregate 30% with 10% SBR, give a highest values of
mechanical properties.
Mohamad (2005) reported that the compressive strength of concrete made with waste
glass decreases up to 20% of its original value with increasing temperatures up to 700
°C. In general, concretes made with 10% aggregates replacement with fine waste glass
had better properties in the fresh and hardened states at ambient and high temperatures
than those with larger replacement. Concretes made with fine waste glass aggregates
had higher compressive strengths than those made with coarse waste glass aggregate at
ambient and elevated temperatures.
Chen et al. (2006) noticed that the use of waste E-glass as fine aggregate replacement
has significant postive effect on mechanical properties in particular compressive
strength at late ages.
12
Terro (2006) reported that the effect of using waste glass as fine and coarse aggregate
on hardened properties at ambient and elevated temperatures. The results showed
decrease compressive strength up to 20% proportion to controlled mix with increasing
temperatures up to 700 ◦C. The concrete with 10 % aggregate replacement in ambient
and elevated temperatures, had better properties.
Bashar et al. ( 2007) found that the presence of particles recycled glass sand (RGS)
can reduce the permeability of the concrete and the amount of water in concrete was
reduced when the content of (RGS) was increased as shown in Figure 2.1.
On the other hand, the presence of recycled glass sand (RGS) in concrete will reduce of
the consistency of the cement paste and adhesive bond of the ingredients inside the
concrete mix. And reported that the presence of the recycled glass sand (RGS) in
concrete will reduces compaction factor and workability compared with controlled mix,
thus the strength properties of the concrete will be negatively affected.
Figure 2.1 : Effect of recycled glass sand (RGS) on water absorption of concrete ( Bashar et al., 2007 )
13
Metwally (2007) reported that the use of ground waste glass as aggregate in concrete
will effect on workability but had significant improvement of mechanical properties at
later ages.
2.5 Use of waste glass powder as cement replacements
Wastes that contains a high content of silica (SiO2) could be added to cement as a
pozzolanic constituent. Finely ground glass has appropriate amorphous silica (SiO2)
content to react with dissolved calcium hydroxide in the presence of water,
consequently forming hydrated compounds in a similar way to pozzolanic materials
such as pulverized-fuel ash (PFA), ground-granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and
silica fume (SF). Pozzolanicity of glass powder (GP) was first studied in 1973.
However the most important works have been conducted in the last 10 years. Published
research works have shown that glass powder will react in a pozzolanic manner in the
cementitious systems and contribute to the strength development of concrete (Reindl,
2003).
Shayan (2002) studied the strength development using fined glass powder (GP) at long-
term compared with silica fume (SF). This series consists of control mix with reactive
fine aggregate and other mixes that contained either 10% SF, 20% GP or 30% GP as a
partial replacement by weight of cement. The series also contained another mix
proportioned with 30% GP but as fine aggregate replacement. Figure 2.2 shows the
strength development of each combination over 270 days. The results indicated that the
14
10% SF replacement produced higher strength than the GP replacements, but they also
showed that GP mixes continue to develop further strength with time indicating its
pozzolanic activity. It was stated by Shayan that the observed decrement in
compressive strength of GP mixes was due to the lower cement content rather than the
nature of GP. He also indicated that when 30% of sand was replaced by GP, the 90-day
compressive strength was similar to that of SF specimens.
Figure 2.2 : Strength development of each mixes at ages 28,90 and 270 days ( Shayan,
2002)
In order to prove the positive effect for replacement of fine aggregate by glass powder
two additional tests were conducted on mortar cubes, cured for up to 270 days. In one
set, 20% of cement was replaced by GP and in the other set, in addition, 10% of
aggregate was replaced by GP. The second set showed higher compressive strength
compared to the first set, as shown in Figure 2.3.
15
Figure 2.3 : Effect of replacement fine aggregate by GP on strength development
(Shayan, 2002)
It was also noted the strength obtained by second set (i.e. 20% of cement replaced by
GP and 10% of fine aggregate replaced by GP) is higher than those obtained through
replacement of 10% of cement by SF ( Shayan, 2002).
Dyer et al.( 2001) studied the heat evolution of cement pastes containing green glass
GGC. As shown in Figure 2.4 below the highest rate of heat evolution drops as the
Portland cement content is reduced. This is expected because any pozzolanic reaction
will occur at later stages and evolve only minor quantities of heat. It is apparent that the
presence of glass cullet has no influence on the normal early PC hydration reactions.
16
Figure 2.4 : Rate heat evolution of cement pastes containing GGC (Dyer and Dhir,
2001)
Shao et al (2000) conducted tests to investigate the pozzolanic behavior of glass
powder (GP) and with maximum particle size 30μm. It was noticed that the strength for
all mixes containing glass powder at same size (30μm), the strength exceeding 75% at
all ages. A size effect was also observed, where smaller glass particle size led to higher
compressive strength and lower expansion in their concrete composites. They also
indicated that concrete containing glass powder exhibited a higher strength at both early
and late ages, as compared with concrete containing fly ash.
Caijun et al. (2007) reported that the use of ground waste glass exhibit excellent
pozzolanic reaction. Therefore it can be used as cement replacement. It was also
reported that the pozzolanic reactivity increases whenever fineness was increased.
17
2.6 Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)
The ASR reaction is considered one of the adverse reactions in concrete and which
occurs through the reaction between type of active silica that reside sometimes in types
of aggregates and between the alkali exist in cement . This reaction was discovered in
1940 by Stanton. The reaction occurs between the hydroxide ions associated with the
dissolved salts of sodium and potassium and the silica molecules of certain imperfectly
crystallized siliceous rocks. In fact the alkalis do not actually attack the reactive silica.
The importance of the alkalis is that their presence in high concentrations in the pore
solution results in an equally high concentration of OH¯ ions (to maintain charge
equilibrium). It is this high OH¯ concentration, and thus high pH value, that leads to the
initial breakdown of reactive silica components in the aggregates. The reaction
produces a silica gel that will expand in the presence of moisture. The gel that is formed
at the aggregate surface and that formed before hardening is high in lime. These high-
lime gels are thought to be innocuous and unable to expand. It is of special interest to
know that although, the alkali-silica reaction is very detrimental to the concrete
stability, to some extent this chemical reaction can increase the strength of the
concrete. This increase in strength is usually due to the filling of bond-area with
cementitious reaction products that have not caused any deleterious expansion. This
process may be considered similar to the pozzolanic reaction in concrete ( Hadlington,
2002).
18
2.7 Alkali-Silica reaction (ASR) in concrete glass
The role of aggregate in concrete was originally perceived to be entirely mechanical.
Aggregate particles are thought to be unaffected by the cement paste and they are
selected on the basis of their physical properties. However, there are chemical reactions
that can take place between some reactive aggregates and cement paste ( Hadlington,
2002). It is generally believed that glass is unstable in the alkaline environment of the
concrete. Although both sand and glass consist mostly of silica, they behave differently.
The main reason for this difference in behavior is attributed to the nature of the silica in
sand which has a regular crystalline structure, and which is relatively stable and
resistant to chemical influences, whereas the same silica in the amorphous form in glass
is not. Therefore, intensive researches have been conducted to assess the dimensional
stability of glascrete mixes with regard to alkali-silica reaction. (Meyer, 2000).
Phillips et al.(1973) have shown that up to 35% of glass cullet could be used in
concrete in combination with low-alkali cement (cement limited with 0.60 % on the
Na2Oeq in accordance with ASTM-C150 ) without detrimental effects. However, some
specifying agencies indicated that use of low-alkali cement does not guarantee that
concrete containing reactive aggregates will not produce excessive expansion, i.e.
increasing the cement content with low-alkali cement may increase the alkali
concentration of the concrete pore solution and may cause deleterious expansion.
19
Meyer (2000) observed that replacing 10% of the natural aggregate with clear glass led
to a 14-day expansion that is twice the ASTM limit of 0.1%, and bars with 100% glass
aggregate exhibited the extraordinary expansion of 1.4%. The ASR reaction occurs due
to concentration hydroxide ions. As mentioned earlier, the major concern regarding
ASR is concentration hydroxyl ion (pH) in the concrete. In many studies, the alkali
content is limited to reduce the risk of alkali release and thereby expansive alkali-silica
reaction.
Shayan (2002) showed that the use of up to 30% glass aggregate in concrete might not
cause deleterious effects, particularly if the alkali content of the concrete is below 3
kg/m3. Another important issue was under misgiving and argumentations, this was the
large soda content of the glass (around 13%). The tests were carried out to establish
whether the sodium, which is present in glass cullet, was likely to aggravate ASR.
Depending on the results of Shayan (2002) and the (Concrete Technology Unit of
University of Dundee, 2003), it has been confirmed that the harmful ASR didn’t occur
due to glass-soda content because this sodium oxide seems unlikely to release during
the hydration process. The ASR reaction much influenced by the particle size of the
glass aggregates used, the particle size of glass aggregate which causes maximum
expansion called ―pessimum size‖. For regular soda lime glass, the pessimum size is
about size 1.18 mm to 600µm . For aggregate finer than the pessimum size, the ASR
expansion decreases with further decrement in particle size. It is generally confirmed
that waste glass, ground to size 150µm is not likely to cause unacceptable expansion
20
due to ASR. Some other researches (Meyer, 2000, Dhir et al. 2001, Reindl, 2003)
indicated that even with fraction size equal to size 300µm, no expansion is observed.
2.8 Expansion and cracks in concrete due to ASR reaction
The expansion and cracking of concrete containing glass aggregate has been known for
decades. Some studies have attempted to use traditional alkali–silica reaction theories
to explain the expansion of cement concrete containing mixed waste glasses as
aggregates. The expansion phenomena of cement concrete containing mixed waste
glasses as aggregates from the published works are different from those from traditional
alkali–silica reaction and have been observed there some differences between
conventional expansion due to alkali–silica reaction and expansion caused by glass
aggregate (Figg,1981). The normal mode of generation of swelling pressure within the
concrete appears to be due to the alternation and softening of the aggregate grains by
inward diffusion of alkali metals and hydroxyl ions followed by imbibitions of water
with the development of considerable osmotic pressure and eventual tensile failure and
cracking of the surrounding matrix. Reaction rims on the periphery of aggregate grains
are commonly observed with the residues of altered aggregate particles and copius
amounts of isotropic alkali silicate gel and gel secondary reaction products (Caijun et
al. 2007).
Some studies (Meyer et al. 1997, Jin et al. 2000) reported the different colors of glass
does affect the expansion of concrete and noticed that the use green glass containing
Cr2O3 in composition could inhibit the expansion of
21
concrete containing glass aggregate. On the other hand, Zhu et al. (2004) observed that
there was no difference in green, amber and flint glasses.
Topc, ( 2007) observed that clear glass shows higher expansion value comparing to
brown and green glasses but Özkan et al. (2007) observed that the colors of glasses
have no significant effect on ASR expansions as shown in Figure 2.5.
Park et al.( 2004) observed the expansion rate by ASR in accordance to ASTM C 1260
with green waste glass content up to 100% of sand replacement. The bars containing
green waste glass showed an expansion rate within 0.2% up to 30% of its content as
shown in Figure 2.5. This may be due to the unlimited supply of alkali in the 1 N
NaOH solution when ASTM C 1260 test is applied.
Figure 2.5 : Rate expansion against increasing of waste glass content ( Park et al.
2004)
22
Özkan et al.(2007) studied the influence of ground waste glass in three colors ( clear,
green and brown) with fly ash (FA) and granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) on
expansion of concrete. The results of expansion of mortar bars were observed more
than 0.2% at 14 day and the limitation of ASTMC1260 that expansions of more than
0.2% are indicative of potentially deleterious expansion. The maximum expansion
observed with using waste glass as fine aggregate up to 50% and on the other hand
mix contains 50% of fly ash noticed the expansion decreased. It was concluded that
the use of waste glass with fly ash (FA) or granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) is
more effective than the usage of waste glass alone. On the other hand waste glass
without any combination with fly ash (FA) or granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS )
can substitute with cement up to 30%. However, the replacement ratio can be increased
up to 50% if waste glass was combined with granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) or
fly ash (FA) as shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6 : Expansion of mortar due to ASR at 14 day (Özkan et al, 2007)
23
2.9 Summary
From the review, most of the research work focused mainly on the use of waste glass
as fine aggregate in different percentages as well as their effects on the mechanical
properties in concrete. Several studies found that the addition of waste glass in
concrete has a negative effect on concrete properties. In otherwise some studies were
found that a specific percentage of sand replacement not exceeding 30% has revealed a
positive effect on concrete properties.
Further research is needed to be carried out to investigate the appropriate replacement
percentage of waste glass with no negative effect on mechanical properties of concrete.
24
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
3.1 General
This chapter discuses the experimental work. The basic tests carried out on materials
used for casting concrete samples are discussed in this chapter. It is followed by a
brief description about mix design and curing procedure adopted. At the end, various
tests conducted on the specimens are discussed.
3.2 Materials used
The materials used in this study are cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, crushed
waste glass as fine aggregate replacement and water.
3.2.1 Cement
All materials used in this study are locally available. Ordinary Portland Cement used
in the study was Blue Lion brand manufactured by Cement Industries Malaysia
Berhad, according to Malaysian Standard MS 522, which is based on the British
standard BS 12 and European Union standard EN 196. The chemical composition
and physical properties of the cement are existing in Table 3.1.
25
Table 3.1: Chemical composition and physical properties of Portland cement
Chemical composition
Oxide Content %
CaO 63.17
SiO2 19.98
Al2O3 5.17
Fe2O3 3.27
MgO 0.79
SO3 2.38
Total Alkalis 0.9
L. O. I. 1.88
I. R. 1.47
L. S. F. 0.87
Main Compounds (Bogue’s equations)
C3 S 59.09
C2 S 12.71
C3 A 8.18
C4AF 9.94
Modulus
Lime saturation factor 0.96
Silica modulus 2.37
Iron modulus 1.58
Physical properties
Compressive strength , N/mm²
Compressive strength at
3days, MPa 38
7days, MPa 46
28day, MPa 56
26
3.2.2 Coarse aggregates
The natural crushed stone aggregate was supplied by local source, with maximum
size of 19.5 mm and bulk density of 1530 kg/m³. The aggregates were washed to
remove dust and dirt and were dried to surface dry condition. The sieve analysis
results of coarse aggregates were carried out according to ASTM standard
specifications. The sieve analysis results of coarse aggregate are given in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 : Sieve analysis of 20 mm coarse aggregates
Sieve size % Passing by ASTM Standard Specifications

(mm) Weight
19.5 mm 100 100

12.5mm 93.4 90-100
9.5 mm 67.1 40-70
4.75mm 9.38 0-15
2.36 mm 0.62 0-5
3.2.3 Fine aggregates
The fine aggregate used for the experimental work was locally procured and the fine
aggregate was natural sand of 4.75 mm maximum size. The used sand was sieved
according to the requirements of the ASTM standard specification. The aggregates
were sieved through a set of sieves as shown in Figure 3.1. Sieve analysis results are
presented in Table 3.3.
27
Table 3.3 : Sieve analysis of fine aggregate
Sieve size % Passing by ASTM Standard Specifications

(mm) Weight
4.75 98.56 95-100

2.36 91.31 80-100
1.18 62.15 50-85
0.60 33.12 25-60
0.30 8.6 5-30
0.15 0.85 0-10
Fineness modulus =3.05
Particle Size Analysis

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.1 1 10
Fine Aggr. Min. Max.
Figure 3.1 : Sieve analysis of fine aggregate
28
Figure 3.2 : Sieve analysis apparatus
3.2.4 Glass aggregates
Most of the raw glass materials used in this study were clear flat glass. The first step in
preparing the glass aggregate was the crushing process, which was carried out using
crushing machine as shown in Figure 3.2. The second step in preparing the glass
aggregate was sieve analysis for the glass particles as shows in Table 3.4 and Figure
3.3. The specific gravity of glass aggregate was 2.23, while the absorption was
negligible.
29
Table 3.4 : Grading of waste glass
Sieve size Mass % Retained % Passing Cumulative ASTM Standard

(mm) Retained %age Specifications
(gms) Retained
4.75 0 0 100 0 95-100
2.36 1.7 0.17 99.83 0.17 80-100
1.18 357.7 35.77 64.04 35.94 50-85
0.60 230.9 23.09 40.97 59.03 25-60
0.30 200.2 20.02 20.95 79.05 5-30
0.15 113.2 11.32 9.63 90.37 0-10
Pan 96.3 9.63 0 0 0

264.56
Fineness Modulus of glass aggregate =
ΣF/100 = 264.56/100 = 2.64
Figure 3.3 : Apparatus to crushed waste glass
30
120
100 99.83
percentage passing %
80
60 64.04
40 40.97 Pass %
20 20.95
9.63
0 3.77
0
2.36 1.18 600 300 150 75 pan
Pass % 99.83 64.04 40.97 20.95 9.63 3.77 0
Sieve size , mm
Figure 3.4 : Grading curve for glass aggregate
3.2.5 Water
The Water used for concrete mix for this experiment was taken from pipe in the
laboratory in school of civil engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia. The water was
ensured to be clean and free from impurities or reactive agent .
3.3 Mixture proportioning
Four types of concrete mixes were prepared. The controlled concrete mixes, which
consisted of sand (812.2 kg/m3), gravel (979 kg/m3), cement (363.3 kg/m3), and water
(200 kg/m3), resulted in a water-cement ratio of 0.55. The other mixes were contained
waste glass aggregates of 5%, 15%, and 20% by weight as a partial replacement of
natural fine aggregate. Both types of concrete mixes were cured for 7, 14, and 28 days.
31
Table 3.5 : Mix proportions
No Mix w/c Amount of Coarse Fine Fine

cement kg/m3 aggregate aggregate aggregate
3 3
kg/m kg/m glass kg/m3
1 Control mix 0.55 363.3 979 812.2 0
2 5%
0.55 363.3 979 771.59 40.61
Replacement
3 15%
0.55 363.3 979 690.37 121.83
Replacement
4 20%
0.55 363.3 979 649.76 162.44
Replacement
3.4 Preparation of specimens
The molds were coated with mineral oil to ensure that no water escaped during filling
and to prevent adhesion of concrete and leave out ready to casting.
3.5 Mixing process , casting and curing of specimens
Mixing process was carried out by using 0.1 m³ rotary type mixer. The materials were
weighed using a high precision electronic balance. The dry ingredients ( cement , glass
, coarse and fine aggregates ) of each mixture was initially mixed for 2 to 6 minutes
until achieving a homogenous mixes .The mixer is allowed to run for 30 seconds and
then the cement is added with the rest of the water. The concrete is mixed with all
ingredients in the mixer for at least three to four more minutes. Clean and oiled moulds
were used for each mix then placed on the vibrating table. The samples remained on
the vibration table for approximately 30 seconds as the cement slurry appeared on the
32
top surface of the mould. The top surfaces of the moulds were leveled and covered
with clothes to prevent evaporation. The samples were left in the iron mould for the
first 24 hours at ambient condition. After that they were removed from mould with
care so that no edges were broken and were placed in the curing tank at the ambient
temperature for curing.
3.6. Testing of specimens
There are two types of tests conducted, i.e fresh mortar and hardened mortar test.
3.6.1 Test of fresh mortar
The fresh tests included, the slump and unit weight test were conducted on fresh
mortar after the concrete mixing.
3.6.1.1 Slump test
The objective of slump test is to know the slump measurement for the degree of
workability of the concrete after mixing. The 300 mm ruler, 600 mm slump rod,
standard slump cone, flat metal base plate, small scoop, steel float and waste rag are
used in this test.
The mould should be filled in 3 layers of concrete and each layer is rodded with 25
strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod. After the top layer has been rodded and
cleaned, the mould is then lifted vertically from the concrete. The value of slump is
then recorded.
33
3.6.1.2 Unit weight test
The unit weight for all mixes was carried out on fresh concrete and calculated by the
following equation:
Df (3-1)
where,
Df = fresh unit weight of concrete (kg/ m³)
Mc= mass of mold filled with concrete (kg)
Mm= mass of mold (kg)
Vm = volume of the mold (m³)
3.6.2 Test of hardened mortar
Two types of tests for hardened concrete were conducted. Those are destructive and
non-destructive tests. The destructive tests consist of compressive strength test, splitting
tensile test, modulus of elasticity test and flexural strength test. All specimens were
taken out of water just before testing. On the other hand, the non-destructive tests are
ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), water absorption, dry density and ASR. The average
result of three specimens is adopted at each test.
3.6.2.1 Density test
The density test of concrete containing waste glass is to measure the mass in 1
m3 of the concrete cubes. The apparatus of the test is weighing machine. he specimens
are removed from the curing tank and the surface water of the specimen is wiped. The
34
specimens also are gritted off. Then the specimens are put on the weight machine in air
and the consistence weight readings had been recorded. After that, the specimens are
put on the weight machine in water and the consistence weight readings are recorded.
Then the density of concrete cubes is calculated from the formula below..
Density = x1000 kg /m3 (3-2)

–
3.6.2.2 Compressive strength test
The compressive strength test was carried out according to (B.S.1610: part 1 : 1992)
and using cube specimens of size (100 x 100 x 100 ) mm. This test was carried at the
ages 7, 14 and 28 days. The compressive strength of any mix was taken as the average
of strength of three specimens for each age. The cubes were tested by using digital
compressive machine (ELE-ADR-AUTO.3000) of 3000 kN capacity.
Figure 3.5: Compressive strength machine
35
3.6.2.3 Flexural strength test
The flexural strength test was carried out according to (B.S.1610: part 1 : 1992) on
100×100×500 mm prisms. The flexural strength was calculated by using simply
supported prism with clear span of 26.5 mm under four point loading. The test was
carried out at ages of 7, 14 and 28 day. The following equation is adopted to calculate
the flexural strength of the specimens.
(3-3)
where,
Fr = flexural strength (MPa)

P = maximum applied load indicated by the machine at failure (N)
L = length of specimen (mm
b = width of specimen (mm)
d = depth of specimen (mm)
36
Figure 3.6 : Flexural strength machine
3.6.2.4 Splitting tensile strength test
The splitting tensile strength test was carried out according to (ASTM C496-96). In this
test, cylindrical specimens of size (100 mm diameter × 200 mm height ) were cast. The
test was conducted at ages of 7, 14 and 28 days. The splitting tensile strength of the
specimens is calculated by the following equation:
(3-4)
where,
T = splitting tensile strength (MPa)

P = the maximum applied load indicated by the machine at failure (N)
D = diameter of cylinder (mm)
L = length of cylinder (mm)
37
3.6.2.5 Modulus of elasticity test
The modulus of elasticity test was carried out according to (ASTM-C-469 ). For this
test, cylindrical specimens of size (100 mm diameter × 200 mm height ) were cast. The
test was conducted at ages of 7, 14 and 28 days.
Figure 3.7 : Universal testing machine model UH-F1000 NI
38
3.6.2.6 Water absorption and porosity test
The test is needed to measure the percentage of water absorption and porosity of the
concrete. First of all, the samples to be tested had been cores to at least 100 mm
diameter x 35 mm thick cylinders by the coring machine. Then the specimen is dried in
a ventilated oven at 105° C for 24 hours. The weight of the dry specimen (W4) is
determined. After that, the specimen in the vacuum saturation apparatus is placed and a
vacuum pressure of one bar is applied for three hours. While the specimen was still
under vacuum, the water had been introduced and the specimen is submerged so as to
have about one centimeter of water covering the top of the specimen. This vacuum
condition is maintained for three hours after an introduction of water.
After three hours, the vacuum condition is released and the specimen is kept in water
for another one hour to achieve full saturation. Then the specimen is taken from the
water and the surfaces of specimen are wiped with a dry cloth. Its weight in air (W2)
and in water (W4) had been determined. The water absorption (A) and porosity (P) are
calculated as follows:
(3-5)
(3-6)
where,
A(%) = Water absorption percentage
P(%) = Porosity percentage
39
W2= Weight of the saturated sample in air
W3 = Weight of the saturated sample in water
W4 = Weight of the dry sample
Figure 3.8 : Water immersion under vacuum apparatus
3.6.2.7 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test
The ultrasonic pulse velocity test was determined according to BS 1881: Part 203,
using (100×100×500) mm prisms. The apparatus used for this purpose is portable
ultrasonic non-destructive indicating tester (PUNDIT) as shown in Figure 3.9 .The test
has been conducted on the specimens intended for flexural strength. In fact the same
specimens were tested at ages (7, 14 and 28 days). The specimens were tested directly
40
after removal from the curing tank. The test principle is wave velocity is dependent on
the elastic properties and density of material. Grease or petroleum jelly was used
between the tested surfaces of the specimen and the contact faces of the transducers to
ensure good contact. The test is done by the direct transmission. All of the results from
the equipment are divided by the path length of the concrete beam that is 500 mm.
Then the average results had been taken .
(3-7)
where,
V= The pulse velocity
L= path length (km
T=transit time (sec.)
Figure 3.9 : Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) apparatus
41
3.6.2.8 Alkali –Silica reaction ( ASR ) test
The accelerated mortar bar test was conducted according to ASTM C1260 by keeping
the mortar bars in a high temperature and high alkali medium (80 °C, 1 N NaOH
solution). Due to the silica-rich nature and amorphous structure of the glass, it is
susceptible to chemical attack under the high alkali conditions provided by the hydrated
cement phase in the concrete, which could produce extensive formation of ASR gel. It
was stated in the Appendix of ASTMC1260 that expansions of more than 0.2% are
indicative of potentially deleterious expansion. The 14-day expansions are considered
as the expansions for determining alkali -silica reaction ( ASR ) resistance. Figure 3.9
show the samples used in the test.
Figure 3.10 : The samples of a rapid mortar bar test
42
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 General
This chapter summarizes the results of the tests conducted and discussion. The tests
were carried out on fresh and hardened concrete. For the fresh concrete, slump and unit
weight tests were conducted, while, for the hardened concrete, tests are divided into
two categories i.e destructive and non-destructive tests. The first category consists of
compressive strength, tensile strength and flexural strength tests, while the second
category consists of ultrasonic pulse velocity, water absorption and dry unit weight
tests.
4.2 Fresh Mortar Properties
4.2.1 Slump Test
The results of the slump tests are illustrated in Table 4.1. It can be seen that the slump
values slightly decrease as the waste glass ratio increases compared to the controlled
mix. The values of slump were 65, 56.5 and 52 mm for samples containing 5%, 15%
and 20% of waste glass, respectively, as shown in Figure 4.1. This decline in the slump
values can be related to the poor geometry of the waste glass, which results in lesser
fluidity of the mixes as well as the reduction of fineness modulus. In previous study,
Park et al. (2004) also observed that increasing the ratio of waste glass will lead to
43
decrease the slump of concrete due to waste glass aggregates had sharper and more
angular grain shapes and were larger than sands, which resulted in less fluidity.
Table 4.1: Results of slump test
No Mix W/C Slump (mm)

1 Control 0.55 80
2 5% Replacement 0.55 65
3 15% Replacement 0.55 56.5
4 20% Replacement 0.55 52
90
80
Slump (mm)
70
60
Slump values
50
40
30
20
10
0
Control 5% GA 15% GA 20 % GA
contents of waste glass
Figure 4.1 : Result of slump test
44
4.2.2 Unit weight test
The results of unit weight test for all mixes are presented in Table 4.2 and the results
demonstrate the tendency of the unit weight values (density ) to decrease as the waste
glass ratio increases relative to controlled mix, as shown in Figure 4.2. This is
attributed to the lower specific gravity of glass aggregate as compared with sand.
Similar results were reported by Hamemrnik et al.(1991).
Table 4.2 : Fresh density for all mixes
Mix Control 5% 15% 20%

Fresh density (kg/m³) 2442.3 2426 2405.29 2398.6
2450
Fresh unit weight kg/m³
2440
Fresh unit weight kg/m³
2430
2420
2410
2400
2390
2380
2370
Control 5% GA 15% GA 20 % GA
contents of waste glass
Figure 4.2: Fresh unit weight for all mixes (kg/m3)
45
4.3 Hardened Mortar Properties
4.3.1 Destructive Tests
4.3.1.1 Compressive Strength Test
The compressive strengths of the controlled and waste glass concrete mixes at 7, 14,
and 28 days are presented in Table 4.3. The comparison between the values of the
compressive strength for the same mixes is shown in Figure 4.3. The development of
compressive strength with time for controlled mix and mixes containing 5,15 and 20 %
of glass aggregate as partial replacements of the sand is shown in Figure 4.4. It can be
seen that with the addition of waste glass, the compressive strength of concrete
increases. From the results obtained, the highest-28 day compressive strength values of
34.22 MPa was obtained from the concrete mix made of 20% waste glass fine
aggregate, which represents an increase in the compressive strength of up to 5.28 % as
compared to the controlled mix. All controlled and glass aggregate mixes show a
continuous increase in strength with age. It can be observed that the percentage
increases in compressive strength with age are generally increased with the increment
of glass aggregate replacements. This shows that the high degrees of strength
enhancement were obtained when the pozzolanic effect became significant at a late age
of 28 days.
46
Table 4.3 : Compressive strength (MPa) for all mixes
Compressive strength (MPa) at ages of

Mix 7 days 14 day 28 day
Control 24.77 29.2 32.41
5% waste glass 26.15 29.63 31.59
15% waste glass 24.5 29.87 31.84
20% waste glass 25.65 28.81 34.22
40
35
Compressive strength Mpa
30
25
20 7 days
15 14 day
10 28day
5
0
control mix 5% Glass 15% Glass 20% Glass
Mix
Figure 4.3 : Comparison between the values of the compressive strength for controlled
mix and mixes containing different glass aggregate replacements for three ages curing
47
40
35
Compressive strength MPa
30
Control
25 5% Glass
15% Glass
20% Glass
20
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Age (days)
Figure 4.4 :Compressive strength development for controlled mix and mixes containing
different glass aggregate replacements
4.3.1.2 Splitting Tensile Strength
The concrete contains glass is brittle as conventional concrete (Meyer, 2000). The
tensile strength property for concrete contains glass is of special importance because it
is the most evident manifestation of the alkali-silica reaction occurrence. More
specifically, in moist conditions the akali-silica gel could expand and produce a tensile
stress within the concrete structure. This is considered the main reason responsible for
the damaging of concrete ( Hadlington, 2002). The splitting tensile strength for all
mixes after being cured for 7, 14, and 28 day is presented in Table 4.4.
48
Table 4.4: Splitting tensile strength (MPa)
Tensile strength (MPa)

Control 2.139 2.396 2.548
5% waste glass 2.043 2.207 2.569
15% waste glass 1.347 1.767 2.927
20% waste glass 1.652 1.980 3.122
Table 4.5 : Percentage of reducing and increasing in splitting tensile strength of mixes
containing waste glass compared with controlled mix
Percentage reducing / increasing in tensile strength(%)

5% waste glass -4.48 -7.88 +0.81
15% waste glass -37.02 -26.25 +12.9
20% waste glass -22.76 -17.36 +18.38
From these results, the follow observations can be made :
1-The results shows development in splitting tensile strength for mixes containing
waste glass replacement is higher than controlled mix with age, due to the progress of
hydration and good bond strength between glass aggregate cement paste relative to
controlled mix.
2-According to the test results ,the best 28-day splitting tensile strength value of 3.122
MPa was obtained from the concrete mix made of 20% waste glass fine aggregate,
which represents an increase in the splitting tensile strength of up to
49
18.38% as compared to the controlled mix, as shown in Table 4.5. This behavior is
attributed to the good bond strength between glass aggregate and the surrounding
cement paste relative to bond strength between natural sand and cement paste.
3.5
2.5
Splitting tensile strength (MPa)
2 at ages of 7 days
Splitting tensile strength (MPa)
1.5
at ages of 14 day
1 Splitting tensile strength (MPa)
at ages of 28 day
0.5
0
Control 5% waste 15% waste 20% waste
glass glass glass
Figure 4.5 : Comparison between the values of splitting tensile strength for controlled
50
4
Splitting tensile strength (Mpa)

3
2 Control
5%Glass
15%Glass
20%Glass
1
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Age (Days)
Figure 4.6: Splitting tensile strength development for controlled mix and mixes
4.3.1.3 Flexural Strength
The flexural strength test results at 7, 14 and 28-day are presented in Table 4.6.
Generally, the flexural strength was observed to follow the same trend for 7, 14, and
28-day concrete mixes. From these test results the following observations can be made:
1-From Table 4.6, it is clearly observed that all mixes show a continuous increase in
flexural strength with age. Figure 4.7 illustrates the comparison between flexural
strength for mixes containing 5%, 15% and 20% of glass aggregate as partial
replacements for sand and controlled mix.
51
2-The results of flexural strength illustrates the better behavior for mixes containing
waste glass as compared with controlled mix. This enhancement increases with the
increment of glass aggregate replacements, as shown in the Figure 4.8. According to
the test results, the 28-day flexural strength values were noticed to have a tendency to
increase above the controlled mix by 3.54%, 5.03 %, and 8.92% as the waste glass
content increased by 5%,15%, and 20%, respectively. This shows that significant
pozzolanic reaction had taken place during this period of time
Table 4.6 : Flexural strength (MPa) for all mixes
Flexural strength (MPa) at ages of

Control 3.265 4.127 4.90
5% waste glass 3.781 4.376 5.08
15% waste glass 3.499 4.258 5.16
20% waste glass 3.843 4.213 5.38
52
6
4
Flexural strength (MPa) at
3 ages of 7 days
ages of 14 day
2
ages of 28 day
1
0
glass glass glass
Figure 4.7 : Comparison between the values of flexural strength for controlled mix
5.5
Flexural strength MPa
4.5
Control
4 5% Glass
15% Glass
3.5 20% Glass
3
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Age (days)
Figure 4.8 : Flexural strength development for controlled mix and mixes
53
4.3.1.4 Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of the waste glass concrete mixes at 7, 14, and 28 days curing
are presented in Table 4.7. From results in Table 4.7, it is clearly observed that all
mixes show a continuous increase in modulus of elasticity with age , as shown in
Figure 4.9. These results illustrates the better behavior for mixes containing waste glass
as compared with controlled mix. This enhancement increases with the increment of
glass aggregate replacements. According to the test results, the 28-day modulus of
elasticity values were noticed to have a tendency to increase above the plain mix by
2.54%, 5.45%, and 9.75% as the waste glass content increased by 5%,15%, and 20%,
respectively, as shown in Figure 4.10. These increases indicate to improved properties
of these mixes. This could be attributed to glass has a high modulus elasticity compared
to natural sand.
Table 4.7 : Modulus of elasticity for all mixes
Modulus of elasticity (MPa) at ages of

Control 18.21 23.3 26
5% waste glass 16.67 23.45 26.68
15% waste glass 18.42 24.47 27.5
20% waste glass 19.35 24.87 28.81
54
35
30
25
Modulus of elasticity (MPa)
20 at ages of 7 days
15 Modulus of elasticity (MPa)
at ages of 14 day
10 Modulus of elasticity (MPa)
at ages of 28 day
5
0
glass glass glass
Figure 4.9 : The comparison between the values of modulus of elasticity for controlled
30
27.5
Modulus of elasticity MPa
25
22.5
20
Control
5% Glass
17.5 15% Glass
20% Glass
15
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Age (Days)
Figure 4.10: Modulus of elasticity development for controlled mix and mixes
containing different glass as fine aggregate replacements
55
4.3.2 Non-Destructive Tests
4.3.2.1 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (U.P.V)
The results of the ultrasonic pulse velocity test for all mixes at various durations of 7,
14 and 28-day, are presented in Table 4.8.
Table 4.8: Ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/sec) for all mixes
Ultrasonic pulse velocity Quality of concrete at ages of

Mix (km/sec) at ages of
7 days 14 day 28 day 7 days 14 day 28 day
Control 3.98 4.01 4.26 Good Good Good
5% waste glass 4.11 4.13 4.23 Good Good Good
From the above test results the following observations can be drawn:
It is clearly seen that the ultrasonic pulse velocity values increase with age, as shown
in Figure 4.11. This is mainly attributed to the increase in specimen density due to
progress of hydration and reduction in voids content and discontinuity points.
The results of ultrasonic pulse velocity illustrates that all the waste glass concrete mixes
showed U.P.V. values that are slightly lower than those of the controlled mix. This
behavior is attributed to the lower specific gravity of glass particles relative to specific
gravity of sand. Accordingly, specimens with lower density will be obtained as the
glass aggregate replacement increases.
56
According to the general classification of the quality of concrete on the basis of the
pulse velocity which is given in Table 4.9, the quality of concrete mixes can be
regarded as good quality concrete.
Table 4.9 : Classification of quality of concrete
57
4.3
4.2
4.1
4
3.9 Ultrasonic pulse velocity
(km/sec) at ages of 7 days
3.8
3.6 (km/sec) at ages of 14 day
3.4 (km/sec) at ages of 28 day
3.3
Control 5% waste 15% 20%
glass waste waste
glass glass
Figure 4.11: The comparison between the values of U.P.V. for controlled mix and mixes
containing different glass replacement
4.3.2.2 Water absorption and porosity
The water absorption test results for all mixes at 7, 14, and 28 age days are presented in
Table 4.10. The results showed that increase ratios of the glass aggregate in mixes lead
to decreasing the water absorption as compared with controlled mix. The water
absorption test results for the concretes containing waste glass as fine aggregates of
different ratios decreased with age, as shown in Figure 4.12. This is due to the recur
that continuous hydration process will produce concrete with lower porosity. As
hydration product fill the pore between cement particle and aggregate to reduce the
average pore diameter, the concrete ability to absorb water reduces, for example at 28
days age, the percentages of reduction in water absorption for mixes containing 5% ,
15% and 20% of waste glass compared with controlled mix are 4.68%, 9.16 % and
58
14.86 % respectively, as shown in Figure 4.13. This behavior is attributed to the
impermeable nature of glass aggregate compared with natural sand.
Table 4.10 : Water absorption for all mixes
Water absorption % at ages of

Control 5.87 5.28 4.91
5% waste glass 5.53 4.99 4.68
15% waste glass 5.21 4.73 4.46
20% waste glass 4.94 4.51 4.18
6
Water absorption %
4
Control
3 5% waste glass
2 15% waste glass

20% waste glass
1
0
7 days 14 day 28 day
Age
Figure 4.12: The comparison between the values of water absorption for controlled mix
59
Figure 4.13: Graph shows effect of replacement level of waste glass on water
absorption at 28 day
4.3.2.3 Dry density
The dry density results for all mixes at 7, 14 and 28-day curing ages are presented in
Table 4.11. The results demonstrate the tendency of the dry density to decrease as the
waste glass ratio increases compared with controlled mix, as shown in Figure 4.14. This
is attributed to density of glass aggregate is lower than natural sand.
60
Table 4.11 : Dry density for all mixes
Dry density kg/m³ at ages of

Control 2365 2378.6 2398
5% waste glass 2358.5 2364.3 2374.2
15% waste glass 2354.8 2362.9 2366.1
20% waste glass 2351.4 2359.7 2360.2
2410
2400
2390
Dry density Kg/m3
2380
2370 control
2360 5% waste glass
2350 15% waste glass
2340 20% waste glass
2330
2320
7 days 14 day 28 day
age(day)
Figure 4.14: The comparison between the values of dry density for controlled mix and mixes
61
4.3.2.4 ASR Test
A rapid mortar bar test was conducted according to ASTM C1260 by testing the mortar
bars in a high temperature and high alkali medium for 14-day age to assess the potential
volumetric expansion or contraction.
The expansion values of the waste glass concrete mixes at 3, 7 and 14 days age are
presented in Table 4.12. Figure 4.15 illustrates that with increase in waste glass content
up to 20%, there a clear reduction in the expansion of the specimen compared with
control mix, the maximum expansion recorded at 14-days. The ratio of reduction in
expansion of concrete containing waste glass at 14-day age for 5%, 15% and 20% to
controlled mix were 20%, 56.25 and 70% respectively, as shown in Figure 4.16.
However, the expansions of all specimens were less than 0.1%, indicating that no
potential deleterious expansion occurred in the waste glass specimens according to
ASTMC1260. This decrease in the expansion of the mixes containing waste glass as
aggregate replacement comparing with controlled mix is attributed to the reduction of
available alkali due to the consumption of lime by reaction with finely waste glass and
the expected reduction of the system alkalinity.
Table 4.12 : Expansion for all mixes
Expansion %at ages of

Control 0.015 0.03 0.08
5% waste glass 0.009 0.02 0.064
15% waste glass 0.0085 0.015 0.035
20% waste glass 0.008 0.01 0.024
62
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
Control
0.05
5% waste glass
0.04
15% waste glass
0.03
20% waste glass
0.02
0.01
0
3 days 7 day 14 day
Figure 4.15 : The comparison between the values of expansion for controlled mix and mixes
0.090 Control 5% Glass 15%Glass 20%Glass

0.080
0.070
Expansion %
0.060
0.050
0.040
0.030
0.020
0.010
0.000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Age (Days)
Figure 4.16: Expansion of waste glass mortar bars for all mixes
63
4.4 Relationship between Compressive Strength and Water absorption
The relation between compressive strength and water absorption are presented in
Figure 4.17. According to the test results, the best 28-day compressive strength value
of 34.22 MPa was obtained from the concrete mix made of 20% waste glass fine
aggregate. Otherwise the lower 28-day water absorption value of 4.18% was obtained
from the concrete mix made of 20% waste glass fine aggregate. It is clearly observed
that the compressive strength increases with the decrease of porosity of concrete
containing up to 20% of waste glass. This occurs because continuous hydration process
will produce concrete with lower porosity. As hydration product fill the pore between
cement particle and aggregate to reduce the average pore diameter, the concrete ability
to absorb water reduces.
40 6
35
Compressive strength (Mpa)
5.5 Compressive strength (MPa),7 day

30
Water absorption %
5 Compressive strength (MPa),14

25 day
20 4.5 Compressive strength (MPa),28

day
15
4 Water absorption %, 7 day
10
3.5 Water absorption ,14 day
5
0 3
Water absorption , 28 day
Control 5% WG 15% WG 20% WG
MIX
Figure 4.17: Correlation between compressive strength and water absorption for
64
4.5 Relationship between ultrasonic pulse velocity and water absorption
The relation between ultrasonic pulse velocity and water absorption are presented in
Figure 4.18. The results shows that the ultrasonic pulse velocity values increase with
age for all mixes. This occur because continuous hydration process will produce
concrete with lower porosity. As hydration product fill the pore between cement
particle and aggregate to reduce the average pore diameter, the concrete ability to
absorb water reduces, so will produce increase in specimen density and reduction in
voids content, hence the ultrasonic pulse velocity increase with decrease porosity.
4.4 6
4.3
4.2 5.5
4.1
Water absorption %
4 5
UPV Km/sec
UPV, 7 day
3.9 UPV, 14 day
4.5
3.8
UPV, 28 day
3.7 4 Water absorption %, 7 day
3.6
Water absorption %,14 day
3.5 3.5
Water absorption%, 28 day
3.4
3.3 3
MIX
Figure 4.18: Correlation between ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and water absorption
for concrete containing waste glass as fine aggregate replacement
65
4.6 Relationship between compressive strength and dry density
The relation between compressive strength and dry density are presented in Figure
4.19. The results demonstrate the tendency of the dry density to decrease as the waste
glass ratio increases compared with controlled mix. This is attributed to the reason that
the unit weight of concrete with waste glass is lower than that without waste glass.
From the results obtained, the highest-28 day compressive strength values of 34.22
MPa was obtained from the concrete mix made of 20% waste glass fine aggregate,
which represents an increase in the compressive strength of up to 5.28 % as compared
to the controlled mix. This phenomena is attributed to the pozzolanic reactions
appearing at later stage of hardening and helped to improve the compressive strength.
0 1 2 3 4 5
40 2410
35 Compressive strength (MPa),7

2400
Compressive strength (Mpa)
day
30 Compressive strength
2390
Density Kg/m³
(MPa),14 day
25
2380 Compressive strength
20 (MPa),28 day
2370
15 density kg/m³, 7 day
2360
10
density kg/m³, 14 day
5 2350
density kg/m³, 28 day
0 2340
MIX
Figure 4.19: Correlation between ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and dry density for
66
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions
From the study, it can be concluded that
1 ) The slump of concrete containing waste glass as fine aggregate replacement
decreased with increases in the waste glass content. In spite of reduction in the slump
values of mixes containing glass aggregate ,they have good workability. The 5%,15%
and 20% replacement of natural fine aggregate show decrease value of slump by
18.7%, 29.4% and 35% respectively, as compared to the control mix .
2) Compressive strength of the concrete with partial replacement of sand by finely
crushed waste glass increased with the increment ratios of waste glass. Concrete
containing waste glass shows higher compressive strength at the later ages.
Compressive strength at 28 days of concrete age with 20% crushed waste glass
replacement of sand by waste glass give 5.28% higher compressive strength than
controlled concrete.
3) The 20% percentage of replacement finely ground waste glass by sand that gives
the maximum values of compressive, tensile and flexural strengths at 28- days age.
67
4 ) Water absorption decreases with increase in waste glass aggregate ratio. The
highest reduction is obtained with 20 % of glass aggregate replacement. The reduction
is 14.68% at 28-day age, relative to control mix. On the other hand, all mixes showed
decrease in water absorption with age, therefore the porosity of the concrete will
decrease as well.
5 ) The ultrasonic pulse velocity for mixes containing different ratios of waste glass as
aggregate replacement showed slightly lower than those of the controlled mix and pulse
velocity for all mixes at -28 days higher than 4 km/s. According to the general
classification of the quality of concrete on the basis of the pulse velocity, the quality of
concrete mixes can be regarded as good quality concrete.
6 ) Testing results indicated that partial replacement of sand with waste glass aggregate
reduces the ASR expansion. The expansions of all specimens were less than 0.1%,
indicating that no potential deleterious expansion occurred in the waste glass
specimens.
68
5.2 Recommendation
This study was carried out by using waste glass as fine aggregate replacement in
concrete, where different percentage of replacements were been used. The results
suggest that the appropriate waste glass sand replacement is 20%, which that showed
good mechanical and chemical properties at-28 days age. Recommendations are
presented to investigate the influence of waste glass of durability of concrete at long
term. The recommendations are as follows:
1. Study of the long-term performance of concrete containing waste glass.
2. Study of the durability of concrete containing waste glass.
3. Study of the fire resistance of the concrete containing waste glass.
4. Investigate of the properties of concrete containing fine glass powder with
size less than (10μm) as a cement replacement
69
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THE USE OF WASTE GLASS AS FINE AGGREGATE REPLACEMENT IN CONCRETE

Thesis · June 2011

Fibre reinforced concrete View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

SADOON MUSHRIF ABDALLAH

Dissertation submitted in fulfillment of the requirements

School of Civil Engineering

I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr.

in this research, especially in Laboratory testing.

Sadoon Mushrif Abdallah

Solid waste management is one of the major environmental concerns in worldwide.

Unfortunately , post-consumer glass represents a major component of solid waste and

The presence and accumulation of this waste caused environmental problems.

Therefore, using waste glass as fine aggregate replacement in concrete is an interesting

aggregate replacement in concrete. An experimental work was performed to study the

9.75%, respectively, which is higher than the controlled mix at 28 days.

Malangnya, pasca-pelanggan kaca merupakan komponen utama sisa pepejal dan

persekitaran. Sehubungan dengan itu, dengan menggunakan sisa kaca sebagai

yang terhasil oleh kaca sisa ditumbuk halus selepas 28 hari.

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xii

1.4 Environmental and economic benefits 4

1.5 Problem statement 5

1.7 Organization of dissertation 6

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2 General application of waste glass 7

2.3 Use of waste glass in concrete 9

2.5 Use of waste glass powder as cement replacements 14

2.6 Alkali -Silica reaction (ASR) 18

2.7 Alkali -Silica reaction (ASR) in concrete glass 19

2.8 Expansion and cracks in concrete due to ASR reaction 21

CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

3.2 Materials used 25

3.2.2 Coarse aggregate 27

3.2.3 Fine aggregate 27

3.2.4 Glass aggregate 29

3.3 Mixture proportioning 31

3.4 Preparation of specimens 32

3.5 Mixing process, casting and curing of specimens 32

3.6 Testing of specimens 33

3.6.1 Test of fresh mortar 33

3.6.1.1 Slump test 33

3.6.1.2 Unit weight test 34

3.6.2 Test of hardened mortar 34

3.6.2.3 Flexural strength test 36

3.6.2.4 Splitting tensile strength test 37

3.6.2.5 Modulus of elasticity test 38

3.6.2.6 Water absorption and porosity test 39

3.6.2.7 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test 40

3.6.2.8 Alkali –silica reaction (ASR) test 42

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

4.2 Fresh mortar properties 43

4.2.1 Slump test 43

4.2.2 Unit weight test 45

4.3 Hardened mortar properties 46

4.3.1 Destructive test 46

4.3.1.1 Compressive strength 46

4.3.1.2 Splitting tensile strength 48

4.3.1.3 Flexural strength 51

4.3.1.4 Modulus of elasticity 54

4.3.2 Non-Destructive tests 56

4.3.2.1 Ultrasonic pulse velocity 56