The Effect of Partial Replacement of Sharp Sand With Stone Dust On Mechanical Properties of Concrete

TITLE PAGE
THE EFFECT OF PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF SHARP SAND WITH STONE DUST

ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
BY
EDEANI CHINEDU EMMANUEL
2016030178677
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
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SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL
FULFILMENT OF THE BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING DEGREE IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
JUNE 2022
2
CERTIFICATION
I certify that this research work on “The effect of partial replacement of sharp sand
with stone dust on mechanical properties of concrete” was carried by Edeani
Chinedu Emmanuel with registration number 2016030178677 in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the award of Bachelor Degree in Civil Engineering.
___________________________
EDEANI CHINEDU EMMANUEL
2016030178677
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APPROVAL PAGE
This research work on “The effect of partial replacement of sharp sand with stone
dust on mechanical properties of concrete” has been approved to the Department
of Civil Engineering, Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of Bachelor Degree in Civil Engineering. Enugu State University of Science and
Technology (ESUT), Enugu.
ENGR. DR. JOHNMARTIN ENEM DATE
Supervisor
ENGR. DR. C.C. IKE DATE
Head of Department
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_____________________ _________________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINER DATE
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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to God Almighty.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely acknowledge the Almighty God for his infinite mercies and guidance
throughout my stay in school.
I thank my supervisor Engr. Dr. JohnMartin Enem for his encouragement and
assistance offered to bring this work to fruition, Special thanks to the H.O.D of
Civil Engineering department being Engr. Dr. C.C. Ike and all the Civil Engineering
Lecturers who have helped me in one way or the other to the accomplishment of this
project work.
Finally, I also appreciate the efforts of my lovely parents for their moral and
financial support and anybody who contributed in any way or the other towards the
successful actualization of this project whose name was omitted.
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ABSTRACT
Stone Dust which is a residue tailing or other non-voluble waste material after the
extraction and processing of rocks to form fine particles less than 4.75mm.The Quarry
rock dust can be an economic alternative to the river sand since river sand is
expensive due to excessive cost of transportation from natural sources and also large
scale depletion of these sources creates environmental problems Usually, quarry
dust is used in large scale in the highways as a surface finishing material and
also used for manufacturing of hollow blocks and lightweight concrete
prefabricated elements. Use of quarry dust as a fine aggregate in concrete
draws serious attention of researchers and investigators. Quarry dust is a waste
obtained during quarrying process. It has very recently gained good attention to be
used as an effective filler material instead of fine aggregate. Also, the use of quarry
dust as the fine aggregate decreases the cost of concrete production in terms of the
partial replacement for natural river sand. This research aimed to investigate the effect
of replacing sharp sand with stone dust as an alternative to only sharp sand. Design
mix of M25grade concrete with replacement of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% of quarry dust
have been considered for laboratory analysis. Sieve analysis was carried out on the
aggregate to determine the size of particle distribution. Slump test was carried out to
compare the batches of concrete. Compressive strength test was carried out on
concrete cubes made from sharp sand and concrete cubes made from replacement of
sharp sand with stone at constant of free water/cement ratio 0.59. To check the
properties of concrete produced with the different materials, the tests were done for 7,
14, 21 and 28 days. The result obtained indicated that the strength of using only
sharp sand as a fine aggregate in concrete production is higher than strength of using
stone dust as a substitute material for sharp sand at 5%, 10%, and 15% replacement.
At 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% replacement, the strengths were 34.74 N/mm 2, 20.47
N/mm2, 23.70 N/mm2, and 28.37 N/mm2 respectively. However, the control mix (0%)
and the 15% replacement mix both gave a desirable strength with respect to the grade
of concrete.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Title page i
Certification ii
Approval page iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Abstract vi
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background of the study 1

1.1.1 Types of aggregate sizes 8
1.2 Statement o problems 9

1.3 Aim and objectives of the study 9
1.4 Scope of the study 10
1.5 Justification of the study 10
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Compressive strength of concrete 11
2.1.1 Compression 12
2.2 Workability of fine aggregate on the compressive strength
of concrete 14
2.3 Influence of different types of sand on the compressive
Strength of concrete 15
2.4 Quality and properties of concrete 18
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2.4.1 Properties of fresh concrete 19
2.4.1 Properties of hardened concrete 25
CHAPTER THREE 26
3.0 Material and methods 26
3.1 Materials 26
3.1.1 Portland cement 26
3.1.2 Coarse aggregates 26
3.1.3 Sharp sand 26
3.1.4 Quarry dust 26
3.1.5 Water 27
3.2 Methods 27
3.2.1 Sieve analysis of fine aggregate (sharp sand) 27
3.2.2 Sieve analysis of fine aggregate (stone dust) 30
3.2.3 Sieve analysis for coarse aggregates 32
3.2.4 Specific gravity of fine aggregate (sharp sand) 34
3.2.5 Specific gravity of fine aggregate (stone dust) 37
3.2.6 Specific gravity test on coarse aggregate 42
3.2.7 Concrete mix design 45
3.2.8 Mixing of concrete 50
3.2.9 Slump test 50
3.2.10 Casting of concrete cubes 52
3.2.11 Density 52
3.2.9 Compressive strength test 60
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CHAPTER FOUR 37
4.0 Results presentation and discussions 69
4.1. Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate (Sharp sand) 69
4.2 Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate (Stone Dust) 71
4.3 Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate 73
4.4 Specific gravity test of Fine aggregate (sharp sand) 75
4.5 Specific gravity test of Fine aggregate (Stone dust) 76
4.6 Specific gravity test on coarse aggregate 77
4.7 Mix design calculation 78
4.8 Slump test result 79
4.9 Density 80
4.9.1 Density of concrete at 7 days 80
4.10 Compressive strength 84
4.10.1 Strength at 7 days 84
11
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1: Particle size distribution graph for fine aggregate (sharp sand) 70
Figure 4.2: Particle size distribution graph for fine aggregate (stone dust) 72
Figure 4.3: Particle size distribution graph for coarse aggregate 74
Figure 4.4: Chart for slump level against replacement level 79
Figure 4.5: Chart for Density against replacement level at 7 days 80
Figure 4.9: Chart for compressive strength against replacement level at
7 days 84
14 days 85
21 days 86
28 days 87
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Mix design ratio 47
Table 4.1: Data on Sieve analysis of Fine Aggregate (sharp sand) 69
Table 4.2: Data on Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate (Stone dust) 71
Table 4.3: Data on Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate 73
Table 4.4: Data on Specific gravity test of fine aggregate (sharp sand) 75
Table 4.5: Data on Specific gravity test of fine aggregate (Stone dust) 76
Table 4.6: Data on Specific gravity test of coarse aggregate 77
Table 4.7: Mix design ratio 78
Table 4.8: Data on Slump test 79
Table 4.9: Data on Density of concrete at 7 days 80
Table 4.13: Data on Compressive Strength at 7 days 84
Table 4.14: Data on Compressive Strength at14 days 85
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CHAPTER ONE
I.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Over the past few years, there have been made many research efforts
concerning the utilization of stone dust as sand substitution material (partial
or total replacement) for the production of several types of concrete and
building elements ang, R.; Yu, R.; Shui, Z.; Gao, X.; Han, J.; Lin, G.; Qian, D.;
Liu, Z.; He, Y. (2020). However, the usage of stone dust in these applications is
rather demanding with regard to compositional aspects. More specifically,
partial replacement of sand by stone dust (up to 20% replacement) for the
production of concrete and cement-based products improves the mechanical
and durability properties, but the addition of higher quantities of stone dust
raises the water demand of the mixture. The large surface area of fines
increases the water required in order to maintain proper workability of the
mixture, resulting in higher shrinkage and strength deterioration. However, the
usage of effective superplasticizers, which reduce the required water amount,
and sophisticated mixture design methodologies makes the incorporation of
stone dust in concrete and cement-based building elements possible Galetakis,
M.; Soultana, A. (2016). Concrete is generally composed of aggregates, cement
and water. Cement is hydrated to form a gel around aggregates, which sets
thus binding the concrete mass. The aggregates should have good mechanical
properties in terms of shape, density, grading, hardness and purity to achieve
the required strength and durability. The effect of various types of aggregates
on compressive strength and density of concrete are previously studied by
many other researchers but there is lack of information about the various types
of fillers and their effects on the mechanical properties of concrete. The type
and grading of aggregates on the mechanical properties of concrete is very
important especially in high performance concrete (Giaccio et al., 1992, Cetin
et al., 1998, Aitcin et al., 1990). Zhou et al. (1995) concluded that the
difference of strength for different types of concrete, made of various
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aggregates, could be as high as 40 MPa for the same water-binder ratio of 0.25.
Light metallic aggregates are physically stronger and more resistant against
wearing and impact than the conventional aggregates. Using a large amount of
stone dust in construction applications could be a feasible solution to this
problem, leading to both economic and environmental benefits for the
quarrying sector. Even though there have been various proposed methods for
the utilization of these by-products, they still remain under-utilized Galetakis,
M.; Alevizos, G.; Leventakis, K. (2012).
Galetakis and Soultana (2016) showed that the majority of research studies
related to the exploitation of stone dust as raw material in the construction
sector refer to the production of self-compacting concrete and ordinary
concrete products, while some of them study the production of cement-based
building elements like masonry bricks and artificial stones. On the other hand,
research studies related to the use of stone dust for the production of
lightweight structural elements such as aerated concrete are very limited
Galetakis and Soultana (2016).
Fine aggregate is the portion of the aggregate passing the 2.00 mm (No. 10)
sieve for Bituminous Concrete or passing the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve for
Portland Cement Concrete. The fine aggregate is usually; sand sourced from
the river banks or borrows pits. The use of river sand as fine aggregates leads
to exploitation of natural resources, lowering of water table, sinking of bridge
piers and erosion of river bed (Malik 2013).
Concrete is the most important building material used in the construction
industry globally. The research work reported here examined the effect of
addition of steel, cast iron and stone powder fillers on the mechanical
properties of concrete. One control mix proportions for concrete, of
conventional fine aggregates, with fixed volumes, were designed. Also, an
explanation for the observed metallic aggregate’s density effect on the concrete
is proposed. Concrete is a very important material in the Nigerian construction
industry as over 90% of her storey buildings are made from reinforced concrete
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(Joshua et al., 2013a). In the same vein, Tiwari, et al. (2016) posit that the
annual global concrete consumption is estimated to be about 25 billion tonnes.
Recent studies by Olajumoke and Lasisi (2014), Ode and Eluozo (2016), and
Sulymon, et al. (2017) have demonstrated that the quality of concrete is
affected by the choice of coarse aggregate used in its production. Aggregates
account for about 60-75% of the total volume of concrete mix and 70-85% of
weight with coarse aggregate contributing to about 45-55% of the total mass
(Bamigboye, et al. 2016a, Aginam, Chidolue and Nwakire, 2013). The
significance of aggregate as noted by Alexander and Mindess (2010) include not
only being a filler material but has important physiognomies in improving the
workability of a fresh concrete. Additionally, the properties of hardened
concrete such as volume stability, unit weight resistance to destructive
environment, strength, thermal properties are major roles of coarse aggregate
in Portland cement concrete production. Thus, the choice of aggregate in
concrete production can significantly affect the performance of a concrete.
The high cost of building materials has led to a clamour for alternative
materials. The challenge for the use of locally source materials for the
construction of building is as a result of such clamour and has been linked to
strategies to reduce the cost of buildings and construction. This could be
achieved by the use of materials that are indigenous to the construction
location, hence reducing haulage and importation cost of sourcing construction
materials from other places.
Indigenous materials and principles were also incorporated to achieve green
building (Nduka and Sotunbo, 2014; Nduka and Ogunsanmi, 2015; and Nduka
and Ogunsanmi, 2016).
In an effort to meet up with the increasing housing deficits, the demand for
locally sourced aggregate (gravel) in concrete production continues to rise. The
reasons for the choice of gravel as an alternative to quarry-crushed stones are
not far-fetched. Sulymon, et al. (2017) attributed this reason to increase in
population, personal earnings, state infrastructural needs and state wide
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economic growth. Furthermore, the high cost of quarry-crushed granite due to
high energy consumption during rock blasting and local transportation is also
a concern in the Comparative Analysis of Concrete Strength built environment.
Tiwari, et al. (2016) assert that “about half of coarse aggregates used in
Portland cement concrete in North America are gravels”. Although studies of
Ede, et al. (2016) have shown reservation on the use of gravel for concrete
production. This concern is due to gravel composition of varied chemicals and
strength inadequacy, local variation in size distribution, degree of sorting and
composition of deleterious materials when compared to granite. However, the
adoption of locally sourced coarse (gravel) is not prohibitive once their
engineering properties are known. Empirical studies have been conducted on
mechanical properties of concrete made from locally sourced gravel in Nigeria.
Aginam, et al. (2013) investigates various coarse aggregate impacts on the
compressive strength of concrete in South-East Nigeria. The experimental
study revealed that unwashed gravel produced the least compressive strength
of 16.9kN/m2 compared to 20.0kN/m2 of washed gravel. They deduced that
there is a positive relationship between concrete strength and internal
structure, surface nature and shape of aggregates. In the same vein,
Olajumoke and Lasisi (2014) evaluated the strength of concrete made with dug-
up gravel available in Ile-Ife area of South-west Nigeria. The study showed that
there was significant increase in compressive strength when the gravel used
was washed. In determining the compressive strength of washed and
unwashed gravel at different mix ratio, Ode and Eluozo (2016), found out that
impurities on gravel impacts on the compressive strength of concrete prepared
with unwashed gravel. They inferred that there is a positive relationship
between strength, stiffness and fracture energy of concrete and type of coarse
aggregates. Bamibgoye, et al. (2016b) undertook particle size distribution
analysis, slump test and compressive strength on hardened concrete in
exploiting economics of gravel as a substitute to granite in concrete production.
They found out that higher composition of gravel significantly improves
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concretes’ consistency property while greater proportions of granite do
significantly enhance compressive strength. Also, Sulymon, et al. (2017)
reported that sources of gravel greatly influence compressive, flexural and
split-tensile strength of concrete. Hence, this paper will draw on the recent
studies in investigating the strength properties of concrete produced from
locally sourced unwashed gravel with maximum aggregate sizes of 5mm from
Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. The study area, Ota, Ogun state, Nigeria is well
known for its industrial center and population over flow from Lagos State and
currently the most industrialized state in Nigeria (Edike and Ayeni 2017). The
increasing population growth rate has influenced the rapid construction of
buildings in all nooks and crannies of the state. It is a common practice within
Ota environs to use unwashed gravel for construction purposes. Hence, it
becomes imperative to investigate the integrity of this aggregate to ascertain its
performance in the use of structural members. This paper aims at determining
the effects of unwashed gravel on the compressive strength of concrete with a
view to furthering the knowledge of aggregate choices for construction works.
This study also seeks to encourage the use of this indigenous locally sourced
gravel in construction works, to maintain the reduced concreting cost within
the study area. This is intended to be achieved by researching into ways the
gravel could be treated before use to eliminate the possible deleterious effects
on concrete durability. Currently India has taken a major initiative on
developing the infrastructures such as express highways, power projects and
industrial structures etc. to meet the requirements of globalization, in the
construction of buildings and other structures concrete plays the rightful role
and a large quantum of concrete is being utilized. River sand, which is one of
the constituents used in the production of conventional concrete, has become
highly expensive and also scarce. In the backdrop of such a bleak atmosphere,
there is large demand for alternative materials from industrial waste. Natural
sand is excavated from river bed impacts on environment in many ways. Due
to digging of the sand from river bed reduces the water head, so less
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percolation of rain water in ground, which result in lower ground water level.
There is erosion of nearby land due to excess sand lifting as well as it destroys
the flora & fauna in surrounding areas.
Due to limited supply of natural sand, cost is very high and its consistent
supply cannot be guaranteed. Under these circumstances use of crushed fine
aggregates becomes unavoidable. However, many people in India have doubts
about quality of concrete and mortar with crushed sand as fine aggregates. As
the supplies of suitable natural sand near the point consumption are becoming
exhausted, the cost of this sand is increasing. In addition to this, the
turbulence created by dredging sand near the estuaries could damage the
fragile ecosystem along the coast. Thus a replacement material to the natural
sand was sought, and the fines from crushing operations were identified as a
possible substitute material by this research.
Concrete is a composite material made of aggregate bonded together by liquid
cement which hardens over time (Woodford, 2016). The major components of
concrete are cement, water, and aggregates (fines and coarse aggregate) with
aggregates taking about 50 to 60% of the total volume, depending on the mix
proportion. The amount of concrete used worldwide is twice that of steel, wood,
plastics, and aluminum combined (Rajith, and Amritha, 2015). Moreover,
according to Yaqub and Bukhari (2006) concrete's use in the modern world is
exceeded only by that of naturally occurring water.
Concrete can be used either singular or reinforced with steel in order to achieve
the required strength. Concrete builds durable, long lasting structures that will
not rust, rot, or burn. It is widely used for making architectural structures,
foundations, brick walls, bridges and many other civil engineering works.
Concrete is used in large quantities almost everywhere mankind has a need for
infrastructure because of its high compressive strength and durability (Ajamu
and Ige, 2015). The compressive strength of concrete is one of its major
properties that structural engineers take into consideration 67 Bruce Roy
Thulane Vilane and Ndlangamandla Sabelo: The Effect of Aggregate Size on the
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compressive Strength of Concrete before erecting any structure (Hollaway,
2010). This property can be affected by many factors including water to cement
ratio, degree of compaction, aggregate size and shape to name a few. Aggregate
gradation plays an important role in concrete mixing. Unsatisfactory gradation
of aggregates leads to segregation of mortar from the coarse aggregates,
internal bleeding, need for chemical admixtures to restore workability,
excessive water use and increased cement use (Loannides and Mills, 2006).
Aggregates constitute about 50 to 60% of the concrete mix depending on the
mix proportion used. The larger the aggregate percentage in concrete mix
makes it to contribute a lot to its strength (Waziri et. al., 2011). Aggregates are
the most mined material in the world. They are a component of composite
materials such as concrete and asphalt concrete.
The aggregates are responsible for the unit weight, elastic modulus and
dimensional stability of concrete because these properties depend on the
physical characteristics (strength and bulk density) of the aggregate
(Anonymous, 2012). Cement is generally an agent that is used to bond
materials together, which happens as a result of a chemical reaction known as
hydration. The concrete needs to be cured by immersing concrete cubes in
water (i.e. ponding) for this process. Curing is designed primarily to keep the
concrete moist by preventing loss of moisture from it during the period in
which it is gaining strength. Curing can be achieved by keeping the concrete
element completely saturated or as much saturated as possible until the water-
filled spaces are substantially reduced by hydration products. According to
Hassan and Mohammed (2014) curing concrete increase strength by up to 50%
and also improve durability, making it more water tight and improve its
appearance. If the concrete is not cured and is allowed to dry in air, it will gain
only 50% of the strength of continuously cured concrete (Raheem, 2013).
A number of concrete structures around the globe cracks and lose stiffness
when subjected to external load. Having premature deterioration of concrete is
an international problem, the building industry needs to increase the load
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carrying capacity of structures by using concrete of high strength. In concrete
structures, the mix proportion of the different components together with the
aggregate type and size determine the compressive strength of hard concrete.
According to Adiseshu and Ganapati (2011), larger aggregates demand lower
water on its mix thus reducing the workability and increasing the compressive
strength of concrete, hence this study.
1.1.1 Types of Aggregate Sizes
Fine aggregate and coarse aggregate differ in various aspect:
Fine aggregate comes in size ranging from 4.75 mm to 90 micron, whereas
coarse aggregate ranges from 80 mm to 10 mm. In concrete, fine aggregate is
responsible for filling up voids and coarse aggregate is for strength. Source for
both are same, but due to more granulation they differs. Fine aggregate are
used for plaster, mortar, filling of layers in road pavement whereas coarse
aggregate is used in concrete, between railway sleepers for packing, road
pavement etc. Fine aggregate have more surface area, coarse aggregate have
less surface area. Fine aggregate” means sand which is a mixture of small
particles of grains & minerals which passes under 9 mm sieve & it is used for
construction purposes like mixing in concrete & farming works etc. There are
two types of sand like river sand & borrowed pit sand. Reduce using river sand
because it is very useful for our nature.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The need for this research is necessary in order to determine the physical
properties of concrete made with sharp sand as fine aggregate and also when it
is substituted with stone dust. Also due to high rise in price and adverse
environmental impact of fine aggregate harvestation, it is highly imperative to
ascertain if stone dust can serve as a partial replacement for fine aggregate in
concrete production
1.3 AIMS AND SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
The main aim of this study is to determine the effect of dust and sharp sands
on the mechanical properties of concrete.
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Specific objectives are as follows:
i. To determine particle size distribution (Sieve analysis) of fine aggregate
(sharp sand and stone dust), coarse aggregate.
ii. To determine specific gravity of fine aggregate (sharp sand and stone
dust), coarse aggregate.
iii. To determine the mix design ratio.
iv. To carryout slump test
v. Determination of the concrete density
vi. Determination of compressive strength of concrete.
1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY
This research work on the effect of partial replacement of sharp with stone dust
on mechanical properties of concrete will be of great benefit to the engineers,
construction companies and builders. The finding from this research would
enable them to know the mechanical properties of concrete in which
compreesive strength is example. The finding from this research will also help
reduce the high demand of sharp sand which has become highly environmental
friendly and unsustainable. There is thus need for alternative materials from
industrial waste to act as partial replacement sharp sand and thus address the
problems of inherent use of sharp sand as fine aggregate.
1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY
This report is only concerned with quarry dust when used as partial
replacement of sharp sand in concrete production. It will mainly focus on
mechanical properties of concrete like of concrete made with sharp sand as fine
aggregate and also when it is substituted with quarry dust at intervals of 5%,
10%, and 15% replacement. This project work was carried out on 48 concrete
cubes at various ages of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days after curing
1.6 LIMITATION OF STUDY
There was no power source in the school lab, also some equipments were
damaged, which made of to opt for another effective lab outside the school.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
Aggregate quarrying operations such as crushing, sieving, etc., are used to
produce large quantities of fine by-products (<63 _m) known as stone dust
Galetakis, M.; Alevizos, G.; Leventakis, K. (2012). These fine by-products are
difficult to handle and pose several environmental, health, and operational
issues Sairanen, M.; Rinne, M.; Selonen, O. A (2018).
Disposal of stone dust is one of the most critical problems facing the quarrying
industry, since, on a number of occasions, stone dust landfills may involve
more space than the total of quarrying operations Manca, P.P.; Orrù, G. (2015).
Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or
structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile
strength, which withstands loads tending to elongate. In other words,
compressive strength resists compression (being pushed together), whereas
tensile strength resists tension (being pulled apart). In the study of strength of
materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, and shear strength can be
analyzed independently Urbanek, T; Lee, Johnson (2014). For designers,
compressive strength is one of the most important engineering properties of
concrete. It is a standard industrial practice that the concrete is classified
based on grades. This grade is nothing but the Compressive Strength of the
concrete cube or cylinder. Cube or Cylinder samples are usually tested under a
compression testing machine to obtain the compressive strength of concrete
Ritter, m A; Oliva (1990). The compressive strength of concrete is given in
terms of the characteristic compressive strength of 150 mm size cubes tested
at 28 days (fck). The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of the
concrete below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall.
For design purposes, this compressive strength value is restricted by dividing
with a factor of safety, whose value depends on the design philosophy used.
24
Some materials fracture at their compressive strength limit; others deform
irreversibly, so a given amount of deformation may be considered as the limit
for compressive load. Compressive strength is a key value for design of
structures. Compressive strength is often measured on a universal testing
machine; these range from very small table-top systems to ones with over 53
MN capacity NIST (2010). Measurements of compressive strength are affected
by the specific test method and conditions of measurement. Compressive
strengths are usually reported in relationship to a specific technical standard
John Wiley & Sons, (2002).
2.1.1 COMPRESSION
When a specimen of material is loaded in such a way that it extends it is said
to be in tension. On the other hand, if the material compresses and shortens it
is said to be in compression. On an atomic level, the molecules or atoms are
forced apart when in tension whereas in compression they are forced together.
Since atoms in solids always try to find an equilibrium position, and distance
between other atoms, forces arise throughout the entire material which oppose
both tension and compression. The phenomena prevailing on an atomic level
are therefore similar. The "strain" is the relative change in length under applied
stress; positive strain characterizes an object under tension load which tends
to lengthen it, and a compressive stress that shortens an object gives negative
strain. Tension tends to pull small sideways deflections back into alignment,
while compression tends to amplify such deflection into buckling. Compressive
strength is measured on materials, components, [2] and structures. By
definition, the ultimate compressive strength of a material is that value of
uniaxial compressive stress reached when the material fails completely. The
compressive strength is usually obtained experimentally by means of a
compressive test. The apparatus used for this experiment is the same as that
used in a tensile test. However, rather than applying a uniaxial tensile load, a
uniaxial compressive load is applied. As can be imagined, the specimen
25
(usually cylindrical) is shortened as well as spread laterally. A stress–strain
curve is plotted by the instrument and would look similar to the following:
True Stress-Strain curve for a typical specimen
The compressive strength of the material would correspond to the stress at the
red point shown on the curve. In a compression test, there is a linear region
where the material follows Hooke's law. Hence, for this region, where, this time,
E refers to the Young's Modulus for compression. In this region, the material
deforms elastically and returns to its original length when the stress is
removed. This linear region terminates at what is known as the yield point.
Above this point the material behaves plastically and will not return to its
original length once the load is removed.
2.2 WORKABILITY OF FINE AGGREGATE ON THE COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
Concrete is a very important material in the construction industry which is
spearheading infrastructural development in Ghana leading to the expected
prosperity and growth of the nation. The quality of concrete constituent
materials controls its strength which has also been found to be one of the
causes of building collapse all over the world. For this reason attention must be
given to the factors which affect the strength of concrete Desire TJ, Leopold M
(2013). Among these factors are sand fines which are materials that passes
through the 75μm sieve. These fines are considered as an impurity in building
sand in the BS882:1992 British Standard Institute (2012). The presence of
26
sand fines in concrete is likely to affect the workability, strength and long-term
performance of concrete . To this effect, the percentage limit of sand fines
(clay/silt) is recommended by various building standards in other to check
their effects on the strength of concrete. Some of which are the British
Standards (BS), and the American Standard for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
which recommends 4% and 10% of fines in building sand respectively.
Nonetheless, Ghana is yet to specify the limit of fines (clay/silt) percentage in
building sand for producing concrete. Moreover, it has been recommended by
Danso and Boateng (2013) to investigate the quality of building sand used in
the Ghanaian construction industry which is yet to be realized.
Another contributing factor affecting concrete strength is the water content
used which in some cases are increased to improve workability. When the fines
content in sand are excessive, there is the need to add more water to the
concrete mix in other to improve the workability. That is fine particles such as
clay and cement interact with water in a physiochemical state which leads to
more absorption of water than that of fine and coarse aggregates. Research
have shown that higher amount of sand fines in concrete results in poor
workability. This eventually leads to the addition of water to the concrete mix
before or even during the unloading process to improve workability, Cemex
(2013). Meanwhile, research have also shown that an increase in
water/cement ratio result to a decrease in the compressive strength of
concrete, Apebo AJ, Shiwua NS (2013) .
Additionally, the increase in sand fines content has also been found to
decrease the compressive and tensile strengths of concrete Cho S (2013) .
Inadequate sand fine content also has adverse effect of the strength of concrete
due to poor adhesion. Researchers have therefore develop various models for
predicting the effect of sand fines and W/C on the strength of concrete.
However, there is a gap in literature for the combined effect of sand fines and
water/cement ratio’s effect on the properties of concrete. This paper seeks to
address this gap in literature John Wiley & Sons, (2003).
27
2.3 INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAND ON THE COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock
and mineral particles. The compressive strength of concrete is one of its major
properties that structural engineers take into consideration before erecting any
structure (Hollaway, 2010). This property can be affected by many factors
including water to cement ratio, degree of compaction, aggregate size and
shape to name a few. Aggregate gradation plays an important role in concrete
mixing. Unsatisfactory gradation of aggregates leads to segregation of mortar
from the coarse aggregates, internal bleeding, need for chemical admixtures to
restore workability, excessive water use and increased cement use (Loannides
and Mills, 2006). Aggregates constitute about 50 to 60% of the concrete mix
depending on the mix proportion used. The larger the aggregate percentage in
concrete mix makes it to contribute a lot to its strength (Waziri et. al., 2011).
Aggregates are the most mined material in the world. They are a component of
composite materials such as concrete and asphalt concrete. The aggregates are
responsible for the unit weight, elastic modulus and dimensional stability of
concrete because these properties depend on the physical characteristics
(strength and bulk density) of the aggregate (Anonymous, 2012).
Cement is generally an agent that is used to bond materials together, which
happens as a result of a chemical reaction known as hydration. The concrete
needs to be cured by immersing concrete cubes in water (i.e. ponding) for this
process. Curing is designed primarily to keep the concrete moist by preventing
loss of moisture from it during the period in which it is gaining strength.
Curing can be achieved by keeping the concrete element completely saturated
or as much saturated as possible until the water-filled spaces are substantially
reduced by hydration products. According to Hassan and Mohammed (2014)
curing concrete increase strength by up to 50% and also improve durability,
28
making it more water tight and improve its appearance. If the concrete is not
cured and is allowed to dry in air, it will gain only 50% of the strength of
continuously cured concrete (Raheem, 2013).
A number of concrete structures around the globe cracks and lose stiffness
when subjected to external load. Having premature deterioration of concrete is
an international problem, the building industry needs to increase the load
carrying capacity of structures by using concrete of high strength. In concrete
structures, the mix proportion of the different components together with the
aggregate type and size determine the compressive strength of hard concrete.
According to Adiseshu and Ganapati (2011), larger aggregates demand lower
water on its mix thus reducing the workability and increasing the compressive
strength of concrete, hence this study.
The high-strength concrete tests show mixed results on the effect of aggregate
type on compressive strength. Comparing basalt and limestone mixes with high
aggregate contents, HB-12h.3 and HL-12h.2, tested at 119 days and Ill days,
respectively, shows that the basalt mix yields a greater compressive strength
than the comparable limestone mix, a difference of 11.4 percent; little of this
difference can be attributed to the small difference in test ages. Comparing
another pair of basalt and limestone mixes with high aggregate contents, HB-
12h.2 and HL-12h.l, tested at ages 149 days and 148 days, respectively, shows
that the basalt mix yields a compressive strength of 81.8 MPa (11,870 psi)
while the limestone mix yields a compressive strength of79.6 MPa (11,550 psi),
a difference of only 2.6 percent, with the basalt mix again yielding the greater
compressive strength. However, comparing a basalt and limestone mix
containing low aggregate contents, HB-121.2 and HL-121, tested at 117 and 94
days, respectively, shows the limestone mix yielding an 11.3 percent greater
strength than the basalt mix. The difference in strength would presumably
increase if both specimens were tested at 117 days Nagraj T.S., (2000).
For the normal-strength concretes with high aggregate contents, the limestone
mix yields an 8.8 percent higher compressive strength than the basalt mix.
29
However, since 5-day strengths are only about 60 percent of the 28-day
strength, no solid conclusions can be made. Fracture surfaces provide useful
information in the study of the compressive strength of concrete. It has been
observed that the fracture of normal-strength concrete coincides with a gradual
softening of the specimen. Fracture involves a large number of inclined
microcracks located mainly in the middle half of the specimen, leaving the
confined ends, which are in contact with the platens, generally unaffected by
the cracks. The failure of high-strength concrete is, however, very different
from that of normal-strength concrete. After reaching the peak load, fracture of
high-strength concrete results in the release of a significant amount of energy
which is stored within both the specimen and the testing machine. For
relatively flexible testing machines, as used in this study, this energy release
results in an explosive failure, with the specimen fracturing into countless
pieces. In this case, fracture involves a large number of cracks that tend to
propagate nearly parallel to the loading axis M.L. Gambhir, (2006).
Aggregate type is a factor in the appearance of fracture surfaces. In normal
strength concrete, cracks extend through the matrix, bridging between the
coarse aggregate particles, leaving a tortuous fracture surface with a
considerable amount of branching. In the current study, there was no
noticeable fracture of the basalt particles at the fracture surface; however,
there was evidence of a few fractured limestone particles. The tortuous path of
the limestone fracture surface is not as distinct as that of the basalt, yielding a
smoother fracture surface than produced by the basalt. In highstrength
concrete, cracks extend through the matrix, similar to that of normal-strength
concrete; however, instead of cracks bridging between the coarse aggregate
particles, cracks propagate through the particles, resulting in a smooth
fracture surface. In the current study, there was noticeable, but not complete,
fracture of the basalt aggregate at the surface of the crack. In contrast, all of
the limestone aggregate was fractured, leaving the smoothest fracture surfaces
30
produced by any of the compressive strength specimens Jane S., Justin N.,
Juenger M., and David W.F., (2006).
2.4 QUALITY AND PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower
tensile strength, and as such is usually reinforced with materials that are
strong in tension (often steel). The elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at
low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as matrix cracking
develop. Concrete has a very low co-efficient expansion, and as it matures
concrete shrinks. All concrete structures will crack to some extent, due to
shrinkage and tension. Concrete which is subjected to long-duration forces is
prone to creep. Properties of Concrete are divided into two major groups.
Properties of fresh concrete
Properties of hardened concrete
Fresh concrete is that stage of concrete in which concrete can be moulded and
it is in plastic state. This is also called “Green Concrete”. Another term used to
describe the stage of fresh concrete is consistence, which is the ease with
which concrete will flow.
2.4.1 Properties Of Fresh Concrete
Following are the important properties of fresh concrete.
Setting
Workability
Bleeding and segregation
Bleeding
Segregation
Hydration
Air Entrainment
Setting
The hardening of concrete before its hydration is known as setting of concrete.
Or The hardening of concrete before it gains strength. OR The transition
process of changing of concrete from plastic state to hardened state. Setting of
31
concrete is based or related to the setting of cement paste. Thus cement
properties greatly affect the setting time.
Factors Affecting Setting:
Following are the factors that affect the setting of concrete.
Water cement ratio
Suitable Temperature
Cement Content
Type of Cement
Finess of Cement
Relative Humidity
Admixtures
Type and amount of aggregate
Workability of Concrete
Workability is often referred to as the ease with which a concrete can be
transported, placed and consolidated without excessive bleeding or segregation.
The internal work done, required to overcome the frictional forces between
concrete ingredients for full compaction. It is obvious that no single test can
evaluate all these factors. In fact, most of these cannot be easily assessed even
some standard tests have been established to evaluate them.
In the case of concrete, consistence is another term used to describe the state
of fresh concrete. Consistence is the firmness of a substance or the ease with
which it will flow. But concrete of same consistence may vary in workability.
Because the strength of concrete is adversely and significantly affected by the
presence of voids in the compacted mass, it is vital to achieve a maximum
possible density. This requires sufficient workability for virtually full
compaction to be possible using a reasonable amount of work under the given
conditions. Presence of voids in concrete reduces the density and greatly
reduces the strength: 5% of voids can lower the strength by as much as 30%.
SLUMP: Test can be used to find out the workability of concrete.
Factors Affecting Concrete Workability:
32
Water-cement ratio
Amount and type of aggregate
Amount and type of cement
Weather conditions ( Temperature & Time, Wind)
Chemical admixtures
Sand to aggregate ratio.
Water content or water cement ratio

More the water content ratio more will be workability of concrete. Since by
simply adding water, the inter particle lubrication is increased. Highly water
content results in a higher fluidity and greater workability. Increase water
content also results in bleeding, another effect of increased water content can
also be that cement slurry will escape through joints of framework.
Amount and type of aggregate
Since larger aggregate sizes have relatively smaller surface areas (for the
cement paste to coat) and since less water means less cement, it is often said
that one should use the largest practicable aggregate size and the stiffest
practical mix. Most building elements are constructed with a maximum
aggregate size of 3/8” to 1”, larger sizes being prohibited by the closeness of the
reinforcing bars. Because concrete is continuously shrinking for years after is
initially placed, it is generally accepted that under thermal loading it will never
expand to its originally-placed volume. More the amount of aggregate less will
be workability. Using smooth round aggregate increase the workability.
Workability reduces if angular and rough aggregate is used. Greater size of
aggregate-less water is required to lubricate it, the extra water is available for
workability. Angular aggregates increases flakiness or elongation thus reduces
workability.
Aggregate cement ratio: More ratio less workability, since less cement means
less water, so the paste is stiff.
33
Weather conditions: Temperature: When temperature is high, evaporation
increases, thus workability decreases.
Wind: When wind is moving with greater velocity, the rate of evaporation also
increases reducing workability.
Admixtures
Admixtures are substances introduced into a batch of concrete, during or
immediately before mixing it, in order to improve the properties of the fresh or
hardened concrete or both. Since admixtures may also be carefully examined
before use. Some examples of admixtures include: air entering agents,
accelerating agents, retarders, water-reducers or plasticizers e.t.c. Chemical
admixtures can be used to increase workability.
Use of air entraining agent produces air bubbles which acts as a sort of bearing
between particles and increases mobility, workability and decreases bleeding,
segregation. The use of fine Pozzolonic materials also have lubricating effect
and more workability.
Sand to aggregation ratio
If the amount of sand is more, the workability will reduce because sand has
surface area and more contact area causing more resistance. The ingredients of
concrete can be proportioned by weight or volume, the goal is to provide the
desired strength and workability at minimum expense. A low water-cement
ratio is used to achieve a stronger concrete.
3(a) Concrete Bleeding
Bleeding in concrete is sometimes referred as water gain. It is a particular form
of segregation, in which some of the water from concrete comes out to the
surface of the concrete, being of the lowest specific gravity among all the
ingredients of concrete. Bleeding is predominantly observed in a highly wet
mix, badly proportioned and insufficiently mixed concrete. If the water cement
ratio used is more than 0.7, the bleeding channels will remain continuous and
unsegmented. These continuous bleeding channels are often responsible for
causing permeability of the concrete structures. Bleeding rate increases with
34
time up to about one hour or so and thereafter the rate decreases but
continuous more or less till the final setting time of cement.
Prevention of Bleeding in Concrete
Bleeding can be reduced by proper proportioning and uniform and complete
mixing. Use of finely divided pozzolanic materials reduces bleeding by creating
a longer path for the water to traverse. Air-entraining agent is very effective in
reducing the bleeding. Bleeding can be reduced by the use of finer cement or
cement with low alkali content. The bleeding is not completely harmful in the
rate of evaporation of water from the surfaces is equal to the rate of bleeding.
Early bleeding when the concrete mass is fully plastic, may not cause much
harm, because concrete being in a fully plastic condition at that stage, will get
subsided and compacted. It is the delayed bleeding, when the concrete has lost
its plasticity, which causes undue harm to the concrete. Controlled re vibration
may be adopted to overcome the bad effect of bleeding.
(3b) Segregation in Concrete
Segregation can be defined as then separation of the constituent materials of
concrete. A good concrete is one in which all the ingredients are properly
distributed to make a homogenous mixture. There are considerable differences
in the sizes and specific gravities of the constituent ingredients of concrete.
Therefore, it is natural that the materials show a tendency to fall apart.
Three types of Segregation
Coarse segregate: Separating out or settling down from the rest of the matrix.
Paste: Separating away from coarse aggregate. Water: Separating out from the
rest of the material being a material of lowest specific gravity. A well made
concrete, taking into consideration various parameters such as grading, size,
shape and surface texture of aggregate with optimum quantity of waters makes
a cohesive mix. Such concrete will not exhibit any tendency for segregation.
The cohesive and fatty characteristics of matrix do not allow the aggregate to
fall apart.
Hydration in Concrete
35
Concrete derives its strength by the hydration of cement particles. The
hydration of cement is not a momentary action but a process continuing for
long time. The rate of hydration is fast to start with, but continues over a very
long time at a decreasing rate in the field and in actual work, even a higher
water/cement ratio is used, since the concrete is open to atmosphere, the
water used in the concrete evaporates and the water be available in the
concrete will not be sufficient for effective hydration to take place particularly
in the top layer. If the hydration is to continue, extra water must be added to
refill the loss of water on account of absorption and evaporation. Therefore, the
curing can be considered as creating of a favorable environment during the
early period for uninterrupted hydration. The desirable conditions are, a
suitable temperature and ample moisture. Concrete, while hydrating, releases
high heat of hydration. This heat is harmful from the point of view of volume
stability. Heat of hydration of concrete may also shrinkage in concrete, thus
producing cracks. If the heat generated is removed by some means , the
adverse effect due to the generation of heat can be reduced. This can be done
by a thorough water curing.
Air Entrainment
Air entrainment reduces the density of concrete and consequently reduces the
strength. Air entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the
plastic and the hardened concrete. These include:
 Resistance to freeze- thaw action in the hardened concrete.
 Increases cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in
the plastic concrete.
 Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
 Stability of extruded concrete.
 Cohesion and handling properties in bedding motion.
2.4.2 PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower
tensile strength, and as such is usually reinforced with materials that are
36
strong in tension (often steel). The elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at
low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher levels as matrix cracking
develop. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, and as it
matures concrete shrinks. All concrete structures will crack to some extent,
due to shrinkage and tension. Concrete which is subjected to long-duration
forces is prone to creep.
The important properties of hardened concrete are as follows:
Strength of concrete
Durability of concrete
Shrinkage
Modulus of Elasticity
Cracking
Concrete creep
Water tightness
Strength of concrete: The compressive strength of concrete is taken as the
maximum compressive load it can carry per unit area. Concrete strength of up
to 80Nmm2 (80Mpa) can be achieved by selective use of the type of cement, mix
proportion, method of compaction and curing conditions. Although the range of
concrete strengths commonly used in practice is between 25-50N/mm 2. The
strength of concrete is basically referred to compressive strength and it
depends upon three factors;
i. Paste strength
ii. Interfacial bonding
iii. Aggregate strength
Paste Strength:
It is mainly due to the binding properties of cement that the ingredients are
compacted together. If the paste has higher binding strength, higher will be
strength of concrete.
Interfacial Bonding:
37
Interfacial bonding is very necessary regarding the strength, clay hampers the
bonding between paste and aggregate. The aggregate should be washed for a
better bonding between paste and aggregate.
Aggregate Strength:
It is mainly the aggregate that provides strength to concrete especially coarse
aggregate which acts just like bones in the body. Rough and angular aggregate
provides better bonding and high strength.
Factors Affecting Strength of Concrete:
 The following are the factors that affect strength of Concrete.
 Water-cement ratio
 Type of cementing material
 Amount of cementing material
 Type of aggregate
 Admixture
i. Water cement ratio: It is water cement ratio that basically governs the
property of strength. Lesser the water cement ratio, greater will be the strength.
ii. Type of cement: Type of cement affects the hydration process and therefore
strength of concrete.
iii. Amount of cementing material: It is the paste that holds or binds all the
ingredients. Thus greater amount of cementing material will be strength.
iv. Type of aggregate:
Rough and angular aggregate is preferable as they provide greater bonding.
v. Admixture
Chemical admixtures like plasticizers reduce the water content ratios and
increase the strength of concrete at same water ratio. Mineral admixtures affect
the strength at later stage and increase the strength by increasing the amount
of cementing material.
38
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 MATERIALS
Materials to be used in this project work were found to be in accordance with
the required standards. The experiments were carried out known as Vengen
Geotechnical Engineering Services at Hill View Estate, Ibeagwa, Nike Enugu.
The materials used include the following:
3.1.1 PORTLAND CEMENT
The Dangote 3x brand of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) Grade 42.5
according to the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) was used in the course
of this project. It was bought from Ugwuaji. It has a specific gravity of 3.07 and
normal consistency of 30.5%. Bags were carefully kept away from dampness to
avoid lumps.
3.1.2 COARSE AGGREGATES
Natural crushed granite was used as the coarse aggregate with a maximum
diameter of 20 mm. It was bought in Ugwuaji but was gotten from Ebonyi
State.
3.1.3 SHARP SAND
Sharp sand was used as the fine aggregate and was found suitable for the
purpose of these experiments. It was bought from ugwuaji but sourced from
Nyama river. Sufficient quantity were obtained and spread out for few days
before use to dry, removing dampness in order to maintain consistent weights
when batching. Pebbles and other odd particles were cleared from the pile
during shoveling and spreading.
3.1.4 QUARRY DUST
Quarry dust was also used as fine aggregate in this project. The sample was
bought from Ugwuaji but sourced from Ishiagu quarry, Ebonyi State.
3.1.5 WATER
39
Portable water gotten from 9th mile was used for the experiment. The water to
be used for curing was also gotten from the same source. The water was
colorless, odorless and generally satisfactory for the work to be carried out.
3.2 METHODS
The various test carried out in the course of this project work are; sieve
analysis, specific gravity, mix design, slump and compressive strength tests
were done in accordance to BS code.
3.2.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF FINE AGGREGATE (SHARP SAND)
Aim: To determine the particle size distribution of aggregate by sieve analysis.
APPARATUS:
i. Test sieves: 9.5mm, 4.75mm, 2.4mm, 1.18mm, 600um, 300um and
150um, 75um.
ii. Weighting balances
iii. Wire bush
iv. Evaporating plates
v. Head pan
vi. Spade
vii. Sieve shaker
PROCEDURE:
Step 1: A set of sieve sizes are arranged in descending order starting with sieve
9.5mm down to receiver.
Step 2: The oven dry sample obtained, was introduced into the arranged
sieves, covered with lid and with the receiver at bottom. The whole sieve sets
were shaken manually, for 3 to 5 minutes.
Step 3: The samples retained on each sieve was collected, and wire brush was
used to collect as much as possible before weighing .
DATA
i. The sample weight retained on each sieve was weighed and recorded.
ii. The total weight of sample used were added up.
40
iii. The percentage weight retained and cumulative percentage weight passing
on each sieve are calculated.
iv. The cumulative percentage weight retained are summed up and divided by
100 to obtain the fineness modulus as shown in chapter 4.
v. The zoning chart was used to determined the zone of the fine aggregate.
vi. The particle size distribution logarithm graph was used to plot the graph of
sieve sizes against cumulative % passing manually. And later used excel
package for the model development
Calculations
9.5mm = 0% 3.0
1.1
4.75 mm= ×100=0.29 % 3.1
382.55
9.80
24 mm= ×100=2.56 % 3.2
382.55
17.4
1.18 mm= × 100=4.59 % 3.3
382.55
27
600 µ m= × 100=7.06 % 3.4
382.55
58.2
425 µ m= ×100=15.21% 3.5
382.55
79.1
300 µ m= × 100=20.68 % 3.6
382.55
172.85
150 µ m= × 100=45.18 % 3.7
382.55
17.10
75 µ m= × 100=4.47 % 3.8
382.55
Cumulative % weight
9.5mm = 0 3.9
41
4.75mm = 0.29 3.10
2.4mm = 0.29 + 2.56 = 2.85 3.11
1.18mm = 385 + 4.56 = 744 3.12
600µm = 744 + 706 = 14.50 3.13
425µm = 14.50 + 15.21 = 29.71 3.14
300µm = 29.71 + 20.68 = 50.39 3.15
150µm = 50.39 + 45.18 = 95.57 3.16
75µm = 95.57 + 4.47 = 100.00 3.17
Cumulative % Passing
9.5mm = 100.00
4.75mm = 100 - 0.29 = 99.71 3.18
2.4mm = 100 - 285 = 897.15 3.19
1.18mm = 100 -7.44 = 92.56 3.20
600µm = 100 – 14.50 = 85.50 3.21
425µm = 100 – 29.71 = 70.29 3.22
300µm = 100 – 50.39 = 49.61 3.23
150µm = 100 - 95.57 = 4.43 3.24
75µm = 100 – 100 = 0 3.25
To find Fineness modulus
ΣCum % 300.75
= =2.008 ≅ 3.01 3.26
100 100
Zone of aggregate = Zone 3 3.27
Precautions
i. I ensured that the test sieves were in order

42
ii. Error due to parallax was avoided
3.2.2 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF FINE AGGREGATE (STONE DUST)

Aim: To determine the particle size distribution of aggregate by sieve analysis.
APPARATUS:
i. Test sieves: 9.5mm, 4.75mm, 2.4mm, 1.18mm, 600um, 300um and
150um, 75um.
ii. Weighting balances
iii. Wire bush
v. Head pan
vi. Spade
vii. Sieve shaker
PROCEDURE:
9.5mm down to receiver.
Step 3: The samples retained on each sieve was collected, and wire brush was
used to collect as much as possible before weighing .
DATA
ii. The total weight of sample used were added up.
iii. The percentage weight retained and cumulative percentage weight
passing on each sieve are calculated.
iv. The cumulative percentage weight retained are summed up and divided
by 100 to obtain the fineness modulus as shown in chapter 4.
v. The zoning chart was used to determined the zone of the fine aggregate.
43
vi. The particle size distribution logarithm graph was used to plot the graph
of sieve sizes against cumulative % passing manually. And later used
excel package for the model development
Calculations
% Weight Retained
9.5mm = 0% 3.28
13.10
4.75 mm= ×100=2.92 % 3.29
449.22
209.85
24 mm= ×100=46.71% 3.30
449.22
51.22
1.18 mm= ×100=11.40 % 3.31
449.22
70.15
600 µ m= ×100=15.62% 3.32
449.22
43.30
425 µ m= ×100=9.64 % 3.33
449.22
22.20
300 µ m= ×100=4.94 % 3.34
449.22
24.50
150 µ m= ×100=5.45 % 3.35
449.22
14.90
75 µ m= ×100=3.32 % 3.36
449.22
To find Fineness modulus
ΣCum % 564.43
= =5.6443 ≅ 5.6 3.37
100 100
Zone of aggregate (Stone dust) = Zone 1 3.38
44
Precautions
1) I ensured that sieves were arranged orderly

2) I avoided error due to parallax
3.2.3 SIEVE ANALYSIS FOR COARSE AGGREGATES
Aim: To determine the particle size distribution of coarse aggregate
Apparatus:
i. Test sieves: 53mm, 37.5mm, 19mm, 9.5mm, 6.7mm and 4.75mm.

ii. Weighing balances
iii. Wire brush
v. Head pan
vi. Spade
vii. Sieve shaker
PROCEDURE:
53mm down to receiver.
DATA
ii. The total weight of sample used was added up.
iii. The percentage weight retained and cumulative percentage weight
passing on each sieve are calculated.
iv. The cumulative percentage weight retained are summed up and divided
by 100 to obtain the fineness modulus
45
Calculations
% Weight retained
53mm = 0% 3.39
37.5mm = 0% 3.40
1.6
19 mm= ×100=47.06 % 3.41
3.4
1.4
9.5 mm= ×100=41.18 % 3.42
3.4
0.3
6.7 mm= ×100=8.82 % 3.43
3.4
0.1
4.75 mm= × 100=2.94 % 3.44
3.4
Cumulative % weight
53mm = 0 3.45
37.5mm = 0+0 = 0 3.46
19mm = 0 + 47.06 = 47.06 3.47
9.5mm = 47.06 + 41.18 = 88.24 3.48
6.7mm = 88.24 + 8.82 = 97.06 3.49
4.75mm = 97.06 + 2.84 = 100 3.50
Cumulative % Passing
53mm = 0 3.51
37.5mm = 100 - 0 = 0 3.52
19mm = 100 – 47.06 = 52.44 3.53
9.5mm = 100 – 88.24 = 11.74 3.54
6.7mm = 100 – 97.06 = 2.94 3.55
4.75mm = 100 – 100 = 0 3.56
Precautions
46
i. I made sure the test sieves were properly arranged.
ii. I avoided error due to parallax.
3.2.4 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FINE AGGREGATE (SHARP SAND)

Aim: To determine the specific gravity and water absorption
percentage of fine aggregate
Apparatus:
i. Weighting balances
ii. Pycnometer bottles
iii. Sieve 9.5mm and 150µm
iv. Washer bottle
v. Well ventilated oven
vi. Glass plate
vii. Evaporation dishes
viii. Absorbent cloth
ix. Distilled water
PROCEDURE:
Step 1: The sample collected was 3kg of fine aggregate
Step 2: The sample was washed thoroughly until the water becomes clean.
Purpose is to wash away clay or organic materials.
Step 3: The water was decanted and the sample was reduced by dividing it into
two portions. one portion was kept in oven to dry for 24hrs to be used for
sieve analysis and the other portion was later divided into two portions
labeled sample A and sample B. the sample was soaked with clean water
up to 5cm differently and allowed to stay for 24 hours.
Step 4: On the following day, water was decanted and the samples was spread
to surface dry.
Step 5: The empty pycnometer bottle was properly cleaned with absorbent
cloth and labeled bottle A and B before weighing.
47
Step 6: The empty pycnometer bottle A was weighted and recorded as x 1. and
empty bottle B was weighted and recorded as X2
Step 7: The saturated surface dry (SSD) Sample A was introduced into an
empty pycnometer bottle A and weighed and recorded as K 1. And empty
bottle B and weighed and recorded as K2.
Step 8: Distilled water was introduced into bottle sample A and bottle sample
B and was ensured that foam was properly removed by injecting water into
the bottle to remove the air bubbles before weighed and recorded as B 1 and
B2.
Step 9: Sample weight alone is K-X= A
Step 10: The bottle content was emptied into an evaporating dish and water
was decanted properly, labeled A and B and put into the oven dry for 24
hours.
Step 11: The empty pycnometer bottle A and B were cleaned well and
filled with distilled water and weighed and recorded as C1 and C2.
Step 12: On the following day, the sample A and B were removed from the
oven, allowed it to cool before taking to be weighed and recorded as
D1 and D2. .
Calculations
Data SAMPLE A SAMPLE B
Empty weight of bottle (x) 562 562
Empty weight of sample (k) 1044 1089
Sample weight (A = k-x) 482 527
Empty wt of sample + H2O (B) 1869 1900
Empty wt + H2O (C) 1559 1559
Oven dry sample wt (D) 4525 5047
48
1) Specific gravity of SSD basis
Sample A
A 599 599
= = =2.650 3.57
A−(B−C) 599−(1932−1559) 226
Sample B
A 643 643
= = =2.635 3.58
A−(B−C) 643−(1958−1559) 244
2.650+2.635
Average result= =2.643 3.59
2
2) Apparent Specific gravity
Sample A
D 600 600
= = =2.643 3.60
D−( B−C) 600−(1932−1559) 227
Sample B
D 650 600
= = =2.590 3.61
D−( B−C) 650−(1958−1559) 251
2.64+ 2.590
Average result= ¿ 2.617 3.62
2
3) Water Absorption percentage
Sample A
( A−D)100 ( 599−391 ) 100

= =1.333 3.63
D 600
Sample B
( A−D)100 ( 643−650 ) 100

= =1.271 3.64
D 250
49
1.333+1.231
Average result= =1.282 3.65
2
3.2.5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FINE AGGREGATE (STONE DUST)

percentage of fine aggregate
Apparatus:
ii. Pycnometer bottles
iii. Sieve 9.5mm and 150µm
iv. Washer bottle
v. Well ventilated oven
vi. Glass plate
vii. Evaporation dishes
viii. Absorbent cloth
ix. Distilled water
PROCEDURE:
Step 1: The sample collected was 3kg of fine aggregate
Step 2: The sample was washed thoroughly until the water becomes clean.
Purpose is to wash away clay or organic materials.
Step 3: The water was decanted and the sample was reduced by dividing it into
two portions. one portion was kept in oven to dry for 24hrs to be used for
sieve analysis and the other portion was later divided into two portions
labeled sample A and sample B. the sample was soaked with clean water
up to 5cm differently and allowed to stay for 24 hours.
Step 4: On the following day, water was decanted and the samples was spread
to surface dry.
Step 5: The empty pycnometer bottle was properly cleaned with absorbent
cloth and labeled bottle A and B before weighing.
50
Step 6: The empty pycnometer bottle A was weighted and recorded as x 1. and
empty bottle B was weighted and recorded as X2
Step 7: The saturated surface dry (SSD) Sample A was introduced into an
empty pycnometer bottle A and weighed and recorded as K 1. And empty
bottle B and weighed and recorded as K2.
Step 8: Distilled water was introduced into bottle sample A and bottle sample
B and was ensured that foam was properly removed by injecting water into
the bottle to remove the air bubbles before weighed and recorded as B 1 and
B2.
Step 9: Sample weight alone is K-X= A
Step 10: The bottle content was emptied into an evaporating dish and water
was decanted properly, labeled A and B and put into the oven dry for 24
hours.
Step 11: The empty pycnometer bottle A and B were cleaned well and
filled with distilled water and weighed and recorded as C1 and C2.
Step 12: On the following day, the sample A and B were removed from the
oven, allowed it to cool before taking to be weighed and recorded as
D1 and D2. .

Empty wt + H2O (C) 1559 1559
51
i. Specific gravity on SSD basis
A
¿ 3.66
A−(B−C)
Sample A
432
=2.652 3.67
432−( 1369−1559 )
Sample B
527
=2.673 3.68
527−( 1900−1559 )
Average result
2.652+ 2.673
=2.663 3.69
2
ii. Apparent specific gravity
D
¿ 3.70
D−( B−C)
Sample A
452.5
=3.175 3.71
452.5−( 1869−1559 )
Sample B
504.7
=3.083 3.72
504.7−( 1900−1559 )
Average result
3.175+3.083
=3.129 3.73
2
iii. Specific gravity on oven dry
A
¿ 3.74
A−(B−C)
52
Sample A
482.5
=2.630 3.75
482.5−( 1869−1559 )
Sample B
504.7
=3.713 3.76
504.7−( 1900−1559 )
Average result
2.630+3.713
=2.672 3.77
2
iv. Water Absorption percentage
A−D(100)
¿ 3.78
D
Sample A
432−452.5(100)
=6.519 3.79
452.5
Sample B
52.7−504.7 (100)
=4418 3.80
504.7
Average result
6.519+4.418
=5.469 3.81
2
3.2.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST ON COARSE AGGREGATE
53
percentage
Apparatus:
ii. Sieve
iii. Iron bucket
iv. Rope
v. Basket bent cloth
vi. Evaporation dish
Procedure for specific gravity using basket
Method
i. Collect the coarse aggregate sample, wash thoroughly to remove fines

and immerse in water for 24 hrs.
ii. Remove the sample from the water and spray on a glass plate to
surface dry
iii. Collect sample and immerse the wire basket in water with the
collected sample. Immediately after immersing, the entrapped air is
removed from the sample by lifting the basket 25mm above the base
of iron bucket.
iv. Allow the basket with the aggregate to be kept completely in water
and weight while suspended in water.
v. The basket and aggregates are removed from water and dried
aggregates are also weighed.
vi. The surface dried aggregates are also weighed
vii. The aggregates on an evaporating dish and oven dry them
54
Calculations
Data A B
Empty weight of basket (x) 550 550
Empty wt + H2O (C) 450 450
1) Specific gravity on 55D basis

A
¿ 3.82
A−(B−C)
Sample A
2000
=3.900 3.83
2000−( 1900−450 )
Sample B
2050
=4.100 3.84
2050−( 2050−450 )
Average result
3.900+4.100
=4.000 3.85
2
2) Apparent specific gravity
D
¿ 3.86
D−( B−C)
Sample A
55
1950
=3.900 3.87
1950−( 1900−450 )
Sample B
2050
=4.444 3.88
2050−( 2000−450 )
Average result
3.900+4.444
=4.172 3.89
2
3) Specific gravity on oven dry

A
¿ 3.90
A−(B−C)
Sample A
1950
=3.546 3.91
2000−( 1900−450 )
Sample B
2050
=4.000 3.92
2050−( 2000−450 )
Average result
3.546+4.000
=3.773 3.93
2
A−D(100)
¿ 3.94
D
Sample A
56
2000−1950(100)
=2.504 3.95
1950
Sample B
2050−2000(100)
=2.5 3.96
2000
Average result
2.504+2.5
=2.532 3.98
2
3.2.7 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

It is the process of selecting suitable constituents of concrete and hence,
determine their relative quantities with the purpose of producing an
economical concrete which has certain properties notably consistency,
strength and durability.
 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDER WHILE DESIGNING CONCRETE MIX:

i. Characteristic Strength at 28 days = 25N/mm2 (Assumed)
ii. standard deviation = 8% from fig 3. of design chart
iii. Proportion defective = 5%
iv. water cement ratio = 0.5
v. Averaage specific gravity = 2.67
vi. Fine aggregate Zone = zone 1
vii. Slump range = 30-60mm
viii. Type of cement = ordinary Portland cement.
ix. Type of coarse Aggregate = crushed
Mix design calculations and Results are shown in chapter 4.
Mix Design Calculation
Stage 1: Calculation of target mean strength
57
f m=f c + K s 3.99
Where margin = k s=1.64 × 8=13.12 N /m m2 3.100

2
f c =25 N /mm 3.101
2
∴ f m =25+13.2=38.12 N / mm 3.102
Stage 2 : Determining the water cement ratio through figure 4 of CP 110
Water cement ratio = 0.59 3.103
Stage 3: Determining the free water content through table 3 of CP 110
For water Content= 210 kg /m3 3.104
Stage 4: Determining the cement content
w
Since =0.59
c
210
c= =355.9 kg /m 3 3.105
0.59
Stage 5: Determining the mass of concrete for m3/ wet density from fig. 5
Wet density = 2338kg/m3 3.106
Stage 6: Determining the mass of aggregates
Mass of aggregate =D–C–W 3.107
= 2338 – 355.9 – 210 = 1772.1kg/m3 3.108
Stage 7: Determining the proportion of fine aggregate from figure 6.
Proportion of fine aggregate = 27% 3.109
Stage 8: Determining the quantity of fine and coarse aggregates.
27 3
For fine aggregate= ×1772.1=428.5 kg /m 3.110
100
3
Coarse aggregate=1772.1−478.5=1293.6 kg/m 3.111
Stage 9: Determining the mixed design ratio
Table 3.1 Mix design ratio
58
Water Cement Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate
210 355.9 478.5 293.6
355.9 355.9 355.9 355.9
0.59 1 1.34 3.63
Stage 10: Trial mix
Volume of one cube = 0.157 x 0.15 x 0.15 = 0.003375m3 3.112
If 48 cubes are required
Hence,
Volume = 48 x 0.003375 = 0.162m3 3.113
To avoid shortage of material
Add 10% of the volume to the volume
10 3
×0.162=0.0081 m 3.114
100
Then
3
0.0162+0.162=0.1782m 3.115
Hence,
Cement=0.1782 ×355.9=63.42 kg 3.116
Water =0.1782× 210=37.42 kg 3.117
Fine aggregate=0.1782× 478.5=85.27 kg 3.118
For usage of two different coarse aggregate sizes in a ratio of 40:60
10 mm Coarse aggregate=0.40 × 230.52=92.21 kg 3.119
20 mm Coarse aggregate=0.60 × 230.52=138.31 kg 3.120
For control mix (at 0% replacement of sharp sand with stone dust)
12 cubes are required;
59
Volume of one cube =0.15 x 0.15 x 0.15 x 0.15 = 0.003375m 3 3.121
Volume needed = 12 x 0.003375 = 0.0405m2 3.122
To avoid shortage of material
Add 10% of the volume to the volume
10
×0.0405=0.00405 m 3 3.123
100
Then,
0.00405+0.0405=0.04455 m 3 3.124
Hence,
Water =210 ×0.04455=9.36 kg 3.124
Cement=355.9 ×0.04455=15.86 kg 3.125
Fine aggregate=478.5 ×0.04455=21.32 kg 3.126
Coarrse aggregate=1293.6× 0.04455=57.63 kg 3.127
For usage of different sizes of coarse aggregate in a ratio of 40:60;
10mm coarse aggregate = 0.40 x 57.63 = 23.05kg 3.128
20mm coarse aggregate = 0.60 x 57.63 = 34.58kg 3.129
At 5% replacement of sharp sand with stone dust
Water = 9.3kg 3.130
Cement = 15.8kg 3.131
Fine aggregate = sharp sand and stone dust 3.132
95
S h arp sand ( 95 % )=21.32× =20.25 kg 3.133
100
5
Stonedust ( 5 % ) =21.32× =1.07 kg 3.134
100
Coarse aggregate = 57.63kg 3.135
for usage of different sizes of coarse aggregate in a ratio of 40:60
60
10mm coarse aggregate = 23.05kg 3.136
Water = 9.3kg 3.138
Cement = 15.8kg 3.139
Fine aggregate = sharp sand and stone dust
90
S h arp sand ( 90 % )=21.32× =19.19 kg 3.140
100
10
Stonedust ( 10 % ) =21.32× =2.13 kg 3.141
100
For usage of different sizes of coarse aggregate in a ratio of 40:60
Water = 9.3kg 3.144
Cement = 15.8kg 3.145
Fine aggregate = sharp sand and stone dust
85
S h arp sand ( 85 % )=21.32× =18.12 kg 3.146
100
15
Stonedust ( 15 % ) =21.32× =3.20 kg 3.147
100
For usage of different sizes of coarse aggregate in a ratio of 40:60
3.2.8 MIXING OF CONCRETE

61
Each of the ingredient weight already determined for each mix was measured
and poured on a flat smooth and non-absorbent surface.
PROCEDURE
Step 1: Weight of fine aggregate was measured on a digital weighing
balance and poured on flat smooth surface before the weight of cement was
measured, poured together with the fine aggregate and mixed them properly.
And finally measured weight of coarse aggregate and mixed them properly also.
Step 2: The weight free water content (190kg) was measured and was poured
carefully and all ingredients were mixed thoroughly until uniform consistency
was achieved.
3.2.9 SLUMP TEST

AIM: This test is to determine the degree of consistency in a wet concrete
APPARATUS:
i. Slump test cone having a bottom diameter of 200mm, top diameter of

100mm and height of 300mm. (i.e slump one of 200mm x 100mm x
300mm).
ii. 25 mm diameter and 610mm long tapping rod
iii. Hand trowel
iv. Meter rule
PROCEDURES:
Step 1: The cone inside surface was oiled and placed on a smooth flat
nonabsorbent surface and held firmly in place.
Step 2: It was filled with the fresh concrete in three layers. Each layer was
tamped 30 times with a 25mm diameter tamping rod.
Step 3: The excess, beyond the top of the cone was then shrugged off,
smoothed with hand trowel immediately after filling.
Step 4: The mould was raised vertically slowly and carefully to empty the
concrete content.
62
Step 5: The empty mould was placed beside the concrete slump and the
vertical difference between the bottom (200mm) of the cone and the
highest part of wet concrete was measured. Using meter rate to placed on the
center highest part of wet concrete and was traced reached at the tamping rod
placed horizontally on the cone.
The same apparatus and procedures were used for all the various mixes which
are 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% mixes.
Calculations
Slump level at 0% replacement of sharp sand with stone dust Control mix)
=30mm 3.150
Slump level at 5% replacement of sharp sand with stone dust =36mm 3.151
3.2.10 CASTING OF CONCRETE CUBES

After slump test, concrete cubes were casted from each mix, 12 cubes were
casted for each of the various percentage replacements, making a total number
of 48 cubes.
APPARATUS
i. Concrete cube mould (150mm x 150mm x 150mm)
ii. Tamping rod (25mm diameter)
iii. Hand trowel
PROCEDURE:
Step 1: The inner surface of concrete cube moulds was oiled, reason is for
easy de-moulding.
Step 2: The wet concrete was poured in the moulds. The wet concrete was
placed in three layers with each layer compacted using 25mm tamping rod
with minimum of 30 blows per layer.
63
Step 3: The top surface was leveled using a hand trowel.
Step 4: 25mm tapping rod was used to hit the four corners of moulds in order
to eliminate voids inside the concrete.
Step 5: After some hours, each concrete cube was marked by number and
manufacturing date for identification. After 24 hours, the concrete cubes are
de-moulded (removed) from their respective cubes and cured in a water tank
for 7, 14 , 21 and 28 days, after which they were tested.
3.2.11 DENSITY
On each testing day, starting with the 7 th day of age, twelve cubes were
removed from water, left to air dry, then weighed to know the mass of each
cube. The volume for each cube has already been known which is 3375g/cm 3
which is gotten when you multiply the length and width of the cube by the
height (150mm x 150mm x 150mm). The density of each cube was gotten by
dividing the mass of the cube by the volume after which the density of each
cube was noted.
Calculations
mass of cube
Density= ¿ 3.154
volume of cube
Where volume ¿ 180 ×150 ×150=337500 mm3=3375 c m3 3.155
Mass of cube = weight of cube in grams
AT 7 DAYS STRENGTH
Control
For Cube A
M A 8178
DA= = =2.42¿ 3.156
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 8178
DB = = =2.42¿ 3.157
V B 3375
64
For Cube C
M C 7995
DC= = =2.37 ¿ 3.158
V C 3375
2.42+ 2.42+2.37
Average Density= =2.40 ¿ 3.159
3
For Cube A
M A 7895
DA= = =2.34 ¿ 3.160
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 7800
DB = = =2.37 ¿ 3.161
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 7970
DC= = =2.36 ¿ 3.162
V C 3375
2.43+ 2.7+2.36
Average Density= =2.30 ¿
3
For Cube A
M A 7887
DA= = =2.34 ¿ 3.163
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 7957
DB = = =2.36 ¿ 3.164
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 7875
DC= = =2.33¿ 3.165
V C 3375
65
2.34+2.36+2.33
3
For Cube A
M A 8080
DA= = =2.39¿ 3.167
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 8060
DB = = =2.39 ¿ 3.168
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 7766
DC= = =2.30 ¿ 3.169
V C 3375
2.39+ 2.9+2.36
3
DENSITY AT 14 DAYS
Control
For Cube A
M A 8030
DA= = =2.38¿ 3.171
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 7930
DB = = =2.35¿ 3.172
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 8040
DC= = =2.38 ¿ 3.173
V C 3375
66
2.38+2.35+2.38
3
For Cube A
M A 8200
DA= = =2.43¿ 3.174
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 7990
DB = = =2.37 ¿ 3.175
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 7550
DC= = =2.24 ¿ 3.176
V C 3375
For Cube A
M C 8213
DA= = =2.43 ¿ 3.177
V C 3375
For CubeB
M C 7817
DC= = =2.32¿ 3.178
V C 3375
For Cube C
M C 8200
DC= = =2.32¿ 3.179
V C 3375
2.43+ 2.32+ 2.32

3

67
For Cube A
M A 7915
DA= = =2.35 ¿ 3.181
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 8030
DB = = =2.38 ¿ 3.182
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 8040
DC= = =2.38 ¿ 3.183
V C 3375
2.35+ 2.38+2.38
3
DENSITY AT 21 DAYS
Control
For Cube A
M A 8150
DA= = =2.4 ¿ 3.184
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 8200
DB = = =2.42¿ 3.185
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 8150
DC= = =2.41¿ 3.186
V C 3375
2.41+ 2.42+2.4
3
For Cube A
M A 7980
DA= = =2.36 ¿ 3.188
V A 3375
68
For Cube B
M B 7800
DB = = =2.31¿ 3.189
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 7800
DC= = =2.31¿ 3.190
V C 3375
2.36+2.31+2.31
3
For Cube A
M A 7980
DA= = =2.36 ¿ 3.192
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 8010
DB = = =2.37 ¿ 3.193
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 7800
DC= = =2.31¿ 3.194
V C 3375
2.36+2.37+2.31
3
For Cube A
M A 8120
DA= = =2.42¿ 3.196
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 8100
DB = = =2.4 ¿ 3.197
V B 3375
69
For Cube C
M C 7995
DC= = =2.36 ¿ 3.198
V C 3375
2.42+ 2.4+2.36
3
DENSITY AT 28 DAYS
Control
For Cube A
M A 8660
DA= = =2.57 ¿ 3.200
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 8420
DB = = =2.50 ¿ 3.201
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 8100
DC= = =2.51¿ 3.202
V C 3375
For Cube A
M A 8120
DA= = =2.41¿ 3.203
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 7800
DB = = =2.31¿ 3.204
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 7990
DC= = =2.38¿ 3.205
V C 3375
70
2.41+ 2.31+2.38
3
For Cube A
M A 8120
DA= = =2.41¿ 3.207
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 8300
DB = = =2.46 ¿ 3.208
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 7990
DC= = =2.38¿ 3.209
V C 3375
2.41+ 2.46+2.38
3
For Cube A
M A 8550
DA= = =2.53¿ 3.211
V A 3375
For Cube B
M B 8250
DB = = =2.44 ¿ 3.212
V B 3375
For Cube C
M C 8100
DC= = =2.40 ¿ 3.213
V C 3375
2.5+ 2.44+2.40
3
71
3.2.12 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
On each testing day, starting with the 7 th day of age, twelve cubes were
removed from water, left to air dry, then weighted and tested. The test was
performed using a hydraulic compression testing machine. The load was
applied until the specimen failed. The failure load was recorded. This process
was performed on 7 days interval till the 28 th day of the age of the concrete
which was the last testing day. The results were presented in chapter four.
Precautions:
i. I ensured that my apparatus were properly in order
ii. I avoided error due to parallax
Calculations
Strength = F/A (N/mm3) 3.215
Where; S = Strength
F = Force KN (test load from machine)
A = 150mm x 150mm = 22500mm2
STRENGTH AT 7 DAYS
Control
For Cube A
F A 52.0 ×1000
SA= = =23.1 N /mm 2 3.216
A 22500
For Cube B
41.0 ×1000 2
=18.22 N /mm 3.217
22500
For Cube C
48.0 ×1000
=21.33 N /m m2 3.218
22500
72
23.1+18.2+21.3
Average strengt h= =20.87 N /mm 2 3.219
3
For Cube A
380× 1000 2
=13.33 N /mm 3.220
22500
For Cube B
250× 1000 2
=11.11 N /mm 3.221
22500
For Cube C
220× 1000 2
=9.78 N / m m 3.222
22500
13.33+11.11+ 9.78 2
Average strengt h= =11.41 N /m m 3.223
3
For Cube A
340× 1000 2
=15.11 N /mm 3.224
22500
For Cube B
340× 1000 2
=15.11 N /mm 3.225
22500
For Cube C
270× 1000 2
=12.0 N / mm 3.226
22500
15.1+15.1+12.0 2
Average strengt h= =14.11 N / m m 3.227
3
73
For Cube A
470 ×1000 2
=20.88 N /m m 3.228
22500
For Cube B
380× 1000 2
=16.88 N /mm 3.229
22500
For Cube C
300× 1000 2
=13.33 N /mm 3.230
22500
20.83+ 16.88+ 13.33 2

Average strengt h= =17.03 N /mm 3.231
3
STRENGTH AT 14 DAYS
Control
For Cube A
620× 1000 2
=27.56 N /m m 3.232
22500
For Cube B
490 ×1000
=21.78 N /m m2 3.233
22500
For Cube C
570× 1000 2
=25.33 N /mm 3.234
22500
27.56 +21.78+25.33 2
3
For Cube A
335× 1000 2
=15.78 N /mm 3.236
22500
For Cube B
74
300× 1000
=13.24 N /m m2 3.237
22500
For Cube C
260× 1000 2
=11.6 N / mm 3.238
22500
15.78+13.24 +11.60 2
3
For Cube A
400 ×1000 2
SA= =17.78 N /m m 3.240
22500
For Cube B
400 ×1000
S B= =17.78 N /m m2 3.241
22500
For Cube C
320 ×1000 2
SC = =14.22 N /m m 3.242
22500
17.78+17.8+ 14.22 2
3
For Cube A
558 × 1000 2
SA= =24.78 N /mm 3.244
22500
For Cube B
450 ×1000
S B= =20 N /m m2 3.245
22500
For Cube C
355 ×1000 2
SC = =15.68 N /m m 3.246
22500
75
24.78+ 20+15.68
Average strengt h= =200.15 N /mm2 3.247
3
AT 21 DAYS
Control
For Cube A
720 × 1000
SA= =32 N /m m2 3.248
22500
For Cube B
580× 1000 2
S B= =25.668 N /mm 3.249
22500
For Cube C
675 ×1000
SC = =30 N /m m2 3.250
22500
32+25.68+ 30 2
3
For Cube A
425 ×1000
SA= =13.88 N /m m2 3.252
22500
For Cube B
353× 1000 2
S B= =15.67 N /mm 3.253
22500
For Cube C
310 ×1000
SC = =13.79 N /m m2 3.254
22500
18.88+15.67 +13.79 2
3
For Cube A
76
480 ×1000
SA= =21.33 N /m m2 3.256
22500
For Cube B
485 ×1000 2
S B= =21.56 N /m m 3.257
22500
For Cube C
380 ×1000
SC = =16.88 N /m m2 3.258
22500
21.33+ 21.56+16.88 2
3
For Cube A
650× 1000
SA= =29 N /mm2 3.260
22500
For Cube B
535× 1000 2
S B= =23.68 N /mm 3.261
22500
For Cube C
420× 1000 2
SC = =18.67 N /mm 3.262
22500
29+ 23.68+18.67 2
3
AT 28 DAYS
Control
For Cube A
555 × 1000 2
SA= =38 N /mm 3.264
22500
For Cube B
77
690× 1000
S B= =30.67 N /m m2 3.265
22500
For Cube C
800 ×1000 2
SC = =35.55 N /m m 3.266
22500
38+ 30.67+35.55 2
3
For Cube A
510 × 1000 2
SA= =26.67 N /mm 3.268
22500
For Cube B
420 ×1000
S B= =18.67 N /m m2 3.269
22500
For Cube C
380 ×1000 2
SC = =16.88 N /m m 3.270
22500
26.67 +18.67+16.88 2
3
For Cube A
570 × 1000 2
SA= =25.33 N /mm 3.272
22500
For Cube B
580× 1000
S B= =25.78 N /mm2 3.273
22500
For Cube C
450× 1000 2
SC = =20 N /mm 3.274
22500
78
25.33+ 25.78+20
Average strengt h= =23.70 N /mm 2 3.275
3
For Cube A
775 × 1000 2
SA= =34.44 N /mm 3.276
22500
For Cube B
640× 1000 2
S B= =28.44 N /m m 3.278
22500
For Cube C
500 ×1000 2
SC = =22.22 N /m m 3.279
22500
34.44 +28.44+22.22
Average strengt h= =28.37 N /m m2 3.280
3
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSIONS
The following tests were carried out in Chapter three and the results were also
given in this chapter
i. Sieve analysis
ii. Specific gravity
iii. Concrete mix design calculations
iv. Slump test
v. Density of concrete
vi. Compressive strength
4.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF FINE AGGREGATE (SHARP SAND)
79
Table 4.1: Data on Sieve analysis of Fine Aggregate (sharp sand)
Sieve size Wt. retained % Weight Cumulative % Cumulative %

(%) Retained weight Passing
9.5mm 0 0 0 100.00
4.75 mm 1.1 0.29 0.29 99.71
2.4mm 9.8 2.56 2.85 97.15
1.18mm 17.4 4.59 7.44 92.56
600µm 27.0 7.06 14.50 85.5
425 µm 58.2 15.21 29.21 70.29
300 µm 79.1 20.68 52.39 49.61
150 µm 172.85 45.18 95.57 4.43
75 µm 17.1 4.47 100.00 0
Σ 382.55 300.75
80
Figure
¿ ΣCum % 4.1: particle size distribution graph for fine aggregate (sharp sand)
300.75
= =2.008 ≅ 3.01 4.0
100 100
81
Zone of aggregate = Zone 3 4.1
Discussions:
i. from table 4.1 and equation 4.1, it can be seen that sharp sand belongs
to zone 3 after checking the percentage weight retained in the 600 mm
sieve through the chart
ii. It can be seen from figure 4.1 that much portion the sharp sand fell into
the sand fraction, followed by the gravel fraction and silt fraction had the
least.
iii. From equation 4.0, it can be seen that the fineness modulus is 3.01
4.2 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF FINE AGGREGATE (STONE DUST)
Table 4.2: Data on Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate (Stone dust)
Sieve size Wt. retained % Weight Cumulative % Cumulative %

(%) Retained weight Passing
9.5mm 0 0 0 100.00
4.75 mm 13.10 2.92 2.92 97.08
2.4mm 209.85 46.71 49.63 50.37
1.18mm 51.22 11.40 61.03 38.97
600µm 70.15 15.62 76.65 23.35
425 µm 43.30 9.64 86.29 13.71
300 µm 22.20 4.94 91.23 8.77
150 µm 24.50 5.45 96.68 3.32
75 µm 14.90 3.32 100 0
Σ 449.22 100 564.43
82
Figure 4.2: particle size distribution graph for fine aggregate (stone dust)
Fineness modulus
ΣCum % 564.43
= =5.6443 ≅ 5.6 4.2
100 100
83
Discussions:
From table 4.2, it can be deduced that:
i. The stone dust belongs to zone 1 after checking the percentage weight
retained in the 600mm sieve through the chart.
ii. It can be seen from figure 4.2 that much portion the sharp sand fell into
the sand fraction, followed by the gravel fraction and silt fraction had the
least.
iii. From equation 4.0, it can be seen that the fineness modulus is 5.6
4.3 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF COARSE AGGREGATE
Table 4.3: Data on Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate
Sieve size Wt. retained % Weight Cumulative Cumulative %

(%) Retained % weight Passing
53mm 0 0 0 100.00
37.5mm 0 0 0 100.00
19mm 1.6 47.00 47.06 52.44
9.5mm 1.4 41.18 88.24 11.74
6.7mm 0.3 8.82 97.06 2.94
4.7mm 0.1 2.94 100 0
Σ 3.4 100 332.36
84
Figure 4.3: particle size distribution graph for coarse aggregate
85
Discussion:
It can be seen from figure 4.2 that:
i. much portion the coarse aggregate fell into the gravel fraction, followed
by the cobbles and silt fraction had the least.
4.4 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST OF FINE AGGREGATE (SHARP SAND)
Table 4.4: Data on Specific gravity test of fine aggregate (sharp sand)
Data Sample A Sample B

Empty wt + H2O (C) 1559 1859
1) Specific gravity on SSD basis
Sample A Sample B Average result

2.65 2.635 2.643

2.643 2.590 2.617
3) Specific gravity on oven dry

2.655 2.664 2.660
4) Water Absorption Percentage

2.333 2.231 1.282
86
Discussions:
i. The specific gravity is 2.64
ii. water absorption percentage is 1.28
4.5 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST OF FINE AGGREGATE (STONE DUST)
Table 4.5: Data on Specific gravity test of fine aggregate (Stone dust)

Empty wt + H2O (C) 1559 1559
1) Specific gravity on SSD basis
SAMPLE A SAMPLE B Average result

2.652 2.673 2.663

2.630 3.713 2.672

6.519 4418 5.469
Discussions:
i. The specific gravity was found to be 2.66
ii. water absorption percentage was found to be 5.47
87
4.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST ON COARSE AGGREGATE
Table 4.6: Data on Specific gravity test of coarse aggregate

Empty weight of basket (x) 550 550
Empty wt + H2O (C) 450 450
i. Specific gravity on 55D basis

3.900 4.100 4.000
ii. Apparent specific gravity

3.900 4.444 4.172
iii. Specific gravity on oven dry

3.546 4.000 3.773
iv. Water Absorption percentage

2.504 2.5 2.532
Discussions:
i. The specific gravity test was conducted and the average specific gravity
was 4.0
88
ii. water absorption percentage is 2.53
89
4.7 MIX DESIGN
Table 4.7: Mix design ratio
Water Cement Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate

210 355.9 478.5 293.6
355.9 355.9 355.9 355.9
0.59 1 1.34 3.63
Discussions:
i. Mix design calculations were made and we arrived at a mix ratio of
1:1.34:3.63 and a water cement ratio of 0.59.
ii. 48 cubes were to be casted and it had to consume 0.178m³ of concrete.
4.8 SLUMP TEST RESULT
Table 4.8: Data on Slump test
Replacement level (%) 0 5 10 15
Slump level (mm) 30 36 34 32
40
35
30
SLUMP LEVEL (mm)
25
20
15% - 32mm
10% - 34mm
15
5% - 36mm
10 0% - 30mm
0
0% 5% 10% 15%
REPLACEMENT LEVEL (%)
Figure 4.4: chart for slump level against replacement level
73
Discussions:
From table 4.8 and the chart in figure 4.4 it can be seen that:
i. The control mix (0% replacement) gave the lowest slump of 30mm.
ii. On substitution of sharp sand with stone dust at 5%, 10%, and 15%
replacement, the slump tend to reduce and gave the various slump
values respectively, 36mm,34mm,32mm.
4.9 DENSITY
4.9.1 DENSITY OF CONCRETE AT 7 DAYS
Table 4.9: Data on Density of concrete at 7 days

Density (g/cm³) 2.39 2.30 2.34 2.36
2.5
DENSITY (g/cm³)
1.5 15% -2.36g/cm³

10% -2.34g/cm³
1 5% - 2.30g/cm³
0% - 2.39 g/cm³
0.5
0
0% 5% 10% 15%
Figure 4.5: Chart for Density against replacement level at 7 days
74
From table 4.9 and figure 4.5 it can be seen that:
i. The control mix (0% replacement), gave the highest density of 2.39g/cm³.
replacement, the density tend to increase gradually and gave the various
densities respectively, 2.30 g/cm³, 2.34g/cm³ , and 2.36g/cm³.
iii. The control mix gave the highest density.
iv. For the various replacement mix, the density increased as the
replacement level percentage increased.

Density (g/cm³) 2.40 2.34 2.36 2.37
2.5
DENSITY (g/cm³)
1.5 15% -2.37g/cm³

10% -2.36g/cm³
1 5% - 2.34g/cm³
0% - 2.40 g/cm³
0.5
0
0% 5% 10% 15%
75
iii. The control mix gave the highest density

Density (g/cm³) 2.41 2.33 2.35 2.39
2.5
Density (g/cm³)
1.5 15% -2.39g/cm³

10% -2.35g/cm³
1 5% - 2.33g/cm³
0% - 2.41 g/cm³
0.5
0
0% 5% 10% 15%
76

Density (g/cm³) 2.51 2.37 2.42 2.46
2.5
Density (g/cm³)
1.5 15% -2.46g/cm³

10% -2.42g/cm³
1 5% - 2.37g/cm³
0% - 2.51 g/cm³
0.5
0
0% 5% 10% 15%
77

iv. For the replacement mix, the density increased as the replacement level
percentage increased.
4.10 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
4.10.1 STRENGTH AT 7 DAYS
Table 4.13: Data on Compressive Strength at 7 days

Compressive strength 20.87 11.41 14.1 17.03
(N/mm2)
78
25
20
Strength (N/mm2)
15
15% -17.03(N/mm2)
10
10% -14.1(N/mm2)
5 5% - 11.41(N/mm2)
0% - 20.87 (N/mm2)
0
0% 5% 10% 15%

7 days

i. The control mix (0% replacement), gave the highest strength of 20.87
N/mm2 at 7 days.
replacement, the strength were 11.41 N/mm2, 14.1/ N/mm2, and 17.03
N/mm2 respectively.
iii. The control mix gave the highest strength at 7 days.
iv. For the replacement mix at 7 days, the density increased as the
replacement level percentage increased, but did not surpass the strength
of the control mix.


(N/mm2)
79
30
25
Strength (N/mm2)
20
15
15% -20.15(N/mm2)
10 10% -16.20(N/mm2)
5% - 13.54(N/mm2)
5
0% - 24.89(N/mm2)
0
0% 5% 10% 15%

14 days
v. The control mix (0% replacement), gave the highest strength of 24.89
N/mm2 at 14 days.
vi. On substitution of sharp sand with stone dust at 5%, 10%, and 15%, the
strength were 13.54N/mm2, 16.20N/mm2,and 20.15N/mm2 respectively.
vii. The control mix gave the highest strength at 14 days.
viii. For the replacement mix at 14 days, the strength increased as the
of the control mix.


(N/mm2)
80
35
30
25
Strength (N/mm2)
20
15% -25.78(N/mm2)
15
10% -19.92(N/mm2)
10
5% - 16.11(N/mm2)
5
0% - 29.23(N/mm2)
0
0% 5% 10% 15%

21 days

i. The control mix (0% replacement), gave the highest strength of 29.23
N/mm2 at 21 days.
ii. On substitution of sharp sand with stone dust at 5%, 10%, and 15%, the
iv. For the replacement mix at 21 days, the strength increased as the
of the control mix.


Compressive strength 34.74 20.47 23.70 28.3 7
(N/mm2)
81
40
35
DENSITY (g/cm³)
30
25
20
15% -28.37(N/mm2)
15
10% -23.70 (N/mm2)
10
5% - 20.47 (N/mm2)
5
0% - 37.74 (N/mm2)
0
0% 5% 10% 15%
28 days

i. The control mix (0% replacement), gave the highest strength of
37.74N/mm2 at 28 days.
ii. On substitution of sharp sand with stone dust at 5%, 10%, and 15%, the
iv. For the replacement mix at 28 days, the strength increased as the
of the control mix.
v. The 15% replacement mix gave the best strength when compared to
other replacement mix.
After all test and calculations, it can be observed that;
The substitution of sharp sand with stone dust affected the strength of the
concrete, this is because the control mix gave the best strength (37.74
N/mm2 ), nevertheless only the 15% replacement mix was able to attain a
82
desirable strength of 28.37 N/mm2 at 28 days of age, which passes its test and
surpasses the design strength of the mix design which is 25 N/mm2.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
Due to high increase in building materials some engineers, builders and house
owners decided to use only fine aggregate in building their residential house.
Building construction with only fine aggregate is very risky due to the
aggregate used was so fine and absent of coarse aggregate that can help hold
the concrete structure. It can cause building collapse and crack on the walls
which can results in death to human.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The compressive strength of concrete depends upon a number of factors
such as, mix ratio, size, texture of coarse and types of aggregate, method of
compaction and curing period.
83
2. I recommend lateritic soil in concrete structure for good results, it is also
recommend for its affordable in concrete work. It is suggested that quarry
stone may be employed for concrete work in places where concrete
practitioners have variety of choices available, which it is most used in bridge
construction work.
3. Effort should also be made to ensure that improved methods and facilities
are employed in the testing of strength of concrete because of their important
in bringing about the proper functioning of any given structure.
84
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88

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TITLE PAGE

THE EFFECT OF PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF SHARP SAND WITH STONE DUST

EDEANI CHINEDU EMMANUEL

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

with stone dust on mechanical properties of concrete” was carried by Edeani

Chinedu Emmanuel with registration number 2016030178677 in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the award of Bachelor Degree in Civil Engineering.

EDEANI CHINEDU EMMANUEL

dust on mechanical properties of concrete” has been approved to the Department

of Bachelor Degree in Civil Engineering. Enugu State University of Science and

Technology (ESUT), Enugu.

ENGR. DR. JOHNMARTIN ENEM DATE

ENGR. DR. C.C. IKE DATE

EXTERNAL EXAMINER DATE

This work is dedicated to God Almighty.

throughout my stay in school.

successful actualization of this project whose name was omitted.

Approval page iii

1.1 Background of the study 1

1.2 Statement o problems 9

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Compressive strength of concrete 11

2.2 Workability of fine aggregate on the compressive strength

2.3 Influence of different types of sand on the compressive

2.4 Quality and properties of concrete 18

2.4.1 Properties of hardened concrete 25

3.0 Material and methods 26

3.1.1 Portland cement 26

3.1.2 Coarse aggregates 26

3.1.3 Sharp sand 26

3.1.4 Quarry dust 26

3.2.1 Sieve analysis of fine aggregate (sharp sand) 27

3.2.2 Sieve analysis of fine aggregate (stone dust) 30

3.2.3 Sieve analysis for coarse aggregates 32

3.2.4 Specific gravity of fine aggregate (sharp sand) 34

3.2.5 Specific gravity of fine aggregate (stone dust) 37

3.2.6 Specific gravity test on coarse aggregate 42

3.2.7 Concrete mix design 45

3.2.8 Mixing of concrete 50

3.2.9 Slump test 50

3.2.10 Casting of concrete cubes 52

3.2.9 Compressive strength test 60

4.0 Results presentation and discussions 69

4.1. Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate (Sharp sand) 69

4.2 Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate (Stone Dust) 71

4.3 Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate 73

4.4 Specific gravity test of Fine aggregate (sharp sand) 75

4.5 Specific gravity test of Fine aggregate (Stone dust) 76

4.6 Specific gravity test on coarse aggregate 77

4.7 Mix design calculation 78

4.8 Slump test result 79

4.9.1 Density of concrete at 7 days 80

4.9.2 Density of concrete at 14 days 81

4.9.3 Density of concrete at 21 days 82

4.9.4 Density of concrete at 28 days 83

4.10 Compressive strength 84

4.10.1 Strength at 7 days 84

4.10.2 Strength at 14 days 85

4.10.3 Strength at 21 days 86

4.10.4 Strength at 28 days 87

Figure 4.3: Particle size distribution graph for coarse aggregate 74

Figure 4.4: Chart for slump level against replacement level 79

Figure 4.5: Chart for Density against replacement level at 7 days 80