CASTING OF AN ALUMINUM RAMMER USING

SAND CASTING

HASHEM ABDULLAH MOHAMMED AL-MEHDHAR

University of Mahsa
2023
 MAHSA UNIVERSITY

DECLARATION OF THESIS / UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT REPORT AND COPYRIGHT

Author’s full name : HASHEM ABDULLAH MOHAMMED AL-MEHDHAR

Date of Birth : 12/05/1996

Title : CASTING OF AN ALUMINUM RAMMER USING SAND CASTING

Academic Session : 2022/2023

I declare that this thesis is classified as:

CONFIDENTIA (Contains confidential information under the Official Secret Act 1972)*
L

RESTRICTED (Contains restricted information as specified by the organization where

research was done)*

 OPEN ACCESS I agree that my thesis to be published as online open access (full text)

I acknowledged that MAHSA University reserves the right as follows:

1. The thesis is the property of MAHSA University

2. The Library of MAHSA University has the right to make copies for the purpose of research only.

3. The Library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange.

Certified by:

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR

(NEW IC NO/PASSPORT) NAME OF SUPERVISOR

Date: …………………………… Date: ……………………………….

NOTES: * If the thesis is CONFIDENTAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from the
organization with period and reasons for confidentiality or restriction.
 “I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in my/our*
opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the
award of the degree of Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering with Honours”

Signature : ………………………….........
Name of Supervisor : ……………………………….
Date : ………………………………..
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Praise and thanks above all to God, whose blessing enabled me to carry out
this project. I would like to express to my supervisor, Ts. Dr. Nur Atiqah
Ramlan, my deepest appreciation for constant guidance, helpful suggestions,
close supervision and moral encouragement. A special thanks to my parents
and my teachers. Thank you to Ts. Dr. Nur Atiqah Ramlan, for providing me
with great cooperation and help for this project. Thanks to everyone who helped
me complete this project directly or indirectly
 ABSTRACT

In the industry (automotive, aerospace, etc.) sand casting is often used to manufacture
components made of iron, bronze, brass, and sometimes aluminum. The chosen metal is melted in an
oven and fed into a sand-formed mold cavity. Sand casting is being used as it is comparatively cheap
and easy process. Nevertheless, sand cast parts are usually affected by defects, which can affect the
properties of cast materials and the gaps between the sand particles in the mold box led to, producing
surface irregularities, these irregularities can lead to cracks or corrosion, leading to failure. This
training can therefore be utilized for teaching the process of sand casting and also for showing the
defects in the casting process. It was planned to choose aluminum 6061 because of its good
formability, weldability, Corrosion resistance, Strength. In addition, tests are finally done to verify
the strength of the material used. Heating of the material will be done at different temperature to
check the variation in hardness.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT vi
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS xi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Research Background 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Research Objective 4
1.4 Research Scope 4
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Casting 5
2.2 Sand Casting 7
2.3 Process Cycle 8
2.3.1 Mold Production 8
2.3.2 Clamping 9
2.3.3 Pouring 9
2.3.4 Cooling 10
2.3.5 Removal 10
2.3.6 Trimming 11
2.4 Advantages of Sand Casting 11
2.5 Disadvantages of Sand Casting 12
2.6 Mold Materials 12
2.6.1 Molding Sands Proprieties 13
2.6.2 Green Sand 14
2.6.3 Components 16
2.6.3.1 Patterns 16

vi
 2.6.3.2 Modelling Box and Materials 17
2.6.3.3 Chills 18
2.6.3.4 Cores 18
2.6.4 Design Requirements 19
2.6.5 Materials 19
2.6.5.1 Aluminum Alloy 19
2.6.5.2 Categories of Alloy 20
2.6.5.3 Wrought Alloy Classes 21
2.6.6 Defects in Sand Casting 22
2.6.6.1 Gas porosity 23
2.6.6.2 Shrinkage 24
2.6.6.3 Cuts and Washes 25
2.6.7 Hardness Testing of Materials 26
2.6.8 Relationship between Rockwell Hardness (HRB) & Tensil 27
Strength 27
2.7 Summary of Literature Review 27
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 29
3.1 Flow Chart 29
3.2 Sand Casting 31
3.2.1 Design 32
3.2.2 Mold Design 34
3.2.3 Selection of materials 34
3.2.4 Making of Pattern 35
3.2.5 Filling Form with Mold 36
3.2.6 Removing of pattern 36
3.2.7 Sand Mold Assembly 37
3.2.8 Pouring of Molten Metal 37
3.2.9 Mold Cracking 38
3.2.10 Putting Object in Water 38
3.3Hardness testing 38

vi
CHAPTER4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 39
4.1 Results 39
4.2 Discussion 42
CHAPTER5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 43
5.1 Conclusion 43
5. 2 Further Recommendation 44
REFERENCES 45

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Casting of alloy 5

Figure 2.2: Sand Casting of Alloy 7
Figure 2.3: Pouring of Molten Metal 9
Figure 2.4: Cooling of Molten Metal 10
Figure 2.5: Trimming of excess metal 11
Figure 2.6: Green Sand 15
Figure 2.7: Pattern 16
Figure 2.8: Mold Box 17
Figure 2.9: after applying the process of sand casting, pinholes will be created 23
Figure 2.10: Gas porosity caused Open holes 24
Figure 2.11: Cuts and Washes 25
Figure 2.12: Hardness Testing Machine 26
Figure 3.1: Roadmap of the project 30
Figure 3.2: Overview of Sand casting 32
Figure 3.3: Sand Rammer Design 33
Figure 3.4: Dimensions of Mold box 34
Figure 3.5: Aluminum 6061 35
Figure 4.1: Rockwell hardness vs Pouring temperature 41
Figure 4.2: Yiled strength vs Pouring temperature 41

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: “Classification of wrought aluminum alloys according to their

strengthening mechanism 21
Table 2.2: Features of the wrought alloy groups 22
Table 3.1: Chemical Composition of Aluminum 6061 35
Table 4.1: Hardness test reading of sand rammer at different pouring temperature 39
Table 4.2: Conversion table 40

x
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

cp specific heat capacity, J/(kg⋅K)

h height, m

Kd discharge

coefficient M mass

flow rate, kg/s P

pressure, kPa

Pb back pressure, kPa

R mass flow rate ratio

T temperature, K

v specific volume, m3

α homogeneous void fraction

η pressure ratio

ρ density, kg/m3

ω compressible flow

parameter ID inner diameter,

MAP maximum allowable pressure, kPa

MAWP maximum allowable working pressure, kPa OD outer diameter,

m RV relief valve

xi
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background

Nowadays in the production industry, a variety of techniques and

manufacturing processes are frequently used. To determine the optimal production
sequencing for a product technically and efficiently, a wide theoretical foundation of
the possibilities and constraints of various manufacturing processes, including
working materials, models, and surfaces. is required. In most cases, the term process
refers to a change in an object's qualities, such as state, durability, information and
geometry, and content [1–3].
Processing or industrial production can be defined as value-added processes
that transform low-utility, low-quality raw materials into high-utility, high-value
goods with length, form, and finish that confer features due to insufficient materials
properties or poor or asymmetric size, form, and finish. The method is concerned
mainly with converting raw materials into completed goods or useable commodities
(product parts or finished product components) [4].
Casting is a process that has the danger of the result occurring at any point
during the process. As a result, action is needed in the cast material production
process to achieve defect-free parts. A molding machine and a mold transfer conveyor
make up a vertically divided flask-less automated casting system. Because of its high-
water content, clay-bonded sand is also considered as green molding sand. These
concoctions are made up of silica sand, bentonite clay, and a few other ingredients.
Metal casting is the most prevalent primary production method. It can make
complicated products out of any melted material, ranging from a few grams to several
tons [2]. Sand castings are made in foundries, which are specialist factories.
Furthermore, over 70% of all metal casts are made with a sand-casting process
employing green sand. Despite the availability of many advanced metal casting
methods, because to the low cost of raw
1
materials, a wide range of size and compositional castings, as well as the option of
recycling molded sand, remains one of today's most often used casting processes [4,5].
Sand casting is a metal casting method defined by the use of sand in the
moulding process. The term "sand casting" can also refer to a product made by sand-
casting. The study of filling stage in sand casting process is of great significance since
it directly affects casting quality. Inappropriate filling of castings usually generates
surface oxide film entrainment that can cause 80% of the total effective casting
problems [3]. Sand castings are created in foundries, which are one-of-a-kind facilities
[5]. Among all metal casts, the sand-casting method yields more than 70%. Sand
casting is also comparatively inexpensive and refractory for use in steel foundries
[1,4]. In compared to sand, an excellent bonding medium (usually clay) is blended
or formed with sand. The aggregate is suitable for molding, and the blend is dispersed
to produce the clay's strength and plasticity, usually with liquid but sometimes with
other components. Sand is often produced in a flask, which is a framework or
mold box structure. Sand compressed into the shape of mold cavity and gating
system through
the models, patterns and carving right in the sand [5].
Aluminum is utilized in a variety of applications and is found in almost every
home. When contrasted to other metals, such as iron and steel, aluminum has a more
positive image. It was discovered relatively late, and large manufacturing began only
in the previous century, and it is now increasing at a rapid pace [3]. Aluminum has
been viewed as a futuristic substance due to its late discovery, and while we are
already more able to identify issues and negative effects, it still has unique qualities.
Aluminum’s low density combined with its comparatively high strength allows for
lighter and thus energy-saving designs, resulting in its marketing as an
environmentally benign material. Nonetheless, the fabrication of aluminum
components, particularly the raw material, is very power and pollution heavy. Casting
is one of the essential production procedures for producing complex forms in series.
Many products, such as household appliances, equipment, electronics, kitchenware,
and engines, have cast aluminum components. They could be used indoors, in
businesses, and in high percentages of vehicles. The casting process, like
manufacturing aluminum, necessitates much energy. Various elements, including the

2
type of metal alloy, the manufacturing method, and the production site, influence the
cast's actual environmental impact. As a result, comparing

2
multiple situations to assess the specific repercussions is intriguing. This permits the
determination of feasible reductions for casted items through casting process
optimization and design and material selection[3,4]
The term ‘Rammer’ can be defined as a manually force driven tool used for
ramming in the process of casting moulds. The ramming (by hand) refers to the
process of compacting the granulated masses i.e., mold material using the rammer,
which in case of sand casting is sand rammer. Sand rammer is usually a wooden
equipment used in foundries, for compacting the sand according to the pattern of the
mold box. They are available in different sizes according to the required bulk or small
amount of material to be compacted i.e., larger size requires two hands in the practice
while smaller ones can be used by the force of one hand.

1.2 Problem Statement

Sand casting is the most ancient method of casting. Many businesses nowadays
use the sand-casting method to manufacture a wide range of metal parts with complex
designs. The quality of the result products is important in deciding the efficiency of a
procedure conducted. Moreover, to reduce the final product’s faults such as shrinkage,
washes, pours, and cuts, a process should be carried out with keen accuracy, precision
and calculated each step.

There may be various flaws on the finished sand cast material, which must be
machined afterward. Surface finish has been the most valued attribute of a machined
surface. It is a performance indicator since irregularities can lead to cracks or
corrosion, leading to failure. Poor surface finishing will impact the product's
performance, as the product's surface must have a better surface finish for the
workpiece to not be affected during machining.

Use of Sand rammer eliminates the chances of specimens’ failure through

cracking or corrosion by minimizing the gaps between the sand particles in the mold
box. The rammer distinctively improves the casting quality of the final product
through sand casting in small scale foundry as well as huge foundry industries.

3
 The casted product in this case study is a sand rammer made from Aluminum. The
material Aluminum is chosen to reduce the defects’ factor and improve its quality in
the final casted product because it has fixed properties and characteristics such as
strength, joinability, formability and ability of having resistance to corrosion

1.3 Research Objective

The aim and objective of this project are:

1. To design a sand rammer and mold box with the right dimensions.
2. To fabricate sand rammer from Aluminum using the model design
and a mold box.

To evaluate effect of different temperature on mechanical properties of sand

casted final product.

1.4 Research Scope

This project will focus on aluminum sand casting at various temperature. In

addition, the necessary information and abilities must be utilized. The following are
some of the activities that must be completed in order to meet the project's objective:

(i) Detail modelling of a sand rammer and mold box with

AutoCAD program.

(ii) A sand-casting experiment to be carried out in a

mechanical lab or small foundry using Aluminum to cast
raw Sand rammer and surface finish the product.

Hardness testing like Rockwell, Yield Strength and Ultimate Tensile Strength to
be conducted and compared in order to provide experimental information and findings
of casted product.

4
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Casting

Casting is a solidification mechanism which indicates that the principle of

solidification regulates much of the casting properties. In contrast, some casting
defects, including gas porosity and solidification shrink, arise while solidification [6].

Figure 2.1: Casting of alloy [6].

Technology of casting was dated to approximately 5,500 B.C. Gold, due to its
bright appearance, was the very first metal that prehistoric man was using to shape.
Silver was then discovered and equally handled. Early on, mankind discovered copper
in the copper-bearing ore in the ashes of the fires of the camp lining the forest. Copper
was considered harder and more unable to be easily bent than gold and silver. Copper

5
 goods have been used as weapons and arms. Pottery was discovered earlier than
metal, made with clay. Man discovered that pottery can be made by transforming clay
and fire into bowls. It was learned that gold can be melted in the clay pots with heat
and copper can also be melted if enough heat is available. The earliest ever recorded
casting is a copper frog cast in Mesopotamia, modern Iraq currently, possibly about
3200 B.C, as Raza has mentioned [6]. The nature of Frog indicates that other simpler
casting attempts were followed [7] Around 3,000 B.C. tools, decorations and weapons
of copper and bronze were common in Eurasia. Bronze is a wide variety of copper
alloys that make it stronger and tougher than silver with tin as its major additive. The
Bronze Age could have begun about 3,500 B.C in the North, or around the modern
Turkey and around the Middle East. Indian Bronze Age started around 3,300 B.C.,
China Bronze Age began about 2,100 B.C. There are many places around the world in
which bronzes began around Bronze Age, while the Bronze Age started about 2,100
B.C. The Iron Age is the last of the three-year classification system used by ancient
cultures, including Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. The Iron Age is the most
advanced form of metalworking in the production phase. The Sumerians and
Egyptians probably first used iron about 4,000 B.C. China started to have iron
castings about 1,000 B.C., while India manufactured steel about 500 B.C. The casting
technique passed by Portuguese explorers in the 14th century in Europe from India
and the Middle East .

Industries related casting have an extremely important role in the development

field in today's manufacturing environment. The optimization of casting discharge
rates was an important task in all casting industries for vast spread casting
applications. Optimisation is a continuous operation, as shown by optimization
analyses of different previous systems. The use and availability of high-speed
computers make optimisation algorithms increasingly popular in engineering design
practices. Optimization is commonly used in engineering design problems, with a
focus on optimizing a certain purpose [8]. A high level of software complexity has
been described as the system optimization concern that is typically formulated as a
restricted non-linear programming. The automation of software can be considered a
continuous development method in today's world. With new tooling and working
materials being developed, researchers are expected to look at numerous Optimization

8 6
 Techniques in casting operation and the desire to perform casting with optimum
parameters. Therefore,

8 6
 optimizing casting system parameters plays a crucial role in future inquiries in the
search of never-ending improvements [9].

2.2 Sand Casting

Sand casting is perhaps the most common of the different forging, rolling,
punching, extrusion, stamping and many other processes and techniques. Sand
Casting provides the maker with the absolute freedom and latitude in all the forming
methods with an infinite choice of metals and alloys conveniently cast by millions or
individually. Sand castings vary from a fraction of a pound to over 100 tonnes in a
wide range of sizes .

Figure 2.2: Sand Casting of Alloy[6].

A perfect situation is to control all the key influential procedural factors to

provide the required details with a mold design that is powerful enough to create
castings. In the process of casting sand, distinctive mold material and coating uses will
decide whether the end product will have great surface finish. The metal is then melted
in the furnace and then the cavity of the sand mold, framed by the pattern, is spooned
and filled. The sand mold separates along a separate line and it is possible to evacuate
the solidified casting. The next section will give a more detailed overview of the
process [6,10,11].

A wide variety of metal components with complicated structures are usually

manufactured using sand-casting. Such parts will vary significantly from a few

8 7
 ounces

8 7
 to multiple tons in weight and size. In some smaller parts of sand cast, there are also
components, such as gears, pulleys, crankshafts, rods and propellers. Housing for
large equipment and heavy machine bases is included in broader types of
applications. Sand casting can also produce automotive components, such as engine
blocks, engine manifold cylinder heads and transmission case [4,12].

2.3 Process Cycle

The procedure conducted through six fundamental stages, as

stated below:

2.3.1 Mold Production

The first step in the casting process is to shape the casting. This progress must be
done in an expendable type of process for each casting. A sand mold is formed by
pressing sand into every 50% of the mold. A pattern of the current state is packed
with sand around the design. When the pattern is removed, the cavity that frames the
casting remains [12–14].
Any inside casting characteristics which cannot be formed by independent sand
cores before the mold is developed. The following section should provide additional
details on mold making. The mold position, pressing the sand and expelling the
design is incorporated a few minutes away from the mold setting. The size of the
product, the number of cores and the sand mold form affect the time it takes to
manufacture mold [4,12].

Pouring cup and rise should be created used some extra metal. Pouring cup is
used for pouring the molten metal and the riser is to fill up any empty place in the
mold. The sprue and riser must be arranged to allow a proper flow of metal and gases
within the mold to avoid an incomplete casting. The mold making time is generously
expanded if the mold type requires heating or baking time. Likewise, lubrication is
connected regularly to the shape cavity surfaces to facilitate casting removal. Using a
lubricant further enhances the metal's flow and can improve the casting surface
finish. The
8
8
 lubricant used is picked depending on the temperature of the sand and the molten
metal [15].

2.3.2 Clamping

It must be installed to be poured into the molten metal after the forming has
taken place. For casting extraction, the mold cavity layer is first lubricated. At this
stage, the cores are placed, and the mold halves are safely sealed. To prevent product
loss, the mold halves must be held tightly closed [15].

2.3.3 Pouring

The molten metal is placed in a furnace at a set temperature. After the mold
has been clamped and poured into the mold, the molten metal can be labelled in the
furnace from its container. It is possible to pour manually or to use a machine for
pouring. Adequate molten metal must be poured to fill the whole cavity and all
directions. The time of filling is short to counteract any early solidification of the
metal [4].

Figure 2.3: Pouring of Molten Metal [15].

8
9
 2.3.4 Cooling

The molten metal filled with mould will cool down and solidify once it enters the
cavity. Until the whole cavity is filled, and the molten metal is set, the last casting
state is formed. The mold cannot be opened until the cooling time is over. The ideal
cooling time can be assessed depending on the thickness of the casting divisor and the
metal temperature. A large part of the deformities can occur due to the solidification
process. If a part of the molten metal cools too quickly, shrinkage, cracks or
insufficient areas may be present. Protective measures can be taken and analyzed in
subsequent parts during structuring of both the part and the mold [3].

Figure 2.4: Cooling of Molten Metal [1].

2.3.5 Removal

The sand mold can basically be broken after the preordained solidification time
has passed, and the casting part can be removed. This progression, now and then
called shakeout, is usually accomplished by a vibrating machine that shakes the sand
and casts the flask out. The casting is likely to have some layers of sand and oxide
clinging to the surface when removed. Sometimes shot impacting is used to evacuate
any remaining sand, especially from internal surfaces, and decrease the roughness of
the surface [1].

8 10
 2.3.6 Trimming

The product from the molding diverts to the component while cooling.
Manually cut or saw this excess material out of the cast or by utilizing the cutter
press. The time necessary to rectify the excess material can be measured from the
casting envelope calculation. A bigger cast requires more time to cut. The scrap
material that is derived from this cut is either discarded or re-used during the sand-
casting process. Nevertheless, once it appears to be joined with non-recycled metal
scraping material needs to be reconditioned to the best chemical composition possible
[2].

Figure 2.5: Trimming of excess metal [1].

2.4 Advantages of Sand Casting

Sand castings are easily produced from practically any ferrous or non-ferrous
alloy. There are other different casting techniques that can melt and vacuum super
alloys, but they rarely cast sand. Many materials cannot be worked and must be
created as castings [2].

Sand casting is made an option method for lower volume demand by the
relatively small tool cost. The patterns are worn so that the material chosen for the
pattern is determined by the expected amount of use for the component created
(usually wood, plastic or metal). Although not inherently cheaper on a short-term
basis, the use of components with planned lower use over a long period of time of
machined (or patternless) molds may be a cost-effective option [2,5].

8
11
 In weights from ounces to over 200 tonnes, sand castings can be produced.
Internal structures can be established using cores. The designed components are
mainly based on the designer's imagination. But most sand casts require, at least
because of the inherent sensitivity of the system or the need to combine with other
materials, at least some machined surfaces. The casting process can be faster than the
other ones, such as investment casting, but post-casting processes such as machining,
which can be needed for the computing of total lead times, are necessary [7].

Due to the low cost of tooling, sand casting can be suitable for a single piece.
Additionally, automobile parts are assembled using this method and can therefore be
used in high-volume applications. In choosing this as the favored casting process,
other design and tolerance components are often more important than quantities [16].

2.5 Disadvantages of Sand Casting

No baked molding can offer greater dimensional accuracy and reproducibility

than green sand mold, but on average that process is less accurate than other
traditional casting processes [8].

There is still a technique to design while costing less than tooling for other
casting processes. Patterns can be expansive to handle space, particularly when the
casting is rarely produced. Pattern-less molding will mitigate some of the design
processing and maintenance challenges [9]. Sand casting seems to offer a rougher
surface finish than other casting techniques.

2.6 Mold Materials

When creating a sand cast mold, there are four essential steps to follow: binder for
foundation sand, supplements, and a section compound. In metal additive
manufacturing, lasers are particularly useful as a melting source and as cutting tools
for trimming forms and surface finish. Even while lasers predominate as the primary
heat source in powder bed and powder feed processes, electron beam sources are
often employed, particularly when making parts with relatively limited build
volumes. In
8
12
 general, medium to large volume free forms can be produced using powder and wire
feed processes [6].

2.6.1 Molding Sands Proprieties

Foundry sands, also known as molding sands, have eight characteristics that
include:

 Refractoriness
It applies to the sand's ability to resist without breaking down the temperature
of the liquid metal cast. One example is that sand must be resistant to
aluminum alloys at a temperature of 650°C, and steel requires resistant sand
at a level of
1.500 ° C to be used. Too low in the sand refractory can melt and melt into the
cast. The sand will melt and fuse to form excessively low refractoriness
[6,11].
 Chemical Inertness
The casting metal shouldn't react with the sand. This is crucial for highly
reactive metals like magnesium and titanium.
 Permeability
This means the ability of the sand to exhaust gas. This is essential because
many gases, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and steam, are
generated during the pouring process, which must leave the mold. Otherwise
casting defects, such as blow holes and gas holes will take place in the casting.
Remember that 16,000 cc of steam are generated for each cubic centimeter
(cc) of water added to the mold [10].
 Surface Finish
The best surface finish is determined by the size and shape of the sand
particles, with smaller particles producing a better finish. However, when the
particle size decreases, the permeability decreases (and the surface finish
improves) [4]
 Cohesiveness/Bond
This is the sand's capacity to preserve a distinct shape after the pattern has
been eliminated.
8 13
  Flowability

8 13
 The sand's ability to flow into intricate features and small spaces without the
need of unusual techniques or tools.
 Collapsibility
This is the likelihood that the sand will be simple to remove once it has
hardened. The severely collapsed sands will be securely bonded to the casting.
Using a sand with limited collapsibility will result in cracks when casting
metals that significantly compress when cooling or when exposed to
prolonged freezing temperatures. In order to maximize collapse, various
chemicals can be utilized [12–14].
 Availability/Cost
Three to six tonnes of sand are required for every tonne of metal poured;
hence the cost and availability of the sand are crucial factors. Sand can be
screened and recycled, but over time the particles get smaller and need to be
supplied more frequently.

2.6.2 Green Sand

Wet sand is used to form the mold and create these molds. Since moist sand is
utilized in the molding process, the idea is that. The green sand is not actually green;
rather, it is green when wet (like green wood, for instance). Contrary to its name,
"green sand" is a combination of various types of sand:

 Silica Sand (SiO2)

 Chronic sand (FeCr2O)

 Zircon sand (ZrSiO4)

 Olivine

 Staurolite

 Graphite

 (5% - 11%) Bentonite

8
14
  (2% - 4%) Mud

 (3% – 5%) Inert Sludge

 (0%-1%) Anthracite

Figure 2.6: Green Sand [15].

There are many clay ratio recipes, however all strike different balances among
mold, surface finish and the degas ability of hot molten metal. In the presence of
molten metal, organic steam is partly combustible with coal, generally known as sea-
coal in foundries that exists at percentage levels below 5%. Green sand does not use
carbon additives for nonferrous metals because the CO emitted does not reduce
oxidation effectively. Green Sand usually uses olivine sand for aluminum (a mixture
of forsterite and fayalite minerals produced by crushed dunnite rock) [15].

The sand distribution is very much linked to the metal that is poured at
temperature. At levels where copper and iron have been poured, the heat transforms
the clay into an illite, a non-expanding clay. The bulk of the foundries do not remove
the burnt clay and add fresh clay, but instead have a low-cost use of silica sand to
pour out iron. The clay is combusted through the addition of new sand and the
removal of an old sand or its reuse for other applications .

Silica is the least popular sand since silica sand metamorphic grains seem to
form sub-micron particles once the mold is shocked. These particles can enter the air
in the workplace and produce silicosis in the workers. The iron foundries use
aggressive dust collection to take away this fine silica. The sand also has an alpha-
quartz-beta- quartz 1250-degree-F dimensional uncertainty [4,13–15].

8
15
 Additives like wood flour are often added to make expanding the grains easier
without mold deformation. The applications of olivine, chromite, and others do not
require a phase conversion causing gradual expansion of grain or having a greater
density that easily cools metals and creates structures that are fine metal grain. They
are neither metamorphose nor harmous subsize particles with polycrystals found in
silica. They are non-metamorphic minerals [7,8].

2.6.3 Components

2.6.3.1 Patterns

As in expanded polystyrene, the professional manufacturer will design an item

to be manufactured from the design given by an engineer or a designer, using wood,
metal, or plastic. The sand can either be ground, shaped or swept. The metal to be cast
contracts during solidification, and due to uneven cooling, this can be inconsistent.
The template thus must be significantly larger than the finished product, a distinction
known as the contraction allowance. The patternmakers produce the correct pattern
by means of' contraction rules (sometimes referred to as the' shrink allowance rule' if
the markings are intentionally produced to increase the spacing based on the
additional required length). Specific scaled rules are used with various metals, since
each metal and alloy contracts in a specific quantity. Models also have core prints that
build sand base mold records [4].

Figure 2.7: Pattern [4].

8
16
 The runner's system includes the sprue, various feeders, which have a good
metal' feed' and in-ports attaching the runner system to the casting cavity for the
entrance of metal into the mold cavity. Gas and steam generated by the permeable
sand, or by raises, during the casting outlet, are added to the design itself or as
separate parts. The runner system includes the sprue, numerous feeder paths for
metal's entrance into the mold cavity and inputs to the casting cavity that attach the
runner system. Gases and steam, that are mostly added in the pattern itself or as
individual pieces, generated by the permeable sand via risers throughout casting
[17,18].

2.6.3.2 Modelling Box and Materials

Molds with a few components are an essential part of hardware in sand casting.
The forms of the cope (upper half) and the drag (lower half) that fit on a distinct line
are isolated into two parts. In this separating row, both mold halves have been inserted
into a container called a flask. The cavity of the mold is surrounded by sand in the
pattern in each half of the container. Sand can be filled manually but pressurized or
impactable equipment ensures even sand packing and takes far less time to increase
the production rate [5].

Figure 2.8: Mold Box [5].

The lower part of the box is filled with a moulding sand for a single object, flat
on one side. It is closed on the surface. Sand is wrapped in a vibrational process
known as ramming. A sizing compound can then stabilize the sand layer. The pattern
is on the sand and another segment of the molding box has been added. After stuffing

8 17
 the sand

8 17
 and evacuating the pattern, there will remain a cavity that forms the outer casting
state. Cores may form some inside casting surfaces [19].

Further sand is rammed across the pattern. At last, a cover is placed on the box,
and it is turned around and opened so as to partition half of the mold and detach the
pattern with its pattern’s sprue and vent. Any defects created by the removal of the
pattern can be applied to the additional sizing [5]. The box is finally closed. This
forms a green mold to receive the molten metal. This must be dried. A steam
explosion that may scatter molten metal around may occur when the mold is not dry
sufficiently. In several situations, the sand can be oiled rather than moisture and thus
cast without waiting for the sand to dry up [19].

2.6.3.3 Chills

Metal sheets, chills can be placed in the mold to monitor the solidification
process of the metal. The related rapid local cooling produces a finer grained structure
and, in those locations, can form a somehow tougher metal the effect is like the
shaking of metals in forging work with ferrous castings. A chilling core makes the
internal diameter of an engine cylinder strong [20,21].

In order to facilitate lateral casting solidification in other metals, chills may be

utilized. Internal vacuum or porosity within a casting can be prevented by carefully
managing the freezing process.

2.6.3.4 Cores

Negative forms are being utilized to create cores to achieve cavities in the
casting– like liquid cooling for engine blocks and cylindrical heads. Generally, sand-
modeled, the cores after removing the pattern are inserted into the cast box. Designs
are made, where possible, which prevent the use of cores because of the extra set-up
time and therefore more expensive [13,22].

8
18
 Following casting, the cores are separated by rods or fired removed from cast.
The metal is made from the rough cast from the sprue and risers. Different thermal
treatments might be introduced to reduce stress and add hardness–by tearing the water
or oil in steel or iron. By treating the surface compression–as shot peening–the casting
can be further strengthened, adding resistance to cracking and smooths the rough
surface [3].

2.6.4 Design Requirements

By distressing the sand in the molding, the pattern needs to be taken and the core
must be placed correctly. The component and the pattern should be made to fit each
stage of the process. A slight taper, known as a draft, must be used for surfaces along
with the dividing line to eliminate the pattern from the mould. This condition also
extends to core elements as they must be removed from the core box. The sprue and
riser should be built for sufficient metal and gas flow into the mould to avoid
imperfect casting. If the core and mould dislocate, a sandpit that makes casting useless
can be integrated into the final cast. Gas pockets can cause internal vacuum. This is
immediately visible or is only visible after extensive workmanship. Any damaging
techniques can be used in critical applications before further testing is carried out or
where unnecessary effort costs are considered [13].

2.6.5 Materials

2.6.5.1 Aluminum Alloy

By default, casting alloys are material for casting items, that is to say aluminum
alloys of complex geometric shape(s). Casting alloys from aluminum are widely
available in modern industries and are becoming ever more popular. As estimated, up
to 20-30% of all world-wide aluminum items are often used for casting. Aluminum
casting is also produced by different companies involved in materials / products for

8
19
 non- aluminum finishing (i.e. General Motors, Ford etc.). Aluminum castings can and
are frequently made with relatively high volumes of recycled aluminum waste [4].

The corresponding numbers of wrought aluminum alloys are a few times larger.
Previously, the general level of properties required by cast aluminum products was
thought to be low and was primarily used in un-critical (e.g., not highly loaded) parts
manufacturing. Nevertheless, the application of high impurity reused aluminum had
been permissible for such parts. But this situation has changed drastically over the last
10-15 years. Despite significant improvements in casting technology, high-quality
castings with properties comparable to similar wrought products are now available. In
addition, this can not only be done for high-quality alloys, as well as for aluminum
scraps produced in substantial quantities [1,2].

2.6.5.2 Categories of Alloy

Across two major categories, aluminum alloys could be split: cast & wrought
compositions. The differentiation for each class is based on the key mechanism of
growth. Most alloys respond to thermal therapy based on phase solubility. These
treatments include heat, quenching, hardening, precipitation, and age. These are
classified as thermal alloys which can be treated for casting or wrought alloys. Rather
than, the mechanical reduction of a widespread range of other wrought compositions
is generally combined with numerous property development processes. Work
hardening is regarded for these alloys. Several casting alloys are basically not heat-
treated and are not associated with solution or precipitation effects only in as-cast or
in heat- modified conditions. Nomenclatures were developed for cast and wrought
alloy. The most accepted aluminum association system in the USA. We have separate
nomenclatures for wrought and cast alloys, but split alloys into families to simplify
it [10].

8
20
 Table 2.1: Classification of wrought aluminum alloys according to
their strengthening mechanism [15].

2.6.5.3 Wrought Alloy Classes

Aluminum alloys are generally classified as alloy designation series, as explained

above. The following describes the general features of the wrought alloy groups .

8
21
 Table 2.2: Features of the wrought alloy groups[15].

2.6.6 Defects in Sand Casting

The composition and the performance of the finished casting are influenced by
the sand molding properties. A good quality casting plays a major role in the
development of the green sand parameters. For several years, sand analysis has been
carried out by determining the physical characteristics of the sand mixtures in
compliance with the following researchers ' advice. Syed spoke about the essence of
combining clay and clay blends and forgot about top quality [1] castings. The control
of practical sand molding was discussed in [10]. For reducing the rejection rate, Julian
[3] studied the value of molding green strength. The connection with clay, fine
materials and water combination to ensure correct green strength in the sand in [13]
heat and additives had an influence on the green sand property as well as on the green
properties of the sand ramming effect [16].

8
22
 A study described a new approach to obtain good green strength for active clay
in molding sand. The right dry force relationships derived from green molding sand
were recognized [13]. Another study found out that sand regulation with the
assistance of a computer may be the best method to be pursued, given the large
number of variable factors involved [4]. Raza explored how the strength of sand
influences sand molding fragility [6]. The numerous casting defects produced were
well addressed by Yuancai
[11] as well as corrective actions to correct defects and the different casting defects
that resulted because of the parameters related to sand and mold [4].

2.6.6.1 Gas porosity

Gas porousness happens during the casting process when the metal is filled with
gas (mostly nitrogen, oxygen or hydrogen). Once cooled and solidified, formation of
bubbles happens because the solid shape of the metal cannot keep the liquid shape to
as much heat. Such bubbles arise as circular cavities or holes on a casting. Gas
porosity- related casting flaws come in three different varieties:

 Pinholes

Pinholes are quite small holes (around 2 mm) normally found in the scope of
the mold (upper portion) in poorly vented pockets and sometimes also referred
to as porosities. Casting defects normally occur in high numbers on the surface
or underneath the casting surface. They are always noticeable to the naked eye
and need no identifying equipment [23,24].

8 23
 Figure 2.9: after applying the process of sand casting, pinholes will be created [4].

8 23
  Subsurface blowhole

The cavities are bigger than the pinholes, or simply blowholes. On the inside
of the cast a subsurface blowhole appears, usually only after the workmanship.
Subsurface blowholes that require a harmonic, ultrasonic, magnetic or x-ray
analysis may be hard to detect until machining

 Open holes

The blowholes are on the cast surface and are comparatively easier to identify
than blowholes on the surface .

 Causes of Gas porosity

There are several causes of cavity defects: Poor venting of mold and
cores Mold and cores are not dry enough .

Figure 2.10: Gas porosity caused Open holes [4].

2.6.6.2 Shrinkage

Shrinkage takes place since metals are far less dense than a solid than a liquid. A
shrinkage cavity is a casting depression that takes place during solidification. Porosity
of shrinkage is shown by angular edges in comparison to the gas porosity of round
surfaces. Dendritic fractures or cracks may also be associated with cavities. Large
cavities with shrinkage can damage the casting's integrity and lead to stress in the
event [1,5] Shrinkage defects in casting can be categorized into two types :

 Open Shrinkage Defects

8
24
 These are the openings of the atmosphere as the cavity of the shrinkage forms,
air was compensated. Pipes are open shrinkage defects that form on the
surface and burrow into the cast. Caved areas are shallow, open shrinkage
defects that form across the casting surface

 Closed Shrinkage Defects

In the cast, also recognized as shrinkage porosity, closed shrinkage defects

form. Macro shrinkage is visible with the naked eye, but it is not possible to
micro shrink. These defects generally appear at the top of hot spots, or hot
liquid isolated pools .

2.6.6.3 Cuts and Washes

The excess metal in casting are cuts and washes. These occur as the molten metal
erodes the sand. A cut begins to appear as a low projection on the drag face surface,
which decreases in height from one part of the cast to the other [25,26].

 Causes and Prevention of Cuts and Washes

Molten metal, which flows at a high speed allows too much Steel to flow
through the gate, that can lead to cuts and washes. Cuts and washes can be
avoided by:

- The gating system to be designed correctly.

- Mold and core strength enhancement.
- Further binders should be added to the face and core sand.

Figure 2.11: Cuts and Washes [9].

8
25
 2.6.7 Hardness Testing of Materials

Hardness is characterized as the material resistance of the indentation, tear,

abrasion and scratch to permanent deformations. The value of hardness testing is
primarily related to the association among hardness as well as other material
properties. For example, both the hardness test and tensile test measure a metal's
resistance to plastic flow and the results can be closely parallel. The hardness test is
favored as it is simple, quick and rather non-destructive. A lot of hardness tests are
in use at present. The hardness test is preferable since it is straightforward, easy,
and comparatively unstructured. There are currently numerous hardness tests in
use. The necessary requirement for all of these various hardness tests is that the
wide range of harnesses from soft to hard ceramics should be categorized [27,28]

Figure 2.12: Hardness Testing Machine[9].

Present training classifies hardness tests into two classes: macro-hardness and
micro-hardness. Macro hardness relates to the testing of instruments, dies and sheet
material in large gages by applied loads on a lens of over 1 kg and covers, for
instance. The applied loads for microhardness tests are 1 kg or lower and the material
tested (up to 0,0125 mm or 0,0005 in.) is quite thin. Applications cover extremely
small components, thin superficially hardened components, plating surfaces and
material components [9].

8
26
 2.6.8 Relationship between Rockwell Hardness (HRB) & Tensile Strength

X For the values to be converted into Yield Strength or Ultimate Tensile

Strength, this graph can be referred to. With the use of this graph, firstly Rockwell
hardness values can be converted into Vickers Hardness. After the values are
converted into Vickers Hardness, it can be converted into TS and UTS using the
formula listed below. It is of scientific interest to consider the hardness tensile
strength relationship of different materials [29].

(i) Quick, economical and non-destructive testing rather than complex

tensile testing, can be done by firm mechanical properties testing
overall accurate correlations in hardening resistance

(ii) Hardness testing is one of the best options for the evaluation of
mechanical properties of new and small manufactured products.

For standard polycrystalline materials in documented works of literature,

multiple empirical relationships are proposed regarding hardness and tensile tests.
Two common assumptions can be proposed as follows for the prediction of a strength
and hardness connection:

2.7 Summary of Literature Review

To summarize the project, sand casting of aluminum will be done used green
sand. All the knowledge gained from the literature review will be applied in the
methodology. Green sand is a mixture of few additives and is not a normal sand i.e.,
bentonite, mud, sludge etc .

For sand casting, the apparatus that is usually needed is as follows:

(i) Mold Box (Cope & Drag)

(ii) Green Sand

(iii) Chills & Cores

8
27
 (iv) Clamps

(v) Wooden Pattern

(vi) Ramming Material (to ram the sand)

(vii) Molten Metal

(viii) Ladle for pouring

(ix) Hammer (to break the mold after solidification)

Wooden mold box will be used to form a final product. Pouring cup and riser are
part of the mold making. They should be made from any excess metal in different
corners of the box to allow the metal to flow properly throughout the mold. Clamps
are used to keep the sand compact inside the box. The sand used for the project is
chosen to be green sand due to its good properties and can be reused for sand casting.
Fake pattern will be made of design that is to be sand casted using wood. The pattern
is placed in the mold box and sand is poured over it. Ramming material is used to
compact the sand inside the box. Metal is then heated, and molten metal is poured
using the ladle in the sand mold. After the solidification is done, hammer is used to
break the mold from the study of aluminum alloy, aluminum 6061 will be taken for
the experiment due to its strength, good formability, and weldability. Also, due to its
resistance to corrosion. Moreover, the design, which is to be sand cast, should be
chosen according to the requirements. Few defects that happen in the final product of
sand casting are discussed above. Few of them are gas porosity, cuts and washes and
shrinkage defects. Causes & prevention of the defects will be discussed further .

After cutting of excess material with the help of the cutting machine from the
sand- casting product, the final product will be cut into several pieces to perform
Rockwell Hardness test to check the strength of the material. Diamond cone of 120 o
will be used for the testing of the product. Furthermore, the Rockwell values will be
converted into Tensile Strength and Ultimate Tensile strength with the help of
formulas provided.

8
28
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Flow Chart

The complete process followed in this final year project report is shown as a flow
chart in the figure below. Firstly, the defects were identified by doing research and
going through research papers and journals. Once the problems were identified,
brainstorming was done to find solutions for problems. Rammer design and different
temperatures were taken to perform this experiment after brainstorming session. A
detailed drawing was done on the rammer and the mold box i.e., cope and drag

8
29
 Figure 3.1: Roadmap of the project

 Define the problem

Identification of issues encountered during the casting of a product and

appropriate action taken to address issues.

 Background Research

It is important to conduct research on all sand casting flaws, such as pour and
shrinkage flaws, and how to avoid them.

 Specify requirements

For the experiment, it is necessary to evaluate and record the safety precautions to
be implemented.

 Evaluation and Analysis

30
 We will read articles and research papers about sand casting and how to prevent
flaws in it. Following the brainstorming session, the problem will be evaluated in
order to find a solution.

 Develop & Prototype

The sand-casting substance and the sand-casting box will both be designed. Once
the design is complete, the task will be carried out in order to verify the outcome.

 Test Solution

Sandcasting material will undergo Rockwell hardness testing to see if it complies

with the specifications.

 Solution meets requirements

To determine whether the product satisfies the specifications and whether material
finishing is possible. Based on the outcomes and data, changes will be made if the
requirements are only partially or not at all met, and the experiment will be repeated.

3.2 Sand Casting

In this process, we will use a mold made from wood (metal or wax can be used
as well) to create a negative impression in exceptional sand that will be the mold for
the molten metal. This mold is then loaded with a metal that remains to be cooled and
hardened. To break the sand mold and uncover the metal object, the shape can be hit
with a sledge, pipe, or any hard object

● Pattern making

● Sand mixing – Mold/Core preparation

● Melting of metal

● Pouring of molten metal

31
 ● Solidification

● Cooling

● Sand flask removal

● Washing

● Removal of excessive metal

● Surface finishing

Figure 3.2: Overview of Sand casting

3.2.1 Design

In this report, the design chosen is sand rammer as a design on which sand
casting will be done in the report ahead. The material for our casting has been chosen
as aluminum 6061. Aluminum 6061 is selected because it is machine-able and has
very minimal resistance to corrosion. These types of alloys are most used in casting
industries to perform sand casting

32
 Figure 3.3: Sand Rammer Design

The design of sand rammer was made on Autodesk Inventor where, diameter of
the cylindrical part of the sand rammer is taken as 35mm and the total length of the
sand rammer is 300mm.whereas the length of the cylindrical part is 180mm and the
face of the rammer is 120mm in length as shown in the figure 3.3.

33
3.2.2 Mold Design

Figure 3.4: Dimensions of Mold box

Autodesk Inventor was used to make this mold box design for sand casting of
rammer. Placing pouring cup and the riser were done on two ends of the sand. Clamps
on the sides will be screwed for the sand to remain compact and final product can be
formed easily

3.2.3 Selection of materials

It was planned to choose aluminum 6061 because of its following characteristics:

● Good formability

● Weldability

● Corrosion resistance

● Strength

34
 Figure 3.5: Aluminum 6061 [4].

Such alloys are used for a wide range of structural applications and welded
assemblages, such as lorries, trains, cars, shipping applications, furniture, agricultural
applications, aircraft, architectural applications, automotive items, building products,
chemical equipment, electrical and electronic devices

Table 3.1: Chemical Composition of Aluminum 6061 [4].

3.2.4 Making of Pattern

With the help of the design shown earlier that was made on Autodesk Inventor,
the pattern was made. Make sure all dimensions are taken precisely by using scale for
the length and compass for the diameter. Only wood will be used for the making of
pattern

35
3.2.5 Filling Form with Mold

After there is an object that is to be casted, sand should be poured from the top
over the pattern to create a mold. While the sand is being poured, it is necessary that
the sand is firmly stuffed in the flask to prevent any slums in the form to not allow the
molten metal to flow where it is not needed. Furthermore, making the sand dense
enough to prevent breaking and consume when the mold is filled with the molten
metal is critical

1) Make sure the mould is immaculate and debris-free.

2) Fill the mould with sand so that it is tightly packed in all of the corners and
edges.

3) After holding the sand for roughly 40 minutes, remove the sand mould from
the building.

3.2.6 Removing of pattern

The most sensitive part of this procedure is probably getting rid of the sand mold.
Although the sand is hard enough to hold together, it cannot withstand any kind of
drop or unexpected effect sufficiently. It is suggested to be assisted by removing the
sand mold subject to the mold size

1- Make sure that the sand is hard before attempting to remove the mold.

2- Obtain assistance, if necessary, to expel the sand mold

3- Tap the base of the mold to jostle the sand loss from the edges

4- Remove the sand mold and place it in an area where it will not be thumped or
dropped

5- Repeat for all pieces of the sand mold that are required

36
3.2.7 Sand Mold Assembly

Guarantee that when collecting the sand, the cavities that are loaded with metal
are free from any waste or loose sand that may be available. Furthermore, it is
essential that the cavities align precisely to ensure that the item to be cast is the result
of how to plan it we need to ensure this process:

1) Remove any sand mould from the waste cavities.

2) Correctly set cavities to promote real metal hardening

3.2.8 Pouring of Molten Metal

This is the riskiest piece of sand casting, and it is highly prescribed that
precautionary measures must be taken and ensure that this can be done in the safest
way possible. Melting of molten metal will be repeated several times. Once near to its
melting point, that is 660oC and once at different higher temperatures that are 700 oC
and 780oC. Different pouring temperatures are taken to get different values for the
testing of aluminum. Pouring of aluminum should be done with all the safety
equipment in place

i. Don the best defensive equipment you can

ii. A zone free of any potential dangers.

iii. Carefully pour metal into the ladle, then transfer it to the
sand mould.

iv. Pour metal into the mould, making sure that no metal leaks
out gradually.

Note: To prevent discontinuities in the finished product due to the metal cooling
unevenly, the mould should only receive one pour of metal.

37
3.2.9 Mold Cracking

Let the metal cool down inside the sand mold and then crack the sand mold.
Equally with any task, some annihilation is included in each case, and this is for
casting sand, snatching a mallet or metal rod and giving the shape a decent swing to
break the sand shell from the metal

Note: Before considering breaking the mould, make sure the metal has completely
set, considering the size and condition of the item being manufactured.

3.2.10 Putting Object in Water

Clearly this object is going to be extremely hot, after all, only a brief span of
metal was molten. If the object is small enough, it is ideal to use pliers, or to usually
dump water over the object to chill it off”.

3.3 Hardness testing

Rockwell hardness test will be conducted on the specimen that was sand-casted.
Rockwell hardness test can be performed on a specimen, let it be a cylinder, cube,
thick or thin metallic sheet. Cutting of rammer was done using the cutting machine in
the mechanical lab. The cylindrical part of diameter 10mm will be taken. Few pieces
were cut to have different hardness test readings

Insert the diamond cone for hardness testing of the material. Make the specimen
surface clean by removing dust, dust, dirt, oil, and grease etc. Place the testing
aluminum on the surface of the machine. Rotate the wheel of the machine for loading.
Wait for 15 seconds and the reading will automatically come on the screen . Remove
the specimen from the support table after noting the reading. Take the average value
after performing the full procedure three times.

38
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results

Two different temperatures were used to sand cast the

aluminium into the rammers. First, the aluminium melted at or
just below its melting point, which is roughly 660 °C, and at
other times it melted at 780 °C. It became out that their
hardness readings were varied.

Table 4.1 Hardness test readings of sand

rammer at different
pouring temperature

Sample Pouring Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Average

Temperature (HRB) (HRB) (HRB) (HRB)

(oC)

1- Aluminum 660 64.1 64.0 63.8 63.9

2- Aluminum 780 43.5 43.0 43.1 43.2

39
 Table 4.2 Conversion Table

Sample Pouring Rockwell Yield Ultimate

Temperature Hardness (HRB) Strength Tensile
(oC) (MPa) Strength (Mpa)

1- Aluminum 660 63.9 333.0 377.4

2- Aluminum 780 43.2 282.0 319.6

40
Figure 4.1 Rockwell Hardness vs Pouring Temperature

Figure 4.2 Yield Strength Vs Pouring Temperature

41
4.2 Discussion

A variety of temperatures were used to melt aluminium. One had a temperature of 660oC,
while the other was 780oC. It was observed that aluminium that was melted at higher
temperatures had relatively more flaws. It was discovered that the specimen's inner surface
had pores during the cutting of the aluminium. While the cuts and washes on the outside may
be easily seen with the naked eye. Observations and results indicate that castings with
acceptable hardness and strength values, such as 63.9 and 333.0 MPa, were produced at low
pouring temperatures around alloy melting temperatures. It was evident from the graph that
their values were decreasing with the rise in pouring temperature after the data for Rockwell
hardness were converted to Yield Strength and Ultimate Tensile Strength. The yield strength
value was found to be 333 MPa at 660 oC, and the ultimate tensile strength was found to be
377.4 MPa. The Yield Strength value was 282 MPa and the Ultimate Tensile Strength was
319.6 MPa when the temperature was 780oC, respectively. The casting shrinkage and mould
deformation were also brought on by the greater pouring temperature. Tensile strength
eventually diminishes with increased velocity. The hydrogen used in aluminium castings has
been discovered to produce pinholes. For aluminium alloys, a temperature range of 680 °C to
750 °C is ideal. At temperatures over this range, casting produces big crystals, poor force,
and trapped gases that result in so-called blowholes. The castings with the finest surface
finishes were poured at temperatures between 660 ° C. At higher temperatures, casting with
highly rough surfaces and sticky sand was produced.

42
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

It may be said that the goal and objective of the senior project were met after
the sand-casting experiment and product testing. Although there were some
flaws in the finished sand cast items, these flaws can be minimised by taking
precautions and machining them out. Additionally, it was observed that the
mechanical characteristics of the sand-cast product are similarly impacted by
an increase in the metal's pouring temperature. The Yield and Ultimate
Tensile Strength dropped as the temperature rose. Even though the finished
sand cast items had a small number of flaws, they were manageable and
could be minimised through machining.

43
5.1 Further Recommendation

- A potential remedy for pinholes caused by gas porosity is to melt the

metal in a setting with gases that have limited solubility. more by
allowing gas and air to leak out of the mould cavity.

- Designing a running system with risers that guarantees a constant flow of

molten metal will eliminate shrinkage flaws. Increased local heat
dissipation can be achieved by injecting internal chilling.

- By appropriately constructing the gating system and boosting mould

strength, cuts and washes can be prevented. Moreover, by enhancing the
facing and core sand with additional binders.

44
 REFERENCES

[1] Tofail SAM, Koumoulos EP, Bandyopadhyay A, Bose S, O’Donoghue L, Charitidis C.

Additive manufacturing: scientific and technological challenges, market uptake and
opportunities. Mater Today 2018;21:22–37.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2017.07.001.

[2] Chen Y, Han L, Li Z, Kong J, Wu D, Cao Z, et al. E ff ect of uniaxial pre-stretching on the
microstructure and mechanical properties of poly. RSC Adv 2016;7:712–9.

[3] Baasch J, Windisch L, Koch F, Linke S, Stoll E, Schilde C. Regolith as substitute

mold material for aluminum casting on the Moon. Acta Astronaut 2021;182:1–12.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2021.01.045.

[4] Yadav A, Jamwal A, Agrawal R, Kumar A. Environmental impacts assessment during sand
casting of Aluminium LM04 product: A case of Indian manufacturing industry. Procedia
CIRP 2021;98:181–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2021.01.027.

[5] Saxena P, Pagone E, Salonitis K, Jolly MR. Sustainability metrics for rapid manufacturing of
the sand casting moulds: A multi-criteria decision-making algorithm-based approach. J
Clean Prod 2021;311:127506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127506.

[6] Raza MH, Wasim A, Sajid M, Hussain S. Investigating the effects of gating design on
mechanical properties of aluminum alloy in sand casting process. J King Saud Univ - Eng Sci
2021;33:201–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2020.03.004.

[7] Ayar MS, Ayar VS, George PM. Simulation and experimental validation for defect reduction
in geometry varied aluminium plates casted using sand casting. Mater Today Proc
2020;27:1422– 30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.788.

[8] Li Y, Liu J, Huang W, Zhang S. Microstructure related analysis of tensile and fatigue
properties for sand casting aluminum alloy cylinder head. Eng Fail Anal
2022;136:106210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2022.106210.

[9] Santosh M V., Suresh KR, Kiran Aithal S. Mechanical Characterization and Microstructure
analysis of Al C355.0 by Sand Casting, Die Casting and Centrifugal Casting Techniques.
Mater Today Proc 2017;4:10987–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2017.08.056.

[10] Eqal AK. Experimental and simulation study of solidification of commercial pure
aluminium by sand casting. Mater Today Proc 2021;45:5122–7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.01.630.

45
[11] Xu Y, Li G, Jiang W, Zhan J, Yu Y, Fan Z. Investigation on characteristic and formation

45
 mechanism of porosity defects of Al e Li alloys prepared by sand casting. J Mater Res Technol
2022;19:4063–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.06.148.

[12] Mugeri H, Matizamhuka W, Adebiyi DI, Deppinnar JH. Effect of Wall Thickness on
the Quality of 1060 Aluminum Produced by Sand Casting. Procedia Manuf
2017;7:402–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2016.12.015.

[13] Rodríguez-González P, Fernández-Abia AI, Castro-Sastre MA, Robles PE, Barreiro J, Leo
P. Comparative study of aluminum alloy casting obtained by sand casting method and
additive manufacturing technology. Procedia Manuf 2019;41:682–9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2019.09.058.

[14] Sajedi Z, Casati R, Poletti MC, Wang R, Iranshahi F, Vedani M. Comparative thermal
fatigue behavior of AlSi7Mg alloy produced by L-PBF and sand casting. Int J Fatigue
2021;152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2021.106424.

[15] Kandpal BC, Johri N, Bhatia P, Masih C, Kumar K. Analyzing the microstructure and
mechanical properties in LM6 aluminium casting in sand casting process. Mater Today
Proc 2022;62:3155–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.03.432.

[16] Xu Q, Xu K. Safety assessment of sand casting explosion accidents through on-site testing and
numerical simulation of the temperature variation in sand molds to protect employee health.
Process Saf Environ Prot 2022;159:452–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2022.01.019.

[17] Sun J, Le Q, Fu L, Bai J, Tretter J, Herbold K, et al. Gas entrainment behavior of aluminum
alloy engine crankcases during the low-pressure-die-casting process. J Mater Process Technol
2019;266:274–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.11.016.

[18] Todaro I, Squatrito R, Essel S, Zeidler H. High conductive aluminium metal matrix
composites with carbon inserts obtained by casting processes. Mater Today Proc 2019;10:277–
87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.407.

[19] Sanitas A, Bedel M, El Mansori M. Experimental and numerical study of section

restriction effects on filling behavior in low-pressure aluminum casting. J Mater Process
Technol 2018;254:124–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.11.013.

[20] Sanman S, Sreenivas Rao K V. Effect of sand concentration on erosive - Corrosive wear
behavior of chill cast aluminum - Boron carbide composites. Mater Today Proc 2018;5:2951–4.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.01.091.

[21] Srinivasan K, Siddharth CSK, Kaarthic LVA, Thenarasu M. Evaluation of Mechanical

Properties, Economic and Environmental Benefits of Partially Replacing Silica Sand

46
with

46
 Biomass Ash for Aluminium Casting. Mater Today Proc 2018;5:12984–92.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.02.283.

[22] Chandru A, Satish S V. Casting of macro porous open cell aluminum sponge with controlled cellular structure.
Mater Today Proc 2019;19:715–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.758.

[23] Otani LB, Matsuo MM, Freitas BJM, Zepon G, Kiminami CS, Botta WJ, et al. Tailoring the microstructure of
recycled 319 aluminum alloy aiming at high ductility. J Mater Res Technol 2019;8:3539–49.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.030.

[24] Souza C dos S, Antunes MLP, Valentina LVOD, Rangel EC, da Cruz NC. Use of waste foundry sand (WFS) to
produce protective coatings on aluminum alloy by plasma electrolytic oxidation. J Clean Prod 2019;222:584–92.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.03.013.

[25] Sama SR, Badamo T, Lynch P, Manogharan G. Novel sprue designs in metal casting via 3D sand-printing.
Addit Manuf 2019;25:563–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.12.009.

[26] Kumar Nayak R, Venugopal S. Prediction of shrinkage allowance for tool design of aluminium alloy (A356)
investment casting. Mater Today Proc 2018;5:24997–5005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.300.

[27] Vijaya Ramnath B, Jeykrishnan J, Akilesh S, Saravanan B, Krishna Vivek V. Investigation of Micro-structure and
Mechanical Behaviour of Aluminum - Zircon Sand - Tungsten Carbide Metal Matrix Composites. Mater Today
Proc 2018;5:25553–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.362.

[28] Sama SR, Wang J, Manogharan G. Non-conventional mold design for metal casting using 3D sand-printing. J
Manuf Process 2018;34:765–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.03.049.

[29] Wankhede DM, Narkhede BE, Mahajan SK, Choudhari CM. Influence of pouring temperature and external chills
on mechanical properties of aluminum silicon alloy castings. Mater Today Proc 2018;5:17627–35.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.06.081.

47