MP - S Jose

Manufacturing Process
(KTU - MET 204)
Dr. S. Jose Ph.D, FIE

Principal
Albertian Institute of Science and Technology
Kalamassery, Kochi.
Professor (Retd.)
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
TKM College of Engineering, Kollam
Pentagon Educational Services

Kollam 691005
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
The syllabus of the new APJ Abdul Kalam Technological
University (KTU) had introduced a number of innovative
changes in curriculum of the B.Tech programms offered.
This book, Manufacturing Technology is specifically prepared
in line with the B.Tech. syllabus of S4 Mechanical of the
KTU. Syllabus oriented text books are the need of the hour
for a majority of students. Similar text books like Advanced
Mechanics of Materials authored my me were well accepted
by the student community at large. It was also a motivation
behind this project.
There are many classical books on the subject authored
by noted experts. This book is not at all superior to those,
but much suitable for a beginner to take off to the field of
manufacturing technology. A large collection of questions also
are included to help the reader to learn the subject with a
focus on cracking the examinations. The information that you
may get piecemeal elsewhere are compiled in a single book
which is precise and economical.
I would like to thank Prof. Sachin Chandran, MES Institute
of Science, Technology and Management, Chathanoor for the
help rendered by way of proof reading some parts of the book.
The creative suggestions by a number of teachers from various
engineering colleges in the state are also acknowledged.
I would like to place on record the support of the management
of Pentagon Educational Services, Kollam without which the
book could not be brought out in this style. Thanks are also due
to Mr.Binu for the cover design and Ms. Ajitha for the neat layout
of the book. The neat typesetting by Ms. Salini, and drawings
prepared by Mr. Binu, Mr. Jyothish, Mr. Krishakumar and Ms.
Sunitha are also thankfully acknowledged. The effort made by
the entire team at Koppara Enterprises, Kollam in printing the
book within a short time is gratefully acknowledged. Lastly I
would like to express my thanks to my wife Asha and children
Sruthi and Sangeeth for their dedicated support during the
entire period of authoring the book.
Kollam Dr. S. Jose

January 2018
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
The revised syllabus of the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological

University (KTU) for the 4th semester Mechanical Engineering
branch demanded for a revised edition of this book.
This revised edition completely covers the KTU syllabus for
the course MET 204 and is organised exactly in line with the
syllabus, making it easier and comfortable for the learners.
This book will be sufficient for the students to crack the
examination comfortably, at the same time they will be having
all the necessary knowledge to pursue a career as professional
mechanical engineer.
The present edition includes Learning Objectives for various
topics in line with the Course Outcomes specified in the
syllabus. All the review questions listed at the end of every
module has been graded as L1, L2,.. according to the Bloom’s
taxonomy. All the numericals provided in the model question
paper by KTU also has been solved and presented.
Due to the difficulties related to COVID 19 and the closure
of colleges, copies of this book are made available for online
purchase through flipkart.com.

Dr. S. Jose
April 2021
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MODULE 1
1.1 SAND CASTING 3
1.2 STEPS IN SAND CASTING PROCESS 3
1.3 TWO BOX MOULDING 4
1.4 MOULDING SAND 7
1.4.1 Properties of Moulding Sand 8
1.4.2 Types of Moulding Sand 9
1.5 PATTERNS 10
1.5.1 Types of Patterns 11
1.5.2 Pattern Materials 13
1.5.3 Pattern Allowances 14
1.6 CORES 17
1.6.1 Ingredients of Core Sand 18
1.6.2 Core Making 19
1.6.3 Types of Cores 20
1.6.4 Applications of Cores 23
1.7 SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS 23
1.8 GATING SYSTEM 25
1.8.1 Types of Gates 27
1.8.2 Pouring Time and Choke Area 29
1.9 RISERING OR RISERS 33
1.9.1 Chills 35
1.9.2 Insulators and Exothermic Padding 35
1.9.3 Riser Design 36
1.10 SPECIAL CASTING PROCESSES 41
1.10.1 Shell Moulding 42
1.10.2 Investment Casting 43
1.10.3 Permanent Mould Casting 45
1.10.4 Die Casting 45
1.10.5 Centrifugal Casting 49
1.10.6 Continuous Casting 51
1.10.7 Squeeze Casting 52
1.10.8 Comparison of Surface Roughness 53
1.11 CASTING DEFECTS 53
1.11.1 Shaping Faults Arising in Pouring 54
1.11.2 Inclusions and Sand Defects 55
1.11.3 Gas Defects 57
1.11.4 Shrinkage Defects 58
1.11.5 Contraction Defects 59
1.11.6 Dimensional Errors 60
1.11.7 Compositional Errors and Segregation 61
1.12 SUPERALLOYS 63
1.12.1 Vacuum Induction Melting 64
1.12.2 Electroslag Remelting 65
1.12.3 Vacuum Arc Remelting 67
REVIEW QUESTIONS 69
MODULE 2
2.1 INTRODUCTION 77
2.1.1 Definition of Welding 78
2.1.2 Types of Welded Joints 78
2.1.3 Weldability 81
2.1.4 Welding Metallurgy 81
2.2 QUALITY OF WELDED JOINTS 83
2.2.1 Heat Treatment of Welded Joints 86
2.2.2 Inspection of Welded Joints 87
2.3 RESISTANCE WELDING 92
2.3.1 Current 93
2.3.2 Resistance 93
2.3.3 Time 94
2.3.4 Resistance Spot Welding 96
2.3.5 Seam Welding 98
2.3.6 Projection Welding 100
2.3.7 Stud Welding 101
2.3.8 Percussion Welding 102
2.4 ARC WELDING 103
2.4.1 Arc Welding Equipment 104
2.4.2 Electrodes 105
2.5 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) 106
2.6 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 108
2.7 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) 110
2.8 ELECTRO SLAG WELDING 111
2.9 ELECTRO GAS WELDING 113
2.10 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) 115
2.11 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) 117
2.12 PLASMA ARC WELDING 119
2.13 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING 122
2.14 LASER BEAM WELDING 124
2.15 THERMIT WELDING 128
2.16 FRICTION WELDING 129
2.17 OXYACETELENE GAS WELDING 134
2.17.1 Flame Characteristics 134
2.17.2 Welding Equipment 136
2.17.3 Gas Welding Technique 137
2.17.4 Filler Metal 138
2.17.5 Fluxes 138
2.18 BRAZING 140
2.18.1 Filler Materials 141
2.18.2 Brazing Fluxes 142
2.18.3 Brazing Methods 143
2.19 SOLDERING 145
2.19.1 Solders (Soldering Alloys) 146
2.19.2 Soldering Fluxes 146
2.19.3 Soldering Techniques 147
2.20 ADHESIVE BONDING 148
REVIEW QUESTIONS 152
MODULE 3
3.1 METAL FORMING 161
3.2 PRINCIPLE OF ROLLING 161
3.3 TYPES OF ROLLING MILLS 162
3.3.1 2-high Rolling Mill 162
3.3.2 3-high Rolling Mill 163
3.3.3 4-high /Back up Rolling Mills 163
3.3.4 Cluster Rolling Mills 164
3.3.5 Tandem Rolling Mills 164
3.3.6 Planetary Rolling Mill 165
3.3.7 Applications of Rolling Operation 165
3.4 MECHANICS OF FLAT ROLLING 166
3.4.1 Roll Force and Power Requirement 168
3.5 HOT ROLLING AND COLD ROLLING 173
3.6 DEFECTS IN ROLLED PLATES 178
3.7 SHAPE ROLLING 180
3.7.1 Roll Forging 180
3.7.2 Ring Rolling 181
3.7.3 Thread Rolling 182
3.7.4 Gear Rolling 185
3.7.5 Rolling of Tubes 186
3.7.6 Rolling of I Beams 189
3.7.7 Rolling of Axles 192
3.7.8 Skew Rolling 194
3.8 PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF METALS 195
3.8.1 Stress - Strain Relationships 197
3.8.2 Flow Stress 201
3.8.3 Average Flow Stress 201
3.8.4 Tresca’s Yield Criterion 202
3.8.5 von Mises Yield Criterion 204
3.8.6 Comparison of Tresca & von Mises criteria 206
3.9 POWER AND ENERGY OF DEFORMATION 207
3.9.1 Heat Generation and Heat Transfer 209
3.9.2 Temperature in Forging 210
MODULE 4
4.1 FORGING 217
4.1.1 Grain Flow in Forgings 217
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FORGING 219
4.3 FORGING OPERATIONS 220
4.4 FORGING METHODS 223
4.4.1 Smith Forging 224
4.4.2 Power Forging 224
4.4.3 Drop Forging 225
4.4.4 Press Forging 225
4.4.5 Machine Forging 226
4.4.6 Open Die Forging 227
4.4.7 Impression Die Forging 229
4.4.8 Flashless Forging 230
4.4.9 Precision Forging 231
4.5 ANALYSIS OF FORGING PROCESS 232
4.5.1 Forging Force 239
4.6 DIE DESIGN 240
4.6.1 Design Features 241
4.6.2 Die Materials 242
4.6.3 Lubricants in Forging 244
4.7 FORGING MACHINES 244
4.7.1 Drop Forging Machines 244
4.7.2 Press Forging Machines 246
4.8 FORGING DEFECTS 248
4.9 EXTRUSION 249
4.10 CLASSIFICATION OF EXTRUSION 249
4.10.1 Hot Extrusion 250
4.10.2 Forward Extrusion 250
4.10.3 Backward Extrusion 251
4.10.4 Cold Extrusion 251
4.10.5 Hydrostatic Extrusion 252
4.10.6 Impact Extrusion 252
4.10.7 Extrusion Forging 253
4.11 ANALYSIS OF FORCES IN EXTRUSION 254
4.11.1 Extrusion Die Angles 256
4.12 EXTRUSION DEFECTS 257
4.13 DRAWING 258
4.13.1 Wire Drawing 259
4.13.2 Rod or Bar Drawing 261
4.13.3 Tube Drawing 261
4.14 DEEP DRAWING 263
4.14.1 Deep Drawability 266
MODULE 5
5.1 JIGS & FIXTURES 275
5.2. PRINCIPLES OF LOCATION 275
5.2.1 Degrees of Freedom 276
5.2.2 The 3-2-1 Principle of Locating 277
5.3 LOCATING FROM PLANE 278
5.4 LOCATING FROM CIRCULAR SURFACE 280
5.4.1 Concentric Locating 281
5.5 LOCATING FROM IRREGULAR SURFACE 282
5.5.1 Nesting or Cavity Locating 283
5.6 PRINCIPLES OF CLAMPING 284
5.7 TYPES OF CLAMPS 285
5.7.1 Strap Clamps 286
5.7.2 Side Clamps 286
5.7.3 Latch Clamps 287
5.7.4 Screw Clamps 288
5.7.5 Cam Clamps 289
5.7.6 Wedge Clamps 290
5.8 POWER CLAMPING 290
5.8.1 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Clamping 291
5.8.2 Vacuum Clamping 292
5.8.3 Magnetic Clamping 293
5.9 PRESS WORKING 294
5.9.1 Shearing Action 295
5.9.2 Analysis of Shearing 299
5.10 TENSION OPERATIONS 304
5.10.1 Stretch Forming 304
5.11 COMPRESSION OPERATIONS 305
5.11.1 Coining 305
5.11.2 Ironing 306
5.11.3 Hobbing 306
5.12 TENSION & COMPRESSION OPERATIONS 307
5.12.1 Bending 307
5.12.2 Press Brake Forming 310
5.12.3 Tube Bending 311
5.12.4 Forming 315
5.12.5 Spinning 316
5.13 DIE CUTTING OPERATIONS 318
5.13.1 Inverted Dies 319
5.13.2 Progressive Dies 320
5.13.3 Compound Dies 321
****
MODULE
1
CASTING
Learning Objectives
After studying this module, you will be able to:
LO 1.1 Define the sand casting process.

LO 1.2 List the steps involved in the sand casting
process.
LO 1.3 Explain the two box moulding process to develop a
sand mould.
LO 1.4 List the ingredients of moulding sand and explain
their functions.
LO 1.5 List and explain the properties of moulding sand.
LO 1.6 List different types of moulding sand used in sand
casting process.
LO 1.7 Define and explain the functions of pattern in sand
casting process.
LO 1.8 List and explain different types of patterns used in
sand casting process.
LO 1.9 Select suitable pattern material for making a sand
casting.
LO 1.10 List the various types of allowances applied to
patterns and determine the dimensions of a pattern from
the given dimensions of casting.
LO 1.11 Define and explain the functions of cores in sand
casting process.
LO 1.12 List the ingredients of core sand and explain their
functions.
LO 1.13 Explain the steps involved in core making.
LO 1.14 Explain the functions of chaplets and core prints
with reference to cores.
2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
LO 1.15 List the different types of cores used in casting

process.
LO 1.16 Define progressive solidification and compare it
with directional solidification.
LO 1.17 List and explain the functions of gating system in
LO 1.18 List and explain different types of gates used in
sand casting.
LO 1.19 Design a gating system suitable for the given
details of a casting.
LO 1.20 List the functions of risers and explain the
features of different types of risers.
LO 1.21 Describe how chills are used to promote
directional solidification.
LO 1.22 Distinguish the usage of chills and insulators in
promoting directional solidification.
LO 1.23 Design a riser for the given casting using Caine’s
method.
LO 1.24 List the needs and benefits of special casting
processes.
LO 1.25 Explain the shell casting process and list the
advantages.
LO 1.26 Explain the steps involved in the investment
casting process and list the advantages.
LO 1.27 Explain the permanent mould casting process and
list the advantages.
LO 1.28 Explain different types of die casting process and
LO 1.29 Explain various types of centrifugal casting
process and list the advantages.
LO 1.30 Explain the continuous casting process and list
the advantages.
LO 1.31 Explain the squeeze casting process and list the
advantages.
LO 1.32 Give a comparative study about the surface
roughness of castings obtained from various types of
casting processes.
LO 1.33 Classify the defects observed in castings.
LO 1.34 Explain the reasons and remedies for casting
defects grouped into different categories.
LO 1.35 Explain the steps involved in the processing of
superalloys.
MODULE 1 CASTING 3
1.1 SAND CASTING

LO 1.1 Define the sand casting process.
In simple words, casting is similar to the process of ice
making. If we keep some water in a bowl and allow it to be
frozen, we will get a piece of ice as per the shape and size of
the bowl. The piece of ice can be called as casting and the bowl
can be called as mould here. In metal casting, we need bowls
or moulds made of suitable materials which can withstand
the high temperature of molten metal. Moreover, there are
many other issues related with handling the high temperature
molten metal. All these are covered in this chapter.
The most popular way of metal casting is by using sand as
the mould material. This process is called sand casting. The
metal casting process is also known as foundry. Foundry is the
name of this industry as well. In general, the material used for
making mould should have certain properties which make it
suitable for the purpose. In sand moulding, washed silica sand
mixed with clay and water is used as the mould material. In
order to impart certain desired properties, some additives are
also added in small quantities.
The process of making a mould using sand is called as sand
moulding. The entire process of producing a casting with the
help of a sand mould is known as sand casting.
1.2 STEPS IN SAND CASTING PROCESS
LO 1.2 List the steps involved in the sand casting process.
Following steps are involved in the sand casting process.
Pattern making: Pattern is the replica or model of the
shape of product to be made by the casting process. Using
the pattern, a mould cavity is made to which molten metal is
filled later. First step in this process is pattern making. Wood,
metal, wax or plastic is used to make the pattern. Always the
pattern is larger in size compared to the actual casting to be
made.
Core making: If the casting is hollow, additional patterns
called cores are used to produce the hollow surfaces. The core
is usually made by a special sand mixture called core sand.
The core is baked to impart strength before placing it inside
the mould cavity.
Moulding: It is the process of creating a void or cavity in
compacted sand mass with the help of a pattern. Along with
this, passages are made for entry of liquid metal into the mould
(gating system) and provision to supply additional liquid metal

to compensate shrinkage(risering).
Melting and pouring: Once the mould is ready, metal is
melted in a furnace and then it is poured into the mould cavity
through the gating system.
Solidification: Along with pouring, cooling of the liquid
metal starts and the metal solidifies. During cooling and
solidification the metal shrinks in size, and acquires a solid
structure.
Shakeout and cleaning: When the solidification is
completed and mould has cooled down to room temperature
the casting is removed from the mould. This is called shakeout.
The surface of casting may have sand particles and scales
attached to it, which are removed by cleaning process. The
gating and risering system are also cut and removed now.
1.3 TWO BOX MOULDING
LO 1.3 Explain the two box moulding process to develop a
sand mould.
The basic type of moulding process is called two box
moulding where two moulding boxes are used to make the
mould and then assembled. The bottom half of the box is called
drag and the upper half is called cope.
This is the simplest type of sand moulding process suitable
for small and medium sized castings. The bottom half called
drag is placed upside down over a moulding board (a flat plate).
The bottom half of the pattern is now placed over the moulding
board at the centre of the moulding box as shown in figure 1.1.
Sand
Drag
Drag pattern
Aligning pin
Bottom board
Figure 1.1
Dry moulding sand (parting sand) is Sprue pin over the
sprinkled
moulding board and the pattern in orderRisertopinprevent the
moulding sand sticking to the pattern and board. Now, the
Sprue pin
Gate
Sprue basin
Drag
Core
Riser pin
Drag pattern
Lug
Bottom boa
Aligning pin
Aligning pin
Drag
Core
Lug
Aligning pin
Drag
MODULE 1 CASTING Sprue basin 5
box is filled with the previously prepared Gatemoulding sand

containing silica sand, water, clay and additives. The sand is
slightly rammed to fill the entire space inPattern
the moulding box
evenly. Along with ramming, sand is packed completely in the
box and the excess sand is removed by scrapping with a flat
bar to the level of the edges of box.
Drag
Drag pattern
Aligning pin
Bottom board
Figure 1.2
Now, the moulding box is turned upside down, so that the
pattern is at the top of the moulding box as in figure 1.3. The
cope part of the pattern is placed above the drag part of the
pattern. Then the top half of moulding box called cope is placed
above the sand filled drag part. The aligning pins in the drag
are linked with the corresponding lugs in the cope part.
Sand
Drag
Drag pattern
Aligning pin
Bottom board
Figure 1.3
Sprue pin
Dry moulding sand is again sprinkled over the pattern and
Sprue hole
theRiser
mould
pin surface. A riser pin and sprue pin are placed in
positions as illustrated in figure 1.4. The Riser
riser and sprue pins
are two tapered pieces of wood having circular cross section.
Core the pins in position, the cope is filled with moulding
Keeping
sand.
Lug The sand is properly rammed to pack it completely and
uniformly inside the box. After this, the top surface is leveled
off by scrapping excess sand with a flat bar to the level of edges
Drag pattern
Bottom board
Aligning pin
Drag
of the box.
Aligning pin
Drag
Sprue basin
Sand
Gate
Figure 1.4
The sprue and riser pins are removed after slightly shaking
the pins. The cope is now removed from position and kept
upside down over the table. Both the halves of pattern can be
easily removed from the mould after slightly shaking and then
lifting out. The mould cavity is ready now. On the open surface
of drag, a passage is cut to connect the bottom of sprue to the
mould cavity. This passage consists of sprue base and ingate.
Using a pointed metal wire called vent wire, vent holes are
made here and there on the sand mass on the cope and drag
portions. The cope is again placed in position and the aligning
pins are locked with the corresponding lugs. Now the mould is
ready for pouring molten metal (see figure 1.5).
Figure 1.5
MODULE 1 CASTING 7
These are the steps involved in the preparation of a sand

mould for metal casting. But detailed information related to
moulding sand, patterns, cores and the gating system are still
behind the curtain.
1.4 MOULDING SAND

LO 1.4 List the ingredients of moulding sand and explain
their functions.
Sand is the most widely used mould material for casting
ferrous and non ferrous materials. A detailed discussion on
the ingredients of moulding sand, its preparation, essential
properties and testing methods follows.
The ingredients of moulding sand are washed silica sand,
clay, water and additives. Each of these ingredients separately
and in combination impart certain properties to the moulding
sand.
Silica Sand : Major portion of the moulding sand (nearly
96%) is silica grains. The main source is river sand in which
different sizes and shapes of grains are mixed together. Size
of these grains varies from a few microns to a few millimeters,
while the grains are of round, sub-angular or angular shapes.
The size and shape of grains has a major effect on the properties
of moulding sand. The melting point of the silica sand is in
the range 1500-1600OC and is suitable for ferrous castings.
Olivine, chromite and zircon are other types of sand used as
moulding sand. Among these, zircon has the highest melting
point of nearly 2400OC and is used for high precision steel
castings. Zircon sand is expensive compared to silica sand and
is available along the coastal areas near Kollam in Kerala.
Clay: Washed silica sand consists of grains of sand which
are separated. Clay is used as the binding agent to provide
cohesiveness and strength to the moulding sand. The two
types of clay used for this purpose are bentonite and fire clay.
The clay can absorb water and increase their bonding power.
The river sand usually contains sufficient amount of clay
and is directly used. While using washed silica sand clay is
added upto 6% for imparting strength.
Water: Normal requirement of water is in the range of 2 to
8% for necessary plasticity and strength to the moulding sand.
The binding effect of clay is activated by the presence of water.
When excess water is added it will not be absorbed by the clay
and will lead to decrease in strength and formability.
Additives: In order to enhance the properties of moulding
sand, certain additives are added to it in small quantities.
Some of the commonly used additives are

• Cornflour or cereals: Added in the range 0.25 to 2%
to improve strength, toughness and collapsibility.
• Pitch : It is a by product of coke making and is
used upto 3% to improve hot strength.
• Saw dust: To improve collapsibility and to increase
permeability. Added upto 2%.
• Silica flour: Added upto 35% to increase hot
strength and to decrease metal penetration into
the mould.
1.4.1 Properties of Moulding Sand
LO 1.5 List and explain the properties of moulding sand.
A good moulding sand needs to possess the following
properties, in order to produce defect free castings of good
quality.
Flowability or plasticity: It is the property of sand due
to which the sand can be compacted to uniform density. This
property helps the sand to flow and pack around the pattern,
filling all parts of moulding box. Flowability depends on clay
and water content.
Green strength: It is the strength of the moulding sand in
the green or moist condition. Green strength is possessed by
the sand during preparation and handling of the mould.
Dry strength: It is the strength of moulding sand in the
dry or nearly dry state. After preparation of mould, when it is
kept idle for some time, the moisture content may evaporate
and the mould may get dried up. The dry strength is related to
grain size and clay content. The mould should have sufficient
dry strength to withstand erosion of mould walls and mould
enlargement.
Hot strength: When the molten metal is poured into the
mould the mould also becomes hot. The strength of moulding
sand in the hot condition is referred to as hot strength. When
hot strength is not sufficient, the mould may enlarge, crack,
erode or even break.
Refractoriness: It is the property of moulding sand,
by which it can withstand high temperature of liquid metal
without any physical change.
Permeability: Molten metal always contain some amount
of dissolved gases which comes out when the metal cools down
and solidifies. As the hot metal comes into contact with the
MODULE 1 CASTING 9
mould, the moisture content gets converted into water vapour

or steam. The moulding sand should allow these gases and
stream to escape through the mould walls. This property of
sand is called permeability or porosity. In other words, the gas
evolution capability of moulding sand is permeability. If the
sand is not having sufficient permeability then the gases will be
entrapped in liquid metal and may form blow holes and pores
in the casting. Soft ramming and addition of clay improves
permeability. Coarse grains also exhibit better permeability.
Adhesiveness: It is the property of moulding sand due to
which it adheres to the surface of other materials. Due to this
property, sand adheres to the walls of moulding box.
Cohesiveness or strength: It is the property due to which
sand particles stick together. The moulding sand should have
sufficient strength so that it does not collapse or get damaged
during its preparation or use. Due to this properly, the mould
faces get adequate strength to withstand the pressure of
flowing liquid metal and do not get washed away. Cohesiveness
depends upon the grain shape, size, size distribution and
moisture content. As strength of moulding sand increases its
permeability decreases.
Collapsibility: Due to this property, the sand mould
collapses automatically after solidification of the casting. If
this property is absent, it will lead to defects like hot tears and
cracks in casting.
1.4.2 Types of Moulding Sand
LO 1.6 List different types of moulding sand used in sand
casting process.
In general, the moulding sand is classified according to the
type of binding material used and also based on their use in
the moulding process.
According to the clay (binder) used, sand is of two types:
natural sand and synthetic sand. As per the usage of sand it
is classified into facing sand, parting sand, backing sand, core
sand and loam sand.
Natural sand
As the name suggests it refers to the sand collected from
river beds. It contains sufficient amount of binding clay so that
it can be sued as moulding sand without adding other binders.
Most of the Indian foundries use locally available river sand.
The river sands contain medium to fine sized grains having
mainly sub angular shape, with 80-85% silica content. This
kind of sand is generally suitable for cast iron and non ferrous
castings.
Synthetic sand
This type of sand is artificially compounded by mixing
washed silica sand with selected type of clay binders in the
required proportions. It is used for steel and non-ferrous alloys.
Synthetic sand possess high refractoriness and permeability.
Its properties can be easily controlled and is suitable for mass
production and in mechanized foundries.
Facing sand
The sand used next to the pattern is called facing sand. All
the faces of mould will be covered with facing sand to obtain
a smoother surface for the casting. The facing sand is coming
into direct contact with molten metal, hence it needs high hot
strength and refractoriness.
Backing sand
This sand forms bulk of the mould. After covering the
pattern with a thin layer of facing sand, the remaining space
in the moulding box is filled with backing sand. It contains
burnt facing sand along with reconditioned foundry sand with
proper clay and water content.
Parting sand
This is washed silica sand free of clay which is a non sticky
material. Parting sand is sprinkled over the pattern and parting
(open) surface of the mould. This prevents easier separation
of cope and drag without sticking to each other. The removal
of pattern from mould also is made easier by the presence of
parting send.
Core sand
This is used to make the cores. It contains special binders
and additives to provide green and cured (baked) strength to
the cores. Core sand usually has very low clay content and
larger grain size.
Loam sand
This type of sand is used for making moulds of heavy and
large castings. It contains more clay content, even upto 50%.
Upon drying it attains higher hardness.
1.5 PATTERNS
LO 1.7 Define and explain the functions of pattern in sand
casting process.
A pattern is defined as a model or replica of the object to be
MODULE 1 CASTING 11
cast. The pattern is similar to the casting but little bit larger
in size.
The pattern carries allowances to compensate for shrinkage
of metal during solidification and cooling. It also has allowances
for machining the surfaces to the finished appearance. For easy
removal of the pattern from mould, it has draft allowances on
the vertical surfaces. The pattern will have some projections
called core prints to provide seats for the cores inside the mould.
The pattern is shaked or rapped before taking it out from the
mould. This may enlarge the cavity slightly. To compensate
this, a negative allowance (pattern is made smaller) is provided
for large castings.
1.5.1 Types of Patterns
LO 1.8 List and explain different types of patterns used in
Depending upon the complexity of the casting, type of
moulding method, size and shape of casting and number of
castings required, there are different types of patterns in use.
Single piece pattern
This is the simplest type of pattern made as a single piece.
It is also called as solid pattern. This type of pattern is made
from wood or metal and is used either in the cope or drag part
of moulding box.
Split or two piece pattern
This type of pattern will have two pieces known as upper
(cope part) and lower (drag part) parts. These parts are kept
is position by the dowel pins. The line of separation of the two
pieces of pattern is called parting line. An example of split
pattern is shown in figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6
Multi piece pattern
Some larger and complicated castings may require the
use of more than two pieces of pattern. There may be 3, 4 or
more parts depending upon design of product. These pieces
of pattern are fastened with the help of dowel pins. When
there are three pieces of pattern, each part will be moulded in
separate boxes. An example is shown in figure 1.7. Here, the

top part of moulding box is called cope, the middle one is cheek
and the bottom part is drag.
Cope
1
1
Moulding
Cheek 2 2
boxes
3
3
Drag
Figure 1.7
Match plate pattern
When the two pieces of a split pattern are attached Sweepto
opposite sides of a metal or wooden Post
plate, it is called match
plate pattern.
Green sand
Figure 1.8
Cope and drag pattern Mould
This is similar to match plate pattern, but the two halves of Core pr
split pattern are attached to two separate plates. The gating and
risering system also may be included in this
Core type of patterns.
Chaple
Riser pattern
Sand
Riser plate
Gating
system
Figure 1.9
MODULE 1 CASTING 13
Gated pattern
Cope
For producing large number of small castings, gated pattern
is used. Here, a number of patterns are connected together
with runner and gates. The gated pattern is usually made of
metals. It helps in reducing time and labour required for the
1
moulding work.
1
Patterns
Moulding
eek 2Gate 2
boxesRunner
3
3 Figure 1.10
Sweep pattern
This type of pattern is used for generating axi-symmetric or
prismatic Drag
shapes of larger dimensions. The sweep pattern is a
wooden board having semi-sectional shape of the casting to be
made. This reduces the cost of a large 3 dimensional pattern. It
is used with the help of a base and vertical spindle. The sweep
is rotated around the spindle to obtain a cavity as shown in
figure 1.11.
Sweep
Post
Green sand
Figure 1.11
1.5.2 Pattern Materials
LO 1.9 Select suitable pattern material for making a sand
casting.
Mould cavity
While selecting a material for pattern making, the following
factors needs to be considered. Core print
• Number of castings to be made.
• Quality of finish required.
Core
• Dimensional accuracy required.
Chaplet
Sand
• Moulding method used.

• Shape, size and complexity of casting
• Type of casting method used.
The commonly used materials are wood, metal, plastic,
plaster of paris and wax.
Wood : It is the most commonly used material since it is
cheap and easily available. Wood can be easily machined and
shaped to the required dimension and shapes. Good surface
finish can be obtained for the casting.
Wooden patterns are not suitable for long term usage,
because they absorb moisture, easily abraded in contact with
sand and cannot withstand rough handling. Wooden patterns
are used when the number of casting to be made is smaller
and size of casting is large. Teak, mahagony, maple, pine and
cherry are the commonly used wood material.
Metals : Aluminium alloys, steel, brass and cast iron are
used to make patterns. A wooden pattern may be used to make
metallic patterns by casting. When large number of castings
are to be made using the same pattern, metal patterns are
used.
Plastic : Plastic patterns also are used when large nunmber
of castings are needed. It is having light weight and high
strength. These are easy to make, low cost and gives good
surface finish.
Plaster of Paris: This is used as pattern material for
complicated shapes. It is used for making small patterns and
core boxes.
Wax : Good surface finish is provided by wax pattern.
Wax pattern is used in investment casting process. Here, the
pattern is not taken out, but the mold is heated to melt the
wax and remove it from the mould cavity.
1.5.3 Pattern Allowances
LO 1.10 List the various types of allowances applied to
patterns and determine the dimensions of a pattern from the
given dimensions of casting.
While designing a pattern, certain allowances are given on
the dimensions of castings. This means, we cannot make a
pattern exactly of the same dimensions as that of the finished
casting. The pattern will be slightly enlarged than the casting
and hence the mould cavity will be larger than the finished
casting. After solidification, finishing and machining, the
MODULE 1 CASTING 15
casting of the exact dimensions is obtained. Example 1.1

illustrates the pattern allowances added and the final drawing
of the pattern. The important allowances applied to patterns
are:
Shrinkage Allowance
Shrinkage occurs along with solidification of liquid metal
and the solidified metal again contracts while getting cooled
to room temperature. The rate of shrinkage and contraction
are different for various metals and alloys. The shrinkage
allowances applied to patterns compensate for this by making
patterns bigger than the dimensions of casting. Table 1.1
shows standard values of shrinkage allowances for popular
cast materials.
Table 1.1 Shrinkage Allowances
Metal Cast Approximate Shrinkage
Shrinkage Allowance
% (mm per meter)
Cast Iron 1.0 7 to 10
Cast Steel 1.6 13 to 21
Brass 1.4 14 to 16
Aluminium 1.3 11 to 13
Pattern maker’s scale or shrink rule is usually used while
fabricating patterns. Here, a measuring scale of one meter is
made with a length of one meter plus the shrinkage allowance.
This length is then divided into 100 equal divisions representing
one centimeter. There will be different shrink rules available
for different metals cast.
Taper or Pattern Draft Allowance
This is the allowance given on vertical faces of pattern for
easier removal from the mould without damaging the mould.
In general, a taper of around 1.5 degree or 10 to 20mm per
meter is given for the outside surfaces. For interior surfaces
and holes, 40 to 60 mm per meter is usually given.
Machining Allowance
As per the design of casting, some of the faces needs to be
machined after casting. Extra metal needs to be provided to
facilitate this. After removing this excess material, the casting of
the required dimensions is obtained. The machining allowance
is decided based on type of metal, machning method, shape of
casting, degree of finish required etc. The standard machine
finish allowance for ferrous materials is 3mm and for non-
ferrous materials, it is 1.5mm.
Rapping or Shaking Allowance

For easiness of removing the pattern from the mould,
it is slightly shaked inside the mould. This expands the
mould slightly and causes the size of casting to increase.To
compensate this the pattern has to be made slighly smaller
along the horizontal dimensions. This is the only negative
allowance given to a pattern. But this allowance is used only
for larger castings or when higher dimensional accuracy is
needed.
Distortion Allowance
In addition to contraction, distortions are also observed in
casting due to non uniforms stresses developed during cooling.
This depends on the shape and size of the casting. In order to
compensate this, the pattern may be made distorted in the
opposite way.
Example 1.1
A casting of dimensions 20×50×80mm is to be made from
cast iron. The mould for this casting is to be made using a
wooden pattern. Determine dimensions of pattern, if machining
allowance is 2mm on each side, shrinkage allowance is 2% and
draft allowance is 1O.
Solution
Dimensions of casting = 20×50×80mm
Figure E1.1a
Machining allowance = 2mm on each side
Adding the machining allowance, dimensions of casting
become 24×54×84mm
Figure E1.1b
MODULE 1 CASTING 17
When the job is cast with the 54×84 mm surface horizontal

as shown in figure, the vertical sides of 24mm need draft
allowance of 1O.
=
From figure, x 24
= tan1O 0.42mm
Figure E1.1c
Adding draft allowance, dimensions of top surface become
84 + 2×0.42mm = 84.84mm and 54 +2×0.42 = 54.84mm
Now, applying shrinkage allowance of 2% on all dimensions,
The side of 84.84 will become 84.84 + 2% = 86.54mm
The side of 84 will become 84 + 2% = 85.68mm
The side of 54.84 will become 54.84 + 2% = 55.94mm
Figure E1.1d
1.6 CORES
LO 1.11 Define and explain the functions of cores in sand
casting process.
It has been mentioned earlier that core is a sand shape used
to make an internal cavity in a casting. When core is placed in
a mould it acts as an obstruction preventing the molten metal
to fill the space occupied by the core. It is used for making
hollow castings and also to form design features which are
difficult to make by simple moulding.
The core is usually made using a special sand mixture called
core sand. The core sand should have good permeability, high
refractoriness, good strength, high collaspsibility and good
surface finish. During pouring of molten metal, the core is
completely surrounded by molten metal. To withstand these
severe thermal and mechanical conditions, it should have
higher hot strength compared to moulding sand.
1.6.1 Ingredients of Core Sand
LO 1.12 List the ingredients of core sand and explain their
functions.
The commonly used core sand mixture contains grains of
silica sand, binders and other additives. The silica sand which
is free of clay is used for core making. Core binders serve
the purpose of holding the sand grains together and impart
strength, resistance to breakage and degree of collapsibility.
Binders are classified as organic and inorganic. Organic binders
are combustible and are destroyed by heat. They contribute
a degree of collapsibility to the core sand mixture. Inorganic
binders are not combustible and these may have considerable
strength at high temperatures depending on their nature.
Organic binders are used here to make the core sand
stronger than moulding sand. The commonly used binders are
linseed oil, core oil, dextrin, molasses, rosin oil, lignin, gelatin,
etc. Core oil is a mixture of linseed, soya, fish and petroleum
oils and coal tar. The binders added to core sand ensures
good green and cured strength for the core. While pouring the
molten metal, the binders are burnt away by the high heat and
make the core collapsible after cooling down.
Driers like ammonium nitrate are added in amounts of 0.1%
to enhance the curing process and attain good hot strength.
Additives like pitch, wood flour, cereal etc. are added in small
quantities. The binders and additives function properly when
an optimum quantity of water is added to the sand mixture.
The commonly used simple core sand mixture contains sand,
1% core oil, 1% cereal and upto 6% water.
The properties of core sand are more critical than those
of moulding sand. It should have good refractoriness so that
it does not fuse when surrounded by liquid metal. It should
evolve less gases and be permeable, otherwise the casting
will have defects like blow holes and porosity. It should
retain dimensional accuracy and shape during pouring and
solidification, but should be easily collapsible after cooling
down.
1
1
MODULE 1 CASTING 19
Moulding
2 2 Dowels
boxes
1.6.2 Core Making
LO 1.13 Explain the steps involved in core making.
3
Core
3 sand is prepared with the specified ingredients and
using a core box, the core is made. Sand is rammed manually in
the case of small cores. To enhance the strength, reinforcement
using metal wires also are provided in specific cases. Core
Drag machines are used for making cores in large quantity.
making
In order to attain sufficient strength (to support itself inside
the mould) the core is cured by baking. This is done in a baking
furnace to remove the moisture and to attain dry strength.
Before placing the core in the mould, its surface is coated
with refractive orPost Sweep
protective materials. When the core is made
in two or more pieces, these are assembled before placing on
the mould.
LO 1.14 Explain the functions of chaplets and core prints
with sand
Green reference to cores.
In order to keep the core in position and prevent it from
being shifted, chaplets are used to support the cores. Chaplets
are metallic inserts made of the same material of casting, so
that it melts and forms part of casting. The figure 1.12 shows
a core supported by chaplets.
Mould cavity
Core print
Core
Chaplet
Sand
Figure 1.12
Core prints are provided on the mould for positioning the

cores securely and correctly in the mould cavity. Another
function of the core print is to ensure that the core is not
shifted during the pouring of the melt to the mould cavity.
The core print should be able to take care of the weight of
core before pouring and the upward metallostatic pressure of
molten metal after pouring.
1.6.3 Types of Cores

LO 1.15 List the different types of cores used in casting
process.
There is a variety of different types of cores used in foundry
practice. In general, cores are classified according to their
shapes and position in the moulds. Some of the popular types
are explained below.
Horizontal core: As the name indicates, this type of core
is positioned horizontally in the mould. This type of core may
have different shapes as per the need. When it is having an
axial symmetry, it is placed at parting line. Figure 1.13 shows
a horizontal core.
Balanced core : Here, only one end of core is supported
and balanced. The longer core print helps to keep the core
in position. Usually placed horizontally with the support of
chaplets. An example is shown in figure 1.13 (horizontal core).
Mould Core
Cope
Parting line
Sand
Drag
Figure 1.13
Vertical core : When the axis of the core is vertical it is
called vertical core. Major portion of vertical core may be in the
drag. Figure 1.14 shows an example for this type of core.
MODULE 1 CASTING 21
Cope
Parting line
Mould
Sand
Drag
Core
Figure 1.14
Hanging core : This is supported along the parting line

and hangs vertically in the mould. The bottom portion is not
usually supported. An example is shown in figure 1.15. This is
also known as cover core.
Cope
Parting line
Mould
Sand
Drag
Figure 1.15
Wing Core : This kind of core is used when a hole is needed
in casting either above or below the parting line. Here, the side
of core print is given sufficient taper for placing the core easily
(see figure 1.16). This type of core is also called as drop core,
tail core or saddle core.
Core Mould
Cope
Parting line
Core Mould
Sand
Cope
Drag
Parting line
Sand
Drag
Figure 1.16
Kiss core: The kiss core is kept in position inside mould
cavity in the drag. When cope is placed above it, the core is
held in position due to the weight of cope.
CoreWhen a number
Mouldof
holes are needed in the casting, a number of kiss cores can be
placed as shown in figure 1.17. Cope
Core MouldParting line
Cope
Sand
Parting line
Drag
Sand
Drag
Figure 1.17
External Core : This type of core is used to shape the
external surface of the casting. It is used when the shape of
Core
the casting is not easy for moulding as shown in figure 1.18.
Core
Here, a plain mould is made and the cores are placed inside it
to obtain the complicated shapes.
Mould
Mould
MODULE 1 CASTING 23
Core
Mould
Figure 1.18
1.6.4 Applications of Cores
The main application of cores is to provide accurate internal

shapes in the casting. Another application is to help in
simplifying moulding of difficult outer shapes. In some cases,
gating system is provided though cores, and critical areas of
casting are made accurately with the help of cores.
1.7 SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
LO 1.16 Define progressive solidification and compare it with
directional solidification.
Normally, solidification of metal in the mould cavity begins
from the walls and progresses prependicularly towards the
interior. As the liquid metal enters the mould, sudden cooling
occurs near the mould walls and a skin of solidified metal forms.
The heat removal continues to the outward direction through
the mould and solidification progresses towards the interior.
This type of solidification is called progressive solidification or
parallel solidification. When this happens, the last liquid to
solidify will be surrounded by a shell of solid metal and will lead
to shrinkage cavities at this location. Progressive solidification
is a product of freezing mechanism and cannot be avoided. But
the degree of progressive solidification can be controlled.
When solidification starts at the thinnest section and
proceeds towards the thick sections in the casting it is called
directional solidification. Here, the solidification gradually gets
completed at one end and progresses towards the thicker side
draining molten metal available elsewhere within the mould.
This will lead to defect free castings.
Proper design of gating system and positioning of risers
promote directional solidification. This can also be achieved by
providing chills in the moulds and also by changing the design
of casting properly. In practice, the gating system and casting

will solidify first and then only the thick riser will solidify. These
risers are to be attached to the casting at the right locations
so that they can continually supply hot liquid metal to the
shrinking casting until it is completely solidified.
Chvorinov’s Rule
Solidification time for a casting is a function of the ratio of
square of volume to square of surface area of casting.
square of volume V2
Solidification time, t ∝ = (1.1)
square of surface area A 2
2
V
Or, solidification time, t C , where C is a constant
A
related to mould material and metal properties. The overall
solidification time for a given volume of metal is thus found
to be greatest when the ratio of volume/surface area is a
maximum. This ratio will be high for spheres and progressively
lesser for cylinders, bars and plates.
Example 1.2
What will be the solidification time for a 1200mm diameter
and 35mm thick casting of aluminium having a mould
constant, C =2.2 sec/mm2
Solution
Diameter, d=1200mm
Height, h = 35mm
Volume of casting,
2 2 3
V d h 1200 35 39564000mm
4 4
d
Surface area of casting, A 2 d 2 2 h
4 2

1200
2 12002 2
35
4 2

=2392680mm2
2 2
V 39564000
Cooling time, t C 2.2 2.2 16.54
2
A 2392680
601.8 sec 10.03 min
MODULE 1 CASTING 25
Example 1.3
Which of the following casting shapes would have the least
solidification time.
(a) sphere of diameter, D=35mm;
(b) cylinder of diameter d = height, h = 35mm;
(c) cube of side a=35mm
Solution
(a) Sphere
2
3
4 D
2
Vsp
tsp C C 6 2
Asp
4D

C D 2 C 352
34.02C sec
36 36
(b) Cylinder
2 2
2 2 3
Vcyl d h d
tcyl C C 4 C 4
Acyl
dh 2 d 2 d 2 2 d 2
2 4 4
d3
d
2
35
2
C 4 C C 34.02C sec
2 d2 6 6
d
2
(c) Cube
2 2
2 2
C Vcube C l C l C 35 34.02C sec
3
tcube
6l 2
Acube 6 6
1.8 GATING SYSTEM

LO 1.17 List and explain the functions of gating system in
Function of a gating system is to facilitate proper distribution
of molten metal into the mould cavity. It is the passage provided
in the mould for carrying the molten metal to the mould cavity.
A good gating system should provide a defect free casting.
This is achieved by designing the gating system considering
the following aspects.
• Metal should flow smoothly into the mould cavity
Pattern
Moulding
Moulding
Moulding
Moulding
box box
box
box
Moulding
26 box
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
without any turbulance, so that mould erosion is

prevented.
• Unwanted inclusions like dross or slag should not
enter into mould cavity.
• Metal entering into the mould should flow at a
controlled speed.
• The complete cavity should be filled in minimum time
before solidification occurs.
The basic elements of a gating system are shown in figure
1.19 and their functions are explained below.
Sprue Sprue Pouring

SpruePouring Pouring Cope
Cope
Cope Ingate Ingate
Riser Riser
Ingate Riser
Sprue Pouringbasin basinCope
basin Ingate Riser
Sprue basin
Pouring Cope Ingate Riser
basin
Skim bob
Skim bob
Skim bob PartingPart
Pa
Cope Cope
Cope Skim bob Partingline line
lin
Cope line
Parting
Skim bob
pe Mould Mould
Mould line
Sprue Sprue
Sprue Mould cavity cavity
cavity
Sprue base orbase or
base or Mouldcavity Drag Drag
Dr
ruebase orwell well cavity Drag
se well
or
well RunnerRunner Choke
RunnerChoke Choke Drag
Runner Choke
ll Runner Choke
Moulding
Moulding board board
Moulding board
Moulding board
Moulding board
Figure 1.19
Pouring Basin : The molten metal from the ladle is poured
into the pouring basin. When the dam of basin is filled, the
liquid metal flows down into the sprue, then to the runner, and
through ingates or gates to the mould cavity. The dam on the
basin prevents the slag and dross from entering into the sprue.
Sprue: The sprue feeds molten metal into the runner. It is
the vertical passage through which molten metal flows down
to the sprue base and then to runner. Usually the sprue is
tapered downwards.
Sprue base : This is a reservoir for liquid metal at the
bottom of sprue, connecting to the runner. It serves to reduce
the momentum of the molten metal. The molten metal then
changes its direction of flow and enters into the runner.
Runner : Runner connects the sprue base to the gates or
ingates. Its location is usually along the horizontal parting
plane. A suitably designed runner and gate can trap the slag
and dross preventing these from entering into mould cavity.
For this, the gate should be smaller in cross section than
MODULE 1 CASTING 27
the runner and sprue. Now, the runner will be always filled
with liquid metal and slag will be trapped inside the runner.
Gates or Ingates: Molten metal enters the mould cavity
through the openings called gates or ingates. The shape and
size of the gate should be suitable for easy removal from casting
after solidification. Gates are of different types, depending on
their position with respect to mould cavity.
Skim bob: This is an enlargement given along the runner
for trapping both heavier and lighter impurities like slag, dross
or sand particles moving along with liquid metal. Rise
Choke : The region having smallest cross sectional
Plate
area in
the gating system is called choke. It controls the rate of metal
flow and helps to minimise sand erosion in the runner.
1.8.1 Types of Gates
LO 1.18 List and explain different types of gates used in
Gating
sand casting. system
Top Gate
As the name says, here the molten metal enters the mould
cavity from the top. This type of gate is suitable for smaller and
simpler moulds for ferrous materials. To reduce mould erosion
and for preventing entry of slag and dross, a strainer core is
usually used along with this type of gates (see figure 1.20).
Pouring cup Strainer core
Sand Cope
Drag
Cope
Mould cavity
Drag
Parting
line
Figure 1.20
Bottom Gate
Here, the molten metal flows into the drag part of moulding
box and enters into mould cavity through the bottom side and
raises gradually upwards. Mould erosion isCope
much lower in this
case since turbulence is low. For large sized steel castings, Mould cavi
Drag
bottom gate is preferred. Horn type bottom gate is shown in
figure 1.21.
Riser pattern
Plate Riser pattern
Gating Figure 1.21

system
Parting Gate
This is the popular type of gate used in sand casting. Here
Drag
the molten metal enters the mould pattern
along the parting plane.
See figure 1.22. This type has the best features of the top and
bottom gates. It is easy and economical to include this type of
gate in a mould. For the part of mould cavity in drag, the gate
acts as a top gate, while for the part in the cope, it acts as a
bottom gate.
re
Sand Cope Mould

Drag cavity
Parting
line
Figure 1.22
Step gate
For heavy and large castings none of the above types may
not be enough to supply liquid metal to the entire mould cavity.
Cope Here, the molten metal enters the cavity through a number of
Mould
ingates arranged cavity
vertically as in figure 1.23. Initially, molten
Drag
metal enters the mould through the bottom most ingate and as
the mould is getting filled up, the ingates at higher levels are
made use of. It should be noted that the cross section of the
ingates are increasing from top to bottom.
MODULE 1 CASTING 29
Cope
PL
Mould cavity
Drag
Figure 1.23
Gating Ratio
Gating ratio is defined as the ratio of Sprue area: runner
area: gate area
As per the location of choke, the gating system may be
classified as pressurised or unpressurised gating system.
Pressurized gating system: Here, the ingates serve the
function of the choke and the entire gating system become
pressurised. While pouring, the gating system is filled with
molten metal within a few seconds. This is good for separating
slag from molten metal during the flow. Typical gating ratio for
this type of system is 4:3:2 and is suitable for metals like cast
iron, steel, brass etc.
Unpressurised gating system: Here, the narrowest
opening is at the sprue base and serves the function of choke.
The velocity of flow decreases gradually from sprue to the
runner and enters quietly to the mould cavity through the
ingates. Gating ratios adopted for this type of gating system
are 1:2:2., 1:2:4 or 1:4:4.
This type of gating system is also called as open gating
system and is generally suitable for steels and light oxidisable
metals like aluminium and magnesium.
1.8.2 Pouring Time and Choke Area
LO 1.19 Design a gating system suitable for the given details
of a casting.
Pouring Time
The time required for complete filling of a mould is called
pouring time. If the pouring time is too high, it requires higher
pouring temperature. On the other hand, if pouring time is too

low, it will lead to turbulence in the metal flow inside mould.
Hence, there should be an optimum pouring time for any given
casting. The pouring time depends on the casting material,
complexity of casting, section thickness and size of casting.
Pouring time can be determined using the equation,
= t A3 d × M
where, d = Predominant wall thickness of the casting, mm
M = Mass of the casting, kg
A = Constant depending on the metal being cast, typical
values are given in Table 1.2
Table 1.2
Alloy Value of A
Cast iron 1.63 to 2.2
Steel 1.5
Aluminium 1.7 to 3.0
Magnesium 2.3 to 4.5
Choke Area
The narrowest section in the gating system controls the
metal flow rate into the mould cavity. This smallest section is
called the choke and usually it occurs at the bottom of sprue
or sprue base. The choke area is so important that it meters
the flow of liquid metal in such a way that the mould is filled
within the calculated pouring time.
As the liquid metal flows through the various channels in
the mould, it obeys the Bernoulli’s equation and the continuity
equation. Using these laws of fluid mechanics, empirical
relationships for the narrowest cross sectional area can be
obtained as
M
an =
ρtµ 2gH (1.2)
where M = Mass of casting including risers, kg
ρ = Density of molten metal, kg/m3
t = Pouring time or Time for filling the mould, sec
µ = Coefficient of discharge ( 0 < µ < 1 )
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/sec2
H = Effective static head, m
The effective static head is calculated as follows, with
reference to figure 1.24.
MODULE 1 CASTING 31
Figure 1.24
2
p
H H0 −
=
2c
where H 0 = Vertical distance from runner to the feeding point
of mould, or Head
p = Vertical distance from ingate to the top surface of
mould cavity
c = Height of the mould cavity
Coefficient of discharge µ of some alloys for different mould
sizes are given in table 1.3.
In general, µ varies from 0.4 to 0.7 depending on mould
size and material being cast.
Table 1.3
Mould size Cast iron Steel
Small 0.55 0.46
Medium 0.45 0.35
Large 0.38 0.28
Gating Ratio: Based on the calculated value of choke area

(the narrowest cross section), remaining two areas can be
determined according to the gating ratio selected.
Example 1.4
Design a gating system for a sand mould to cast a steel
flange. Weight of casting is 30kg, pouring time 6sec, coefficient
of discharge is 0.4 and effective static head is 22cm. Gating ratio
is selected as 1:1.4:1.2. Using the given data and principles
of hydraulics determine the important dimensions of sprue,
runner and ingates.
Solution
This is an unpressurised gating system, where the choke or
narrowest passage is the sprue base.
Given,
30
Mass of casting including risers, M = kg
9.81
Pouring time or Time for filling the mould, t = 6 sec
Coefficient of discharge, µ = 0.4
Effective static head, H = 22cm
Using the laws of hydraulics, the choke area can be
determined using
M
an =
ρtµ 2gH
where g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2
Density of molten metal (steel), ρ = 7.8 × 103 kg/m3
Substituting the above values,
30 / 9.81
an = 3
7.8 × 10 × 6 × 0.4 2 × 9.81 × 0.22
7.86 × 10−5 m2 =
= 78.6mm2
4
ds
For a circular sprue base, = 78.6 ×= 10.00mm
π
For the given gating ratio of 1: 1.4 : 1.2,
Cross sectional area of runner = 78.6 × 1.4 = 110.0 mm2
Total sectional area of ingates = 78.6 × 1.2 = 94.32 mm2
Example 1.5
A cast iron base plate weighing 230kg is being cast using
sand moulding process by floor moulding method. Design
a gating system to feed the casting using a gating ratio of
1 : 2.5 : 3 with the following data. The effective static head is 28
cm, predominant thickness of casting is 14mm, coefficient of
discharge, 0.45 and the constant A =2 for cast iron. Determine
the important dimensions of the gating system.
Solution
Given,
230
Mass of casting including risers, M = kg
9.81
Coefficient of discharge, µ =0.45
Effective static head, H = 28cm
Predominant thickness of casting, d = 14mm
Pouring time can be calculated using
= t A3 d × M
230
=×
2 3 14 × =14 sec
9.81
The sectional area of narrowest section of the gating system
(sprue base) can be determined using the relationship,
MODULE 1 CASTING 33
M
an =
ρtµ 2gH
Density of molten metal (cast iron) ρ = 7.2 × 10 kg/m
3 3
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/sec2

Substituting the above values,
230 / 9.81
an =
7.2 × 103 × 14 × 0.45 2 × 9.81 × 0.28
2.21 × 10−4 m2 =
= 221mm2
For a circular sprue base,
4
d=
s 221 × = 16.77mm , rounded to 17mm
π
πds2 π × 172
Area of sprue base =
= = 227mm2
4 4
For the given gating ratio of 1: 2.5 : 3,
Cross sectional area of runner = 227 × 2.5 = 568 mm2
Total sectional area of ingates = 227 × 3 = 681 mm2
1.9 RISERING OR RISERS

LO 1.20 List the functions of risers and explain the features
of different types of risers.
The casting process involves phase transformation of

metals from liquid to solid state. During this transformation,
volumetric shrinkage is involved. If the cooling of different
sections in a casting is so adjusted that directional solidification
occurs, then defect free castings may be obtained.
During solidification, the last region to solidify may require

some additional liquid metal to compensate for shrinkage
already occurred. This additional liquid metal is provided by
the riser which acts as a reservoir of liquid metal.
The risers are to be included in a mould in such a way that

the last metal to solidify should be that in the riser. Also the
volume of metal in riser should be sufficient to compensate
the shrinkage demand. The location, type and size of riser are
having major role in producing defect free castings. Depending
on the size and shape of mould cavity, one of more risers may
be provided. Following are the commonly used types of risers.
Top riser: This is located on top of the casting. It is also

called dead or cold riser. As it is on top of the casting, it
provides liquid metal faster to the casting.
Side riser: It is located on the side of casting. The side

riser is filled last and contains hot metal and hence called as
live or hot riser. Since the metal in the riser is hot this is more
effective than the top riser.
Open riser : As the name indicates this is open to the
atmosphere at the top surface of mould. It is easy to mould
open risers. Open riser also serve to collect floating non-
metallic inclusions.
Blind riser: The riser completely surrounded by moulding

sand is called blind riser. The top surface of this riser is usually
made in a hemispherical shape to save metal. As the riser is
surrounded by moulding sand, it looses heat slowly and helps
promote directional solidification. It is usually smaller than
open riser and is easy to remove from the casting. A permeable
core is provided to avoid vacuum formation at centre of riser,
when a skin of solid metal is formed.
Sprue Top riser Open type

side riser
Sand Sand
Mould
cavity Parting
line
Open type Blind type Permeable core

side riser side riser
Sand
Parting
line
Parting Core
line Mould
cavity
Figure 1.25
Core
Drag
Parting line
(a) (b)
line
arting
ne Mould
cavity
MODULE 1 CASTING 35
The risers are expected to loose heat at a slower rate, as they

are designed to solidify slowly. Riser will provide liquid metal
to heavy sections of casting before and during solidification.
The risers are to be designed with a high volume (V) to surface
area(A) ratio. Spherical shape is having highest the V/A ratio
and the next is cylindrical shape. As the spherical shaped
riser is difficult to mould, cylindrical shaped risers are usually
preferred.Core
1.9.1 Chills
LO 1.21 Describe how chills are used to promote directional
solidification.
Drag
Chill is a piece of metal placed near the casting surface or

kept inside the Parting
mould line
cavity so that more heat is absorbed
from the molten metal at a faster rate.
Chills help(b)to increase the heat extraction capacity of mould
and promotes earlier solidification of metal near to the chill.
Use of a metallic chill to promote directional solidification and
to avoid defects is shown in figure 1.26. Use of chills eliminate
hot pockets inside the mould and helps to aviod formation of
shrinkage cavities.
Metal pieces of standard shapes made of steel, cast iron or
copper are used as external chills placed near the mould walls,
but outside the mould cavity. Inserts made of the same metals
being cast are used as internal chills. These are preferred when
it is very difficult to place the exernal chills in the mould. The
internal chills gets melted and forms part of the casting.
Shrinkage Metal chill

cavity
Figure 1.26
1.9.2 Insulators and Exothermic Padding
LO 1.22 Distinguish the usage of chills and insulators in
promoting directional solidification.
Just like chills are used to accelerate freezing at preferred
locations, freezing can be delayed at selected locations in the
casting. This is achieved by local insulations and exothermic

padding. Any material which has low thermal conductivity
and good refractoriness can be used as an insulator. Asbestos,
plaster of paris, ceramics, sawdust etc. are used as insulating
materials for padding.
A riser can be made more efficient by employing some
artificial means to prevent the top surface of the riser from
solidifying, so that molten metal remaining in the riser is
exposed to atmospheric pressure. Heat generated by an
exothermic reaction created by burning materials like powdered
charcoal, rice hulls or refractory powders would be suitable for
this purpose.
1.9.3 Riser Design
LO 1.23 Design a riser for the given casting using Caine’s
method.
There are three popular methods used for riser design.
These design methods are used to determine optimum volume
calculation of risers to ensure defect free castings. These
methods are:
• Caine’s method
• Modulus method
• Naval research lab method
Caine’s Method
This method is used to check the adequacy of the riser
size for a casting. Caine’s method is based on an equation for
a
=
finding the riser volume X + c . (1.3)
Y −b
Caine defined X as the relative freezing time or freezing ratio
of the riser to the casting. We know that the freezing time is
proportional to surface area by volume. Then, freezing ratio,
Sc
Vc
X = and Y is defined as the ratio of volume of riser to
Sr
Vr
Vr
volume of casting or volume ratio, Y = .
Vc
The freezing ratio is the relative freezing time of the riser to
that of the casting. Caine introduced a curve which represents
this equation, where a, b and c are constants having different
values for different materials.
MODULE 1 CASTING 37
Table 1.4
a b c
Steel 0.10 0.03 1.00
Aluminium 0.10 0.06 1.08
Cast iron, Brass 0.04 0.017 1.00
Grey cast iron 0.33 0.03 1.00
Aluminium bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00
Sc Sr
When X>1, V > V . This means freezing time of casting
c r
is more than that of riser. So the riser will solidify after
solidification of casting or the riser will be able to feed the
casting when X>1. When X=1, the riser and casting will solidify
simultaneously and when X<1, the riser will solidify prior to
casting. In both these cases, the riser is unable to serve its
purpose.
The Caine’s equation can be diagrammatically represented
as shown in figure 1.27. In this curve, x-axis represents the
freezing ratio, X and the y-axis represents the ratio of volume
of riser to volume of casting or volume ratio, Y. This curve can
be used to predict whether the casting is defective or not.
Figure 1.27
For a particular design of riser, we can determine the
parameters X and Y. When these values are plotted on the
diagram, such points falling on the right side of the curve

corresponds to sound castings without any shrinkage defects.
This means, the riser will be able to supply liquid metal to the
casting until the solidification of casting is complete. The riser
deigns yielding X and Y values leading to points falling on the
left side of the curve leads to defective castings. Here the riser
solidifies earlier and fails to provide liquid metal to the casting
till the solidification is complete.
Limitations of the Caine’s method
This method uses the constants a, b and c which are
different for different materials. Determining the freezing ratio
is not easier in the case of complicated shapes of castings. In
order to determine the diameter of the riser, trial and error
method or any suitable numerical method is to be used. This
makes the method generally difficult to use.
Example 1.6
Determine the size of a cylindrical riser to feed a steel casting
of dimension 25 x 25 x 5 cm, given height of riser is equal to
diameter of cylindrical riser using Caine’s method.
Solution
Here, a plate type of casting with rectangular cross section
for which you need to have a riser cylindrical shaped riser with
height equal to diameter and that should be able to feed this
casting to produce a defect free casting.
For steel, a =0.1, b=0.03 and c = 1.00
Volume of casting = 25 × 25 × 5 =3125cm3
Surface area of the casting
2 25 × 25 + 2 ( 25 × 5 )  =
= 1750cm2
Let the diameter of cylindrical riser, D is equal to height of
riser
π
Volume of riser = D 3
4 π 5π
Surface area of the riser = πD 2 + D 2 = D 2
4 4
As the bottom portion of riser is exposed to hot liquid metal,
the lateral curved surface of riser and the top surface only are
taken to determine the surface area.
MODULE 1 CASTING 39
1750
3125 1750 D
X
= = × = 0.112D
5π 2 3125 5
D
4
π 3
D
4
π 3
D
=Y 4
= 0.000251D 3
3125
a 0.1
=X +c ⇒
= 0.112D +1
Y −b 0.000251D 3 − 0.03
0.1 + ( 0.000251D 3 − 0.03 )

⇒ 0.000028D 4 − 0.00336D =
By using trial and error method, D ≈ 12cm
If you are using a riser of this size, the casting will be a
sound and there will not be any defect related to shrinkage.
Vr ≥ 4Vs
π 3
D ≥ 4 × 60
4
240 × 4
D≥ 3
π
D ≥ 6.67cm
Example 1.7
Assuming uniform cooling in all directions, determine the
dimensions of a 80mm cube casting after it cools down to room
temperature. The solidification shrinkage for the cast metal is
4% and the solid contraction is 7%.
Solution
Volume of casting, V = 803= 512000mm3
Volume after solidification shrinkage
4 3
512000 1
= 491520mm
100
Volume at room temperature

7 3
491520 1
= 457114mm
100
3
Dimension of each side of cube = 457114 = 77.03mm
Example 1.8
Calculate the ratio of solidification times of two steel
cylindrical risers of sizes 25cm diameter by 50cm height
and 50cm diameter by 25cm height, subjected to identical
conditions of cooling.
Solution
2
V
Solidification time, t
A
Riser 1
2 d12
V1 d1 h1 h
4 4 1
A1 d h 2 d 2 d2
1 1 1 d1h1 1
4 2
252
50
4 7812.5
2
5
25 1562 .5
25 50
2
Riser 2
2 d22
V2 d 2 h 2 h
4 4 2
A2 d h 2 d 2 d2
2 2 2 d2h 2 2
4 2
502
25
4 15625
2
6.25
50 2500
50 25
2
t1 52
= = 0.64
t2 6.252

Example 1.9
An aluminium cube of side 15cm has to be cast along with
a cylindrical riser of height equal to diameter. The riser is
not insulated on any surface. If the volumetric shrinkage of
aluminium during solidification is 6%, determine (a) shrinkage
volume of cube on solidification; (b) minimum size of riser so
that it can provide the shrinkage volume.
Solution
(a) Shrinkage volume
MODULE 1 CASTING 41
3
Volume of casting, =
V a= 153 = 3375cm3
Shrinkage volume = 3375 6% 202.5cm3
(b) Minimum size of riser
Minimum volume of riser = 3 x shrinkage volume
3 202.5 607.5cm3
Since diameter = height for this riser (given),
3
d 607.5
4
d=9.18cm
For obtaining a defect free casting, metal in riser should be
the last to cool. Solidification time for riser needs to be longer
than that of the casting.
V V
For this,
A riser A casting
3
d
V 4 d 9.18
1.53
A riser d 2 2 d 2 6 6
4
V a3 153 15
2
2
2.5
A
casting 6a 6 15 6
V V
Here, , which is not desirable.
riser A casting
A
V d
What is desired is 2.5 or ≥ 2.5 or d ≥ 15
A riser 6
Minimum dimension of riser, d = 15cm

d 3 153
Volume of riser 2649.375cm3
4 4
1.10 SPECIAL CASTING PROCESSES

LO 1.24 List the needs and benefits of special casting
processes.
Sand casting process is suitable for a large range of
applications and gives satisfactory results at low cost. But are
not suitable and economical for many other applications.
Sand moulds are single use moulds which are to be

destroyed for taking out the castings. But a permanent mould
may save time and labour in mould making. The accuracy and
precision of sand casting are not good and consistent results
are rarely obtained. This also led to the development of special
casting processes.
Special casting processes require high initial investment
but they provide the following advantages.
• Greater dimensional accuracy
• Higher production rate
• Better surface finish
• Lower labour costs
• Lesser machining needs
• Suitable for mass production.
1.10.1 Shell Moulding
LO 1.25 Explain the shell casting process and list the
advantages.
Here, the conventional sand mould is replaced by thin shell
moulds of about 9mm thickness. The shells are made up of
a mixture of dry silica sand and a thermosetting resin. The
procedure of shell moulding is explained below.
A metal pattern is used in this process. The pattern attached
to a match plate is heated to 200-250OC temperature. Then it
is clamped upside down to a dump box containing the sand-
resin mixture (figure 1.28a). Now the box is inverted and the
sand-resin mixture is allowed to fall over the hot pattern.
(figure 1.28b).
The heat softens and fuses the resin to form a soft shell
of sand grains along the surface of pattern. The soft shell of
uniform thickness gradually cures to form a hard shell within
30 seconds. The dump box is inverted once again to stop the
shell forming process and to remove the remaining sand
mixture. The pattern along with shell is heated in an oven at
300OC for a few minutes to complete the curing. The shell is
then removed from the pattern and is assembled with a similar
shell to form a complete mould. The assembly is placed inside
a moulding box and supported by sand or metal shots. Now
the mould is ready for pouring (fig. 1.28)
This is also a single use mould. But better surface finish
and good dimensional accuracy are achieved in comparison
with sand moulds.
MODULE 1 CASTING 43
Figure 1.28
Though the process is expensive, it is economical for large
quantities. Components like valve bodies, gears etc. are
manufactured by this process. This process is also known as
corning process or C-process.
1.10.2 Investment Casting
LO 1.26 Explain the steps involved in the investment casting
process and list the advantages.
In this casting process an expendable pattern (usually wax)
is used which is coated with a refractory material to form
the mould. The pattern is then melted and removed prior to
pouring of liquid metal. The term investment refers to the
special covering made of refractory material surrounding the

wax pattern.
Figure 1.29
This is also a precision casting process, since it can make
castings of high accuracy and surface finish. The process is
also known as lost wax process.
The pattern is made by injecting molten wax into a master
die made of metal. In large scale production, several wax
patterns are attached to a single sprue and a pattern tree is
made.
The pattern tree is then dipped into a slurry of refractory
material consisting of fine silica and binders. A thin coating of
the slurry is formed over the patterns. Once the initial coating
is dried, it is repeatedly coated to increase the thickness of
mould. The mould is dried for hours to harden the binder and
attain sufficient strength.
The mould is now inverted and heated to temperature of 90
to 175OC for about 4 hours. During the heating, the wax pattern
and sprue will melt and flow out of the mould. The moisture
MODULE 1 CASTING 45
content in the mould also is removed by the heating. Molten

metal is now poured into the mould and after solidification, the
mould is broken and the castings are taken out.
Complex shapes can be cast by this method to very close
tolerances and high surface finish. Products like vanes and
blades for gas turbines, impellers for turbo chargers etc. are
cast by this process. Though the process is expensive, it is
preferred for the excellent surface finish and dimensional
accuracy especially for non machinable and non-forgable
alloys.
1.10.3 Permanent Mould Casting
LO 1.27 Explain the permanent mould casting process and
The moulding processes explained till now use expendable or
non reusable or single use moulds. For large scale production,
these are not economical, instead reusable moulds are
preferred. There is a number of casting processes which use
reusable or permanent moulds.
The basic permanent mould process uses metallic moulds
made in two sections suitable for easy opening and closing.
Steel is usually used to construct the moulds. The mould
cavity, gating and risering systems are accurately machined
to good surface finish. Metals like aluminium, magnesium,
copper base alloys and cast iron are cast using steel moulds
made of refractory metals.
The permanent mould is preheated and lubricant coatings
are sprayed prior to pouring of liquid metal. The mould halves
are closed under external pressure and are kept like that until
the solidification is completed. After this, the mould is opened
and casting is removed.
Usually metallic cores are used in permanent moulds.
When the removal of metallic core is difficult, sand cores are
used. Now the process may be called as semi permanent mould
casting. There are several similar casting processes which use
permanent moulds. Some of these are vacuum casting, slush
casting and pressure casting.
1.10.4 Die Casting
LO 1.28 Explain different types of die casting process and
This is also a type of permanent mould casting, where
the mould cavity is filled by injecting the molten metal by
the application of external pressure. As high pressure in the

range of 15-70 MPa is involved, the mould should be able to
withstand this high pressure. High strength steels are used for
making the moulds. Here the moulds are called as dies and
hence the name die casting.
The metallic die is openable with two halves. One half is
fixed and the other is movable. Tool steels and maraging steels
are used to make the dies. The die used in die casting is very
much similar to the metallic mould used in permanent mould
casting. The dies used in forging, extrusion and drawing
processes are not similar to the dies used here.
The components made by die casting have good dimensional
accuracy and good surface finish. In many situations, the
cast component can be directly used without any further
machining. There are two types of die casting processes,
namely hot chamber process and cold chamber process.
The steps involved in die casting are:
• Close and lock the two halves of dies.
• Force the molten metal into the die cavity under
pressure.
• Maintain the pressure until the metal solidifies.
• Open the die.
• Eject the casting along with sprue and runners.
Cold Chamber Die Casting

Here, molten metal is poured into the injection cylinder
called shot chamber (figure 1.30a ). A piston is used to inject
the metal under high pressure into the die cavity (figure 1.30b).
The pressure is maintained till the liquid metal solidifies inside
the die. After releasing the pressure, the dies are opened and
the casting is ejected out with the help of ejector pins provided
(figure 1.30c).
As the chamber is not heated, the process is called cold
chamber process. Since the liquid metal is taken from an
external source, the process is slower than the hot chamber
process. The process can be used for casting aluminium, brass
and magnesium alloys.
MODULE 1 CASTING 47
Movable Fixed die half

die half
Ladle
Ejector
pins
Fixed die half

Cavity
Ladle
Piston
e half
Shot Chamber
Ladle (a)
Piston
Shot Chamber
Piston
Shot Chamber
(b)
(c)
Figure 1.30
Movable Fixed die half

Hot
die Chamber
half Die Casting
Nozzle
This process involves the use of a heating furnace attached
Ejector
to the machine. Metal is melted in a container or pot placed
pins
inside this and a piston is used to inject the liquid into the die
Fixed die half Piston
under high pressure (see figure 1.31 a). When
Cavity Nozzle
the piston moves
up, liquid metal enters the hot chamber and it is pressurised
Pot
e half (7 to 35 MPa) and injected into the die cavity as the piston
moves downwards (figure 1.31 b). Chamber
The pressure is maintained

Piston till the liquid metal solidifies
inside the die. After releasing the pressure, the dies are opened
Pot
and the casting is ejected out with the help of ejector pins
Piston
provided (figure 1.31c). The
Chamber
process is fast and can make
even more than 500 parts per hour. Its usage is limited to low
Pot
melting point metals like zinc, tin, lead, magnesium and their
alloys.
Chamber
(a)
(a)
(a)
(b) (c)
(b)
(a)
(b) (c)
(b) (c)
Figure 1.31
MODULE 1 CASTING 49
1.10.5 Centrifugal Casting

LO 1.29 Explain various types of centrifugal casting process
and list the advantages.
In this process, the mould is rotated at high speed as
the liquid metal is poured into it. The centrifugal force
distributes the molten metal to the outer region of mould. The
pressure developed due to rotation will continue till the metal
solidifies. The lighter slag, oxides and other inclusions will get
accumulated towards the centre. Following are the three types
of centrifugal casting.
True Centrifugal Casting
Tubular parts like pipes, tubes etc. are made by true
centrifugal casting. Here, no core is needed for making the
hollow castings. By controlling the amount of liquid metal
poured into the mould, thickness of pipe can be controlled.
The axis of rotation can be horizontal or vertical. The figure
1.32 shows the arrangement for true centrifugal casting with
horizontal axis of rotation. Outside shape of the casting can
be round, hexagonal or octagonal depending on the shape of
mould cavity. But due to centrifugal action, the inner surface
will be always circular.
Castings made by this process will have high density in the
outer regions of the castings. All impurities will be on the inner
surface of casting and can be easily removed by machining.
Here no core is needed for making a hollow casting and risers
are not needed to feed the last region to solidify. These will be
taken care by the centrifugal force acting.
Mould Free roller Mould
Pouring
basin
Drive roller
Figure 1.32
Semi Centrifugal Casting
The semi centrifugal process can be used to produce solid
castings, which are more complicated than those possible in
true centrifugal process. Here, sand or metallic moulds are
used. The mould is usually rotated about a vertical axis and
the metal is poured though a central pouring basin.
Figure 1.33 shows the arrangement for semi centrifugal

casting. Sand mould is used here which is rotated at speeds
lower than that in true centrifugal casting process. Wheels
and pulleys are examples of products cast by this process.
Components which are axi-symmetric in nature alone can be
cast by this method.
Pouring basin
Flask Cope
Casting
Drag
Rotating
Table
Figure 1.33
Centrifuging
This process can be used even for casting shapes which are
not axi-symmetrical, but the process is suitable only for small
jobs. The mould is designed with cavities located away from
the axis of rotation. The mould cavities are uniformly placed
around a central sprue and connected by runners as shown in
figure 1.34. As the mould rotates about the vertical axis, the
molten metal is pressurised by the centrifugal forces to enter
into the mould cavities.
Center gate
Runner
Cope
Casting
Drag
Rotating
Table
Figure 1.34
The process is also known as centrifuge casting. This
method can be used for casting irregular shapes like bearing
caps, small brackets, dental inlays etc.
MODULE 1 CASTING 51
1.10.6 Continuous Casting

LO 1.30 Explain the continuous casting process and list the
advantages.
In the continuous or strand casting, molten metal is
poured continuously to a long vertical mould, made of copper,
brass or graphite. Molten metal from furnace is poured into
a tundish where impurities are skimmed off. Then the liquid
metal is poured into the water cooled vertical mould. As the
mould is water cooled, solidification begins immediately and
the solid metal moves downwards. The pouring platform is
usually positioned at a height of 20m above ground level. The
downward movement of casting is guided by two pinch rolls
as shown in figure 1.35. The cast metal is cut into required
lengths by shearing or by oxygen lance cutting.
Figure 1.35
Argon gas is used to cover the molten metal as it is poured.
This prevents oxidation of liquid metal in contact with
atmospheric air. Evenif some impurities are present in liquid
metal, it will float on top surface and will not reach the bottom
region where solidification occurs. By controlling the cooling
rate, grain size and structure of metal can be regulated.
The process is used for casting rods, bars, pipes, slabs etc.
The cost of equipment is high, but the rate of production is also
high. The castings obtained are having good surface finish,
with no impurities and segregation problems.
1.10.7 Squeeze Casting
LO 1.31 Explain the squeeze casting process and list the
advantages.
This is a variation of die casting process, where the molten
metal is poured into an open die and then the upper part of
die (punch) is brought into contact with the liquid metal to
squeeze it and fill the cavity between the die and punch. After
solidification, the punch is withdrawn to open the die and the
casting is ejected using the ejector pin housed in the die. The
process is illustrated in figure 1.36.
Figure 1.36
Here the process involves an element of mechanical
deformation and hence the process is also called as liquid
metal forging or as extrusion casting.
The contact under high pressure at die metal interface
promotes faster heat transfer and solidification, leading to
a fine grained structure with good mechanical properties.
MODULE 1 CASTING 53
Castings with complex shapes and fine surface details can be

made using the process. The squeeze casting combines the
advantages of casting and forging.
1.10.8 Comparison of Surface Roughness
LO 1.32 Give a comparative study about the surface
roughness of castings obtained from various types of casting
processes.
The surface roughness of castings obtained from various
casting processes vary considerably. Low surface finish is
generally obtained from sand casting process. Parameters like
size of sand grains, distribution of various grain sizes, level of
ramming etc. affect the surface quality of castings. In general,
surface roughness of sand castings are above 8 microns.
Most of the special casting processes lead to better surface
finish compared to sand casting. Best results in surface
roughness are reported from investment casting process. As
fine silica sand is used as moulding material along with wax
patterns, surface roughness values in the range of 1.5 to 3
microns are obtained here.
Shell moulding also uses fine silica sand grains which are
bonded together by resins, leading to very good surface finish to
the mould cavity as well to the cast surface. Surface roughness
of the order of 3 to 6 microns are common in shell moulding.
Permanent mould processes use metallic moulds, which
produces castings having surface roughness in the range of 3
to 4 microns. Die casting also uses metallic moulds along with
external pressure to assist proper filling of molten metal in the
mould cavity. The die cast components have surface roughness
of the order of 2 to 3 microns and can be used directly without
any further processing. Squeeze casting also produces similar
results in respect of surface roughness.
1.11 CASTING DEFECTS
LO 1.33 Classify the defects observed in castings.
In the casting process, there are a number of factors which
may not always perform as expected. Whenever these factors
go wrong, defective castings are resulted. There are different
types of defects observed in castings. The factors which are
responsible for defects are
• Design of casting
• Design of pattern
• Moulding and core making equipment.

• Mould and core materials.
• Moulding and core making method
• Gating and risering
• Melting and pouring
• Composition of metal
The defects observed in castings can be categorized as
follows:
• Cavities
• Metallic projections
• Incorrect dimension & shape
• Discontinuities
• Defective surface
• Incomplete casting
• Inclusions
This classification of casting defects presents great
difficulties because of the wide range of contributing causes.
A better classification can be made by grouping the defects
based on certain broad types of origin. Though these groups
are not mutally exclusive, they provide a basis for economic
approach to elimination of casting defects.
LO 1.34 Explain the reasons and remedies for casting defects
grouped into different categories.
1.11.1 Shaping Faults Arising in Pouring

The primary requirement of the liquid metal entering into
the mould is that it should fill the mould satisfactorily and
develop a smooth skin through contact with mould walls. When
the process fails to meet these conditions, serious defects like
misrun or short run occurs. Other defects under this category
are cold shuts and cold laps.
Cold laps occur when the liquid metal fails to flow freely over
the mould surface. Due to the broken flow, the liquid streams
solidify without a continuity. Such defects are identified easily
by the occurrance of rounded cornors and edges instead of
sharp and fine mould details.
Misrun: When the castings solidify before completely filling
the mould cavity, this defect is observed. It may be caused due
to
• insufficient fluidity of molten metal
• lower pouring temperature
MODULE 1 CASTING 55
• very slow pouring

• improper gate design.
Mould
Cold
shut
a) Mould making b) Drag part ready c) Mould assemble
Misrun
Core
Mould Mould
Figure 1.37
Cold shut: This defect occurs when two streams
Shrinkage Mouldof liquid
cavity but fail to fuse together, due
metal meet inside the mould,
to premature freezing. This defect is also due to the reasons
behind the misrun. Microporosity
Mould
Cold Cold
shut shut
Misrun
Core
Mould Mould Mould
Figure 1.38
1.11.2
Shrinkage InclusionsMould
and Sand Defects
cavity
Two types of non metallic inclusions are observed in castings.
Mould Hot
or endogenous inclusions due
The first category is indigenousMicroporosity tears
to the product of reactions within the liquid metal. These may
be dispersed throughout the casting as precipitates.
Mould
The second group is called exogenous inclusions, resulting
from non metallic particles entrapped during melting and
pouring. These include dross, slag, flux residues, refractory
particles and eroded particles of moulding material. This type
of inclusions are regarded as specific defects and usually
observed as concentrated in specific regions of casting.
Slag inclusions are usually of smooth rounded form, while
dross and refractory fragments are of irregular shape. These
can be prevented by careful skimming at the pouring stage.
Mould material may be eroded during flow of liquid metal,
resulting in massive inclusions or a wider distribution of
separate grains.
Mould
Due to the erosion of sand particles from the mould walls, a

rough projection may be formed on the casting surface. Such
a projection is called erosion scab.
Similar expansion defects like expansion scabs and rat tails
occur due to the expansion of mould due to various reasons.
Expansion scab occurs due to the partial or complete breakage
of a section of mould face and penetration of liquid metal to
the mould walls. When a bulging or cracking occurs on the
mould face, it will lead to a line defect known as rat tail. Here
the casting surface shows a step or metal fin representing the
crack.
Sand wash: This is caused by erosion of mould walls
during pouring of molten metal. The shape of the eroded region
is formed on the surface of casting. This defect is similar to
erosion scab.
Sand Pinholes
blow
Scab
Mould Sand Pinholes

blow
Mould Sand wash
Figure 1.39 Core has Mould

Mould Mould
Metal penetration: A rough casting surface
shifted may be resulted
crack
Cope has shifted upward
ation
when molten metal enters the gaps between sand grains. This
relative to drag
occurs when the grain size of sand is coarse and when the
ramming is too light.Parting
Cope line Cope has shifted
Penetration relative to drag
Drag
Cope
Drag
Figure 1.40
Mould crack: When the strength of mould is low, crack

may develop and metal can seep into it to form a fin shaped
projection on the casting surface. This defect is also known as
rat tail.
Swell
S
Sand Pinholes
blow Sand wash
MODULE 1 CASTING 57 Scab
Mould
Core has Mould
shifted crack
upward
Parting Mould Sand wash

line
Core has Mould

shifted crack
ration relative to drag
Figure 1.41
Swell: This is also dueParting
to lower strength of mould surface.
Cope line
The mould wall may move back due to the metallostatic forces
and this will lead to a bulging or swell on the casting surface.
Drag
Improper ramming is the reason behind this. This defect is
similar to expansion scab.
Swell
Swell
Figure 1.42
1.11.3 Gas Defects
Gases may be present in castings as chemical compounds
or as included cavities. The gas defects are due to the included
cavities in castings. The gases may be due to the entrapment
of air during pouring, evolution from moulding material, due
to high heat of liquid metals or may be precipitated during
(b) Mould filled with liquid metal
solidification.
partly solidified skin
Defects like blowholes, surface blows, airlocks, pinholes
or intergranular cavities are caused by the entrapped gases.
These defects usually have rounded contours proving the
presence of gas inside the cavities.
(a) Mould Air
readymay be trapped within(b)aMould
for pouring casting
filled due to excessive
with liquid metal
partly solidified
turbulence in pouring and lower superheat skin
of metal. Defects
also may result from failure of mould to pass on the air displaced
by the liquid metal. This can be prevented by effective venting
(b) Final
of mould casting
cavity and cores.
Another group of gas defects are formed due to the

precipitation of gases from the metal during cooling. Gases
like hydrogen and nitrogen are generated like this, which are
soluble in most casting alloys.
Precautions taken during melting, vacuum melting and
degassing of molten metal are the usual preventive measures
adopted to reduce gas defects.
Blow holes: These are bubble shaped gas holes appearing
in the casting. The gases released from mould during pouring
and entrapped in liquid metal forms blow holes. When they
are located at the top surface of casting it is called sand blow
or open blow.
Sand Pinholes
blow
Mould
Mould Mould San
Figure 1.43
These are caused by hard ramming, low permeability,
excessive water content or improper venting.
Cope has shifted
1.11.4 Shrinkage Defects
Parting
Shrinkage occurs during cooling of liquid metal and during
Cope line
solidification. Proper gating and risering compensate for this.
When the compensation is inadequate
Drag
shrinkage defects occur
in castings.
Pipe or primary shrinkage cavity results from inadequate
supply of feed metal from riser. The pipe may extend into the
casting due to the lack of sufficient feed metal. Secondary
shrinkage is wholly internal and occurs in positions away
from the riser.
Discrete porosity is aggregated by gas rejected from the
metal on freezing. Surface porosity results from the absence of
an intact solidified skin.
During solidification, an outer skin or shell is solidified
Swell
initially. This continuous envelope isolates the remaining
liquid metal from atmosphere. As the solidification progresses,
low pressure conditions occur within the casting. This may
lead to a sink in the casting surface (a small depression). In
some cases, a local puncture occurs and produces an inkwell
cavity or draw.
MODULE 1 CASTING 59
a) Mould making b) Drag part ready c) Mould ass
Mould
Cold Cold
shut shut
Misrun
Core
Figure 1.44
Mould Mircoporosity: It isMould
caused by localized solidification
Mould
shrinkage of molten metal in a dendritic structure. A network
of small voids observed throughout the casting.
Shrinkage Mould
cavity
Mould Ho
Microporosity tea
Figure 1.45
1.11.5 Contraction Defects
In addition to the shrinkage that occurs during cooling of
liquid metal and solidification, the cooling of cast metal from
solidus to room temperature also contributes to contraction.
Solid contraction affects all linear dimensions of the casting,
which is compensated by providing sufficient pattern
allowances. However, castings never contract completely
freely. Hindrance to contraction may be offered by the mould,
by pressure of residual liquid metal and by other parts of the
casting.
Mould
If the resistance to contraction occurs at the highest

temperature, when the alloy is in a relatively brittle condition
and hot tears occur. Hot tears or pulls are characterised by
irregular, partial or complete intergranular fracture. These
are usually located at sharp changes in section where stress
concentration is associated with locally delayed cooling. The
occurrence of hot tears is influenced by alloy composition,
Cold Cold
design of the casting and the casting
shut shut
technique used.
When the casting has cooled below the tearing temperature,
but lies above the temperature for elastic behavior, it may lead
Core
to plastic deformation. This may cause dimensional errors.
Mould Hot tears: This defect
Mould occurs at sharp internal corners in a
casting. At these points, sections of casting are restrained from
contraction during final stages of solidification.
Mould
Mould Hot
Microporosity tears
Figure 1.46
1.11.6 Dimensional Errors
The dimensions of a casting are subjected to variation from
minor changes in production conditions within the limits of
normal working practice. Such errors can occur in pattern
making, moulding and casting. Alignment faults and mould
distortion are two major types of casting defects under this
category.
Cross jointing and misplaced cores are among the common
types of alignment faults. Defects from misplaced or ill-fitting
cores can be avoided by paying attention to core print design
and clearances.
Mould distortion may happen due to excessive rapping
during pattern removal, soft ramming, lack of rigidity of the
mould etc. Defects like mould shift, core shift, swelling and
growth across the parting line may result from these.
Mould shift: This defect is due to the shifting of cope
relative to drag. The change in alignment results in a step in
the casting along the parting line.
Mould Mould Sand wash
MODULE 1 CASTING 61
Core has
shifted
Parting
Cope line
Pinholes
Drag
Scab
Mould
Figure 1.47
Core shift: When the core is displaced from its intended
position inside the mould, core shift results. When the core
is not properly placed Sand
with wash
the support of core prints and
Mould
chaplets, the buoyancy of liquid metal shifts it upwards and a
defective casting is obtained.
Core has Mould
shifted crack
Cope has shifted upward Swell
relative to drag
Parting
line
Figure 1.48
Run out: When the molten metal leaks out of the moulding
box, run out occurs. This is due to faulty mould making or due
to a faulty moulding box.
Some of the remedies for the defects are reasons for some
other defects. The moulding procedure must be properly
designed to eliminate or minimize the most undesirable casting
defects.
1.11.7 Compositional
Swell Errors and Segregation
(a) Mould ready for pouring (b) Mould filled with liquid meta
partly solidified
Melting losses or the use of incorrect furnace charges are skin
the major causes of compositional errors in casting. Careful
melting practices can help avoid such compositional errors.
During the solidification of alloys forming solid solutions
it can be observed that solute concentration at any stage
during freezing differs from that in the residual liquid. It
means composition of solid particles and remaining liquid
during solidification will have different compositions. This
will also lead to compositional
(b) Mould differences between different
inverted to remove (b) Final casting
regions withinexcess
everyliquid
solid grain. This phenomenon is called as
segregation.
eady for pouring (b) Mould filled with liquid metal

partly solidified skin
The compositional differences extending over dimensions of

the order of a single grain or less is called micro segregation.
On the other hand, there may be zonal differences between
one part of the casting and another. This is referred to as
macro segregation. The mechanical properties like strength,
ductility, impact and fatigue resistance are affected by micro
segregation.
Significance of Casting Defects
Significance of casting defects can only be established in
relation to the function of the casting. The most important
consideration is the behaviour of casting under applied
stresses and working environment. Defects can influence
these characteristics through various mechanical properties.
Following are the most important considerations in his aspect.
• The significance of a local defect depends not only
upon the size and shape but upon position relative to
the stress pattern in the casting.
• Among surface defects, a flaw on a flat surface is less
serious than one situated at a change of section where
there may be appreciable concentration of applied
stress.
• Important defects, like centre line porosity or
segregation are less serious because the location is
close to a neutral axis of stress.
• All defects produce an increase in the mean stress by
reducing the cross sectional area carrying the load.
The primary effect of this is in the redistribution of
stresses.
• If a cavity contains some foreign substance like a non
metallic inclusion, the stress concentration would be
less than that of an empty cavity.
• Spherical defects like blowholes or slag inclusions
also introduce stress concentration as in the case of
shrinkage cavities and sand inclusions.
• A fine crack is a more dangerous defect, where the
chance of failure is high.
• Microporosity is having a drastic effect in lowering the
mechanical properties of cast alloys.
• Loss of mechanical properties due to segregation of
alloying elements or impurities depends upon the
metallurgy of the individual alloy.
MODULE 1 CASTING 63
• Segregated impurities also cause grain boundary

embrittlement.
1.12 SUPERALLOYS
LO 1.35 Explain the steps involved in the processing of
superalloys.
The basis of superalloys are iron, cobalt and nickel, the
transition metals located in a similar region of the periodic
table. The superalloys are created usually by adding significant
levels of the alloy elements like chromium, aluminum and
titanium, plus appropriate refractory metal elements such
as tungsten and molybdenum to the base metal. Densities of
superalloys are a function of the amounts of these elements
in the final compositions. Aluminum, titanium and chromium
reduce density whereas the refractory elements such as
tungsten, rhenium and tantalum increase it.
Demand for materials with high temperature stability,
excellent creep behaviour and high corrosion resistance, etc. led
to the development of superalloys. In other words, superalloys
are candidate materials for high temperature applications in
energy systems because of their excellent properties for high
temperature strength, oxidation, and hot corrosion resistance.
The first superalloy, Nimonic 75, was made by ‘doping’
nichrome with controlled small amounts of carbon and
titanium. Superalloys with a suitable concentration of Cr and Al
form either a protective chromia layer or alumina layer, which
protects it from further oxidation. Nickel based superalloys in
single crystal form are of great interest to industry for making
aero engine turbine blades, mainly due to their high strength
at high temperatures. These alloys have a complex structure
and usually contain a high amount of reactive elements such
as Al, Ti, Zr, Nb, etc.
In order to end up with the correct chemical composition
matching the high requirements on the final product
performance a special production process is needed. Owing
to the critical applications of superalloys, high purity and
homogeneity are a must, and therefore conventional air
melting technologies such as those used for low alloy steels are
not suitable. Thus, various combinations of premium melting
processes like vacuum induction melting (VIM), electroslag
remelting (ESR) and vacuum arc remelting (VAR) are the main
techniques used to produce high quality superalloys. Scrap
from the production process, recycled material, master alloys
and pure metals are used in the VIM furnace to obtain the
correct chemistry after melting.
As the name suggests, air melting involves heating an
alloy above its melting point in a standard air atmosphere.
In contrast, premium melting uses magnetic or electrical heat
sources and may be done in vacuum or inert gas atmospheres.
1.12.1 Vacuum Induction Melting
Commercial vacuum induction melting (VIM) was developed
in the early 1950s, having been stimulated by the need to
produce superalloys containing reactive elements within
an evacuated atmosphere. The process is relatively flexible,
featuring the independent control of time, temperature,
pressure, and mass transport through melt stirring.
A VIM furnace is simply a melting crucible inside a steel
shell that is connected to a high speed vacuum system (Figure
1.49). The heart of the furnace is the crucible with heating and
cooling coils and refractory lining. Heating is done by electric
current that passes through a set of induction coils. The coils
are made from copper tubing that is cooled by water flowing
Figure 1.49
MODULE 1 CASTING 65
through the tubing. The passage of current through the coils

creates a magnetic field that induces a current in the charge
inside the refractory. When the heating of the charge material
is sufficient that the charge has become all molten, these
magnetic fields cause stirring of the liquid charge.
In VIM process, an electrode or ingot created by melting
prerefined metal made using conventional air melting
techniques is remelted using induction. Alloy composition is
adjusted to tight limits during the melting process. When the
metal is fully refined to the correct composition, the furnace
is tilted and molten metal is poured into refractory tundishes
used to pour the metal into prepared cast iron moulds.
VIM furnaces are often the starting point in premium
melting. Nickel based alloys for aerospace and power
generation applications and cobalt based alloys for medical
applications are always vacuum melted to obtain high purity
microstructures.
Vacuum induction melting is often done as the primary
melting operation followed by secondary melting (remelting)
operations such as electroslag remelting (ESR) and/or vacuum
arc remelting (VAR). Some superalloys are produced by a
triple-melt sequence (VIM/ESR/VAR), where the VIM ingot is
typically referred to as an electrode for subsequent ESR and/
or VAR operation.
Benefits of VIM:
• Melting, refining, alloying and casting under vacuum
• Controlled addition of high reactive elements
• Close tolerance achievable for various alloying elements
such as Al, Ti, Nb, Zr, etc.
• Reduction of gas content (H, N, O) and removal of
undesirable trace elements
1.12.2 Electro Slag Remelting
In the Electro Slag remelting (ESR) process, an electrode
produced by VIM is continuously melted under air or gas using
heat produced by electrical resistance in a slag. The liquid
metal runs through a reactive slag of lower density into a cooled
copper crucible. The main advantage of the ESR process is
the possibility of influencing the chemical composition of the
final ingot by means of reactions with the slag, for example to
obtain a reduction in the sulphur content of the material. In
addition, the controlled solidification process leads to a very

homogeneous material in most of the ingot volume.
ESR is a secondary process that further refines alloys formed
into consumable electrodes by VIM. The ESR controls both
metal melting and solidification. After the alloy to be refined is
formed into an electrode by VIM melting, alternating current is
passed through it. One end of the electrode is in contact with
refractory slag, which acts like a resistor in the electrical circuit.
Contact with the molten slag generates resistive heating which
melts the slag and bottom edge of the alloy electrode. The
mould is water cooled and efficiently extracts the heat created
during the melting process. The result is a homogeneous ingot
with minimal chemical segregation.
Figure 1.50
Benefits of ESR:
• Improved cleanliness level due to refining with slag
• Minimization of segregations
• Slow directional solidification
• Complete dense ingot with no porosities
MODULE 1 CASTING 67
1.12.3 Vacuum Arc Remelting

The vacuum arc remelting process (VAR) was the first
remelting process to be used commercially for the production of
steels and superalloys. A consumable electrode of the superalloy
is remelted by a direct current electric arc in a water cooled
copper crucible. VAR is another secondary process for refining
metals or superalloys that were previously melted or remelted
into a consumable electrode in VIM, or ESR furnace. Like ESR,
VAR depends on controlled cooling and solidification of the
remelted ingot to minimize chemical segregation. The refining
takes place in the arc zone between electrode tip and molten
metal pool, on top of the ingot which solidifies continuously
from the bottom upwards. The controlled solidification of the
ingot in the water cooled copper crucible leads to a sound and
homogenous material with excellent metallurgical properties.
Figure 1.51
The main difference of the VAR from the ESR process is
the absence of a slag and therefore no possibility of chemical
refinement. But, the vacuum influences the content of oxygen
and hydrogen and to a limited amount nitrogen, and the
content of high vapour pressure elements such as lead or tin
in the final ingot. The main purpose of the VAR process is the
production of a highly homogeneous material as a result of the
controlled melting and solidification process.
The subsequent resolidification of the ingot inside a water
cooled copper mould helps the remelted material obtain superior
properties. Solidification is highly controlled to eliminate ingot
macrosegregation and reduce microsegregation. VAR cuts
down on nonmetallic inclusions and facilitates removal of gases
and volatile elements, enhancing cleanliness. Because VAR
melting is performed in water cooled copper crucibles, there
are no undesirable reactions between process and refractory
metal components. These advantages lead to alloys with clean,
homogenous microstructures. VAR is the final melting step for
many aerospace alloys, especially high temperature alloys
Benefits of VAR:
• Improved cleanliness level
• Minimization of segregations
• Slow directional solidification of the ingot from bottom
to top
• Reduction of gas content (Hydrogen, Oxygen and
Nitrogen)
• Reduction of undesired trace elements with high vapor
pressure
• Elimination of macro-segregation and reduction of
micro-segregation
• Controlled progressive solidification
• Exceptional material quality
Table 1.5 Comparison of ESR and VAR
Electro Slag Remelting Vacuum Arc Remelting
Advantages
Refining due to metallurgical Inert heat source
reactive slag
Process and production No slag is produced
flexibility
Superior macro cleanliness Good macro cleanliness
Good micro cleanliness Superior micro cleanliness
Controlled solidification Lowest melt rates possible
Square dimensions possible No segregation
Good surface quality
MODULE 1 CASTING 69
Less segregation
Excellent desulfurization
Disadvantages
No degassing High effort for electrode
preparation
Possibility of hydrogen pickup Undesirable evaporation
losses
Control of reactive elements No desulfurization
Complex process control Poor surface quality
High melting costs Only round ingots possible
Limitation of melt rate Relative low productivity
Triple melting combines VIM, ESR, and VAR and takes
advantage of the refining characteristics of each melting
technique to produce a clean, homogenous microstructure.
VIM-ESR-VAR melting is mostly used for superalloys that will
see high speed rotation in aerospace and power generation.
Benefits of the remelting process have been shown leading to
superior quality compared to the conventional ingot casting
process.
Most ingots produced by either double-melt VIM/VAR, VIM/
ESR or triple melt VIM/ESR/VAR are afterwards processed by
hot forming. Usually several upsetting and racking processes,
implying tight temperature and deformation control, are
used to produce the preferred homogeneous microstructure.
Hydraulic open die presses and/or rotary forging machines
are used to break down the equiaxed structure produced by
the remelting process to a fine globular structure, and thus
the billet produced shows properties that are less direction
dependent.
Besides this typical route, powder metallurgy is used to
produce nickel based superalloys with properties not achievable
by standard methods. Higher amounts of segregating elements,
oxide dispersion strengthening and very fine homogeneously
distributed grains are achievable using this method. Typically,
inert-gas atomization, rotating electrode processes or
centrifugal atomization is used to produce a powder of high
purity. After this, the powder is containerized and put into a
hot isostatic press, where the application of high temperature
and pressure for a specific time leads to a dense material.
In some cases, hot extrusion is used additionally to further
densify the alloy.
The generally superior mechanical properties of nickel

based superalloys are their biggest advantage in service
but are detrimental for any machining operation. Typically,
boronitrides, silicon aluminium based ceramics or in some
cases hard metal or titanium nitride coated tools are used. In
addition, the cutting speed has to be controlled very carefully
in order to limit the heat generated during cutting, which limits
the tool life. For example, the use of hard metal tools with heat
treatable steel allows cutting speeds ten times higher than for
nickel based alloys.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate solidification of alloys with L1
solidification of pure metals
2. List differences and similarities between sand L1
casting, die-casting and permanent mould casting
processes.
3. List five typical components produced by the L1
casting process.
4. List important considerations when selecting L1
pattern materials.
5. List the advantage and limitations of die casting. L1
6. List the general design considerations in casting. L1
7. Name and describe the characteristics of the types L1
of sand-moulding machines.
8. Name the important factors in selecting sand for L1
moulds.
9. Name the important factors involved in the L1
economics of casting operations.
10. List the two basic mould types that distinguish L1
casting processes.
11. Name the type of materials used for permanent L1
mould casting processes.
12. Name the types of cast irons available and list their L1
major characteristics.
13. Differentiate between a split pattern and a match- L1
plate pattern?
14. Define hot spots L1
15. List the major limitations and disadvantages of L1
casting
MODULE 1 CASTING 71
16. List the advantages of casting process over other L1

shaping process
17. List the advantages of pressure casting L1
18. List the differences between a pattern and a casting L1
19. List the factors you will consider before selecting L1
the material for a pattern
20. List the most common metals used in die casting L1
21. Define a chaplet L1
22. Define a riser? L1
23. Define directional solidification L1
24. Define shrinkage allowance and machining L1
allowance
25. Differentiate between a pattern and a core in sand L1
moulding
26. Differentiate between an open mould and a closed L1
mould
27. Differentiate between sand and shell mould casting L1
28. Differentiate between true centrifugal and L1
semicentrifugal casting?
29. Differentiate between vacuum mould casting and L1
vacuum moulding?
30. List the points you need to consider before selecting L1
a casting process for manufacturing a component.
31. List the properties which determine the quality of a L1
sand mould for sand casting
32. Specify the casting process is the most important L1
one commercially
33. Define shrinkage and porosity. How can you tell L2
whether cavities in a casting are due to shrinkage?
34. Describe the advantages and limitations of hot- L2
chamber and cold-chamber die casting processes.
35. Describe the characteristics of chaplet materials. L2
Should they melt while molten metal is being
poured and solidified in the mould? Explain.
36. Describe the differences between expendable and L2
permanent moulds.
37. Describe the features of a gating system. L2
38. Describe the features of plaster-mould casting. L2
39. Describe the function of a blind riser. Explain the L2
importance of it
40. Describe the stages involved in the contraction of L2

metals during casting.
41. Explain the importance of permeability in moulding L2
sand.
42. Explain the reasons for hot tearing in castings. L2
43. Explain the use of risers. Why can blind risers the L2
smaller than open-top-risers?
44. Explain why a casting may have a slightly different L2
shape than the pattern used to make it?
45. Explain why the strength to weight ratio of die-cast L2
parts increases with decreasing wall thickness.
46. Give a step-by-step procedure for the following
processes (a) investment casting (b) die casting.
47. Explain how dissolved gases are removed from L2
molten metal
48. Explain how hollow parts with various cavities are L2
made by die casting.
49. Explain how the blowholes are formed in a casting L2
50. Explain how the casting is affected when the L2
foundry sand has (a) less refractoriness (b) high
refractoriness and (c) less adhesiveness?
51. Explain how would you attach the individual wax L2
patterns on a tree in investment casting
52. Describe how a gating system without a riser L2
affects the casting
53. Explain whether the property of cast iron being L2
chemically inert with the moulding sand help in
getting sound castings
54. List and describe any three general defects L2
encountered in casting processes.
55. Explain the differences between hot chamber die- L2
casting and cold chamber die-casting processes
56. Explain the major drawbacks of the casting L2
processes and how they are overcome
57. List and explain the major types of sand moulds L2
and their characteristics
58. Narrate the purpose of a riser L2
59. Explain the function of a core L2
60. Explain the function of a core print L2
61. Explain the function of chills L2
MODULE 1 CASTING 73
62. Explain the function of sprue base? Can we have a L2

gating system without a sprue base?
63. Explain the role of clay in moulding sand? L2
64. Give a comparison of cold-chamber or hot-chamber L2
die-casting machines for a higher production rate.
65. Explain why drafts are necessary in some moulds L2
66. Explain steels are more difficult to cast than cast L2
irons
67. Explain why casting is an important manufacturing L2
process
68. Explain how to select a suitable casting process to L3
manufacture a product of your choice considering
various factors.
69. Justify whether a finished casting be used as a L3
pattern for making mould for making another
casting of the same size.
70. Justify whether the casting process can be used for L3
manufacturing the body of a vehicle.
71. Justify whether natural sand is suitable for the L3
moulding purposes.
72. Justify whether the process of casting is competitive L3
when compared with machining and metal forming
processes.
73. Explain the reason why heat transfer and fluid flow L3
are important in metal casting.
74. Explain why processes such as sand, shell-mould, L3
plaster, and investment casting can produce greater
shape complexity than others such as permanent
mould, die, and centrifugal casting.
75. Justify whether directional solidification is achieved L3
in case of top gating system.
76. Identify which piece will solidify first and which one L3
in the last using the following data. Three pieces to
be cast have the same volume but different shapes.
One is a sphere, one is a cube and the third is a
cylinder with height equal to its diameter.
77. Discuss about the consequences of pouring molten L3
metal into the mould cavity at a rapid rate and at
a slower rate
78. Explain how to improve the surface finish in L3

expendable-mould casting processes.
79. Explain why die casting can produce the smallest L3
parts
80. Explain why the investment casting process is L3
capable of producing fine surface detail on casting
81. Explain the consequences of carrying out the L3
permanent mould casting process without
preheating the mould
82. What is gating ratio? What considerations affect its L3
selection? What are the typical gating
ratios for the following applications?
(a) Grey iron bed castings made in cast steel,
(b) Valve body castings made in cast steel,
(c) Aluminum pistons for automobiles,
(d) Large gun metal bushes for bearings
83. Explain different types of casting defects in detail L3
with effects of each defect on quality of the casting
84. Internal corners are more prone to solidification L3
shrinkages than external corners. Explain?
85. Which of the casting processes would be suitable L3
for making small toys in large numbers? Why?
86. Suggest a suitable casting process for making an L4
engine piston with Aluminum alloy. What type of
mould can be used?
MODULE
2
WELDING
Learning Objectives
LO 2.1 Define welding and list the types of welded joints.

LO 2.2 Define weldability and explain the factors affecting
it.
LO 2.3 Explain the formation of heat affected zone during
welding and its impact on properties of the welded joint.
LO 2.4 List the different types of defects in welded joints.
LO 2.5 Explain various methods used for inspection of
welded joints.
LO 2.6 Define and explain the principle of resistance
welding.
LO 2.7 Explain the effect of various process parameters in
resistance welding.
LO 2.8 Explain the resistance spot welding process.
LO 2.9 Explain the different types of resistance welding
process.
LO 2.10 Define the arc welding process and list the major
types of arc welding processes.
LO 2.11 Explain the working of electric arc welding

equipment and its types.
LO 2.12 Explain the functions of electrodes in electric arc
welding process.
LO 2.13 Explain the working of shielded metal arc welding
process.
LO 2.14 Explain the working of submerged arc welding
process.
LO 2.15 Explain the flux cored arc welding process.
LO 2.16 Explain the electro slag welding process.
LO 2.17 Explain the electro gas welding process.
LO 2.18 Explain the gas tungesten arc welding process.
LO 2.19 Explain the gas metal arc welding process.
LO 2.20 Explain the plasma arc welding process.
LO 2.21 Explain the electron beam welding process.
LO 2.22 Explain the laser beam welding process.
LO 2.23 Explain thermit welding process.
LO 2.24 Explain the friction welding process.
LO 2.25 Explain the oxyacetelen gas welding process.
LO 2.26 Explain the brazing process in detail.
LO 2.27 Explain the soldering process in detail.
LO 2.28 List the various adhesives used for adhesive
bonding process.
MODULE 2 WELDING 77
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Welding is one of the fabrication processes widely used to
join two or more metallic components to make a single part. The
products obtained from the primary manufacturing processes
like casting, rolling and extrusion are rarely used directly as
products for final usage. These may be machined or joined
together using fabrication processes.
The metal joining processes are among the secondary
manufacturing processes. These can be classified based on
various criteria into the following broad categories.
• Mechanical fastening using bolts, nuts, rivets.
• Adhesive bonding using glues, resins
• Welding
• Soldering
• Brazing
The first two are temporary or semi-permanent joining
methods. But, welding is a permanent joining method where,
the joint is obtained by the metallurgical fusion process. In
welding, the interface of the two components to be joined is
heated to a temperature near or above the melting point and
a joint is made. During the process, pressure may be applied
in certain cases and filler materials may or may not be used.
Welding
Arc Welding Gas Welding

Oxy Acetylene Other Welding
Shielded Solid State
Welding Processes
Metal Arc Air Acetylene
Submerged Oxy Hydrogen Ultrasonic Electron Beam
Arc Friction Electro Slag
Gas Tungsten Laser Beam
Diffusion
Arc
Resistance Explosion Thermit
Gas Metal
Arc Welding Forge Induction
Plasma Arc Spot
Carbon Arc
Seam
Projection
Percussion
Flash
Figure 2.1
Based on the source of heat input, whether pressure is
applied or not, whether filler material is used or not and the
type of filler material used, there are more than 50 different
welding processes in use today. Two major groups of welding
processes are fusion welding and solid state welding processes.
Figure 2.1 shows a general classification of some of the popular
welding processes.
2.1.1 Definition of Welding

LO 2.1 Define welding and list the types of welded joints.
The formal definition of welding is: A localised coalescence

of metals, wherein coalescence is obtained by heating to
suitable temperature, with or without application of pressure
and with or without the use of filler material. Welding produces
a solid connection between the two pieces, called a weld joint.
The product obtained by the process of welding is called as
weldment. Base metal refers to the pieces of metal which are
being welded to form a weld joint.
Welding is the process of joining two pieces of metal by

fusing to produce a single piece of metal. The two pieces of
metal are joined by the application of intense heat or pressure
or both to melt the edges of metal so that they fuse to form a
permanent joint.
2.1.2 Types of Welded Joints
Weld joints can be classified into five basic types as butt, lap,
corner, tee and edge joints. These are illustrated in figure 2.2.
The relative positions of the two pieces being joined determine
the type of joint in this classification.
Butt Corner Lap Tee
orner Lap Tee Edge
Figure 2.2
In a butt joint, the parts are placed in the same plane and
joined along their edges. The parts in a corner joint are kept at
MODULE 2 WELDING 79
right angles and are joined at the corner of the angle. In a lap
joint, the parts are kept overlapping each other, and the joint
in made between edges of one part and a surface of the other
part.
In the tee joint, the parts are kept perpendicular to each
other forming a T shape and a joint is made along the contact
area. The parts in an edge joint are kept parallel and one of
their common edges welded.
Welding positions
Each of the above types of weld joints can be made in any
one of the following forms of welding positions: flat, horizontal,
vertical and overhead. For a butt joint, these positions are as
shown in figure 2.3.
Vertical Horizontal Overhead
Flat Vertical Horizontal

Figure 2.3
Types of welds
Two common types of welds are fillet weld and groove weld.
In corner, lap and tee joints fillet weld is used. Here, minimum
edge preparation is needed and the filler metal is used to
create a cross section (of weld) approximately of a right angled
triangle. Figure 2.4 shows examples of fillet welds.
Figure 2.4
In the case of groove welds, edges of parts need to be

prepared to the shape of a groove. In butt joints, shapes like
square, bevel, V, U and J shaped grooves are prepared with
single or double sides as shown in figure 2.5.
Square Single bevel Single V
Single J Single U Double Square
Double V Double bevel Double U

Figure 2.5
Following are some of the terms associated with welded joints
Base metal: The metal pieces being welded.
Weld Pool/Puddle: The portion of weld joint melted by the
heat of welding.
Root: It is the point at which the two pieces being joined is
nearest.
Weld bead: The metal added during a single pass of welding.
Weld face: It is the surface of weld metal open to atmosphere.
Weld metal (weld): The metal solidified at the joint is called
weld metal or simply as weld. It may be only base metal or a
mixture of base metal and filler material.
Toe
Weld face Weld face
Fusion Zone
Toe
Base metal Fusion Zone

Root
Root face
Root opening
Figure 2.6
MODULE 2 WELDING 81
Weld pass: A single movement of welding torch or electrode

along the length of joint resulting in a weld bead. Some of the
above are shown in figure 2.6.
2.1.3 Weldability
LO 2.2 Define weldability and explain the factors affecting
it.
Weldability is the capacity of a metal to be welded into a
suitably designed structure and to perform satisfactorily in the
intended service.
The quality of weld and the ease with which the welding
is carried out determines weldability. The factors that affect
weldability are
• Welding process
• Properties of base metal
• Properties of filler metal
• Surface conditions.
Some metals can be easily welded by one process, but
may be difficult with some other process. Aluminium melts
easily and is good for welding. Copper is having high thermal
conductivity and the heat is transferred faster from the weld
zone, making it hard to make a weld joint.
In the past, weldability has been regarded as the ease with
which a material can be welded. Weldability now includes how
well the weldment performs in service. Thus, there are two
main factors: service weldability and fabrication weldability.
Service weldability refers to the ability of the combination of
process and materials to turn out a welded joint that will stand
up to thermal and mechanical stresses, corrosion, and other
service requirements. Fabrication weldability is the capacity of
the combination of materials and processes to produce proper
fusion, limited porosity, absence of cracks, and proper weld
geometry. Factors affecting fabrication weldability include
melting point of the base metal, thermal conductivity, thermal
expansion and contraction, electrical resistance, and surface
condition.
2.1.4 Welding Metallurgy
LO 2.3 Explain the formation of heat affected zone during
welding and its impact on properties of the welded joint.
In a typical weld joint obtained from a fusion welding
process, three distinct zones can be identified. These zones are
base metal, heat affected zone (HAZ) and weld metal as shown
in figure 2.7. When a filler material is used, the central zone

consists of a mixture of base metal and the filler metal. This
is called weld metal. When filler metal is not used, the central
zone is composed of resolidified base metal.
Fusion zone
Weld Heat-affected
Interface zone(HAZ)
Unaffected
base metal
zone
(a) Different zones
Columnar grains
in fusion zone
Coarse grains in HAZ
near weld interface
Finer grains in HAZ away

from weld interface
Original cold-worked grains
(a) Typical grain structure

Figure 2.7
During the welding process, the intense heat will melt the
base metal (and filler metal) in the fusion zone. This molten
metal is later allowed to cool down to the room temperature
and solidify. The solidification process is similar to casting
and columnar grains are formed. These columnar grains grow
parallel and opposite to the direction of heat flow.
In general, the weld metal has a cast structure having
coarse grains since the cooling occurs very slowly. Due to
this, the weld metal has low strength, toughness and ductility.
These properties can be modified properly by selecting a proper
composition for filler metal or by proper heat treatments.
Heat Affected Zone

During the welding process, some portion of base metal is
heated to higher temperature (that are below the melting point)
and then slowly cooled. This region of base metal is called
heat affected zone (HAZ). Due to the heating and cooling, the
microstructural changes happen to the HAZ. But the portion
of base metal far away from the weld zone does not undergo
any such changes.
The changes in microstructure lead to changes in mechanical
MODULE 2 WELDING 83
properties. These changes depend on the temperature to which

the zone is heated and also on the rates of heating and cooling.
The mechanical properties of the HAZ also depend on how
these properties were developed prior to welding. When a
cold worked base metal is welded, the applied heat leads to
recrystallisation of the grains of elongated shape. Grains closer
to weld metal will grow into coarse and softer grains, while
those away from weld metal recrystallize into fine equiaxed
grains.
Grain size and Hardness in Welding
From the molten weld metal to the edge of the HAZ, there
will be a wide variation of temperature. Some of the material
has been melted and solidified, some are heated much above
the upper critical temperature and recrystallised, some heated
just at critical temperature, some not up to critical, and the
unaffected base metal. Therefore, the grain size of the weld
metal will be rather large, becoming gradually smaller until the
recrystallization temperature is reached. Here, the grain size
will be at a minimum and then will advance gradually larger
again until it blends with the unaffected base metal.
As the steels are hardenable, an increase in hardness
appears in the zones that are heated above the upper critical
temperature, due to the quenching effect or rapid heat transfer
to the cold base metal. The minimum hardness is found in areas
which were heated just above the lower critical temperature.
The extent of preheating of the base metal and the heat input
at the time the welding determine the location of maximum
hardness and its value.
2.2 QUALITY OF WELDED JOINTS
LO 2.4 List the different types of defects in welded joints.

Presence of defects in welded joints may reduce strength
of joint and may lead to failure of the joint causing damages.
Study about the defects is necessary to identify the reasons for
defects and to take steps to eliminate defective joints.
Basically various types of discontinuities are the defects
that affect the quality of weld joints. These may be due to
various reasons like: lack of skill of operator, improper usage
of welding equipment or poor quality materials. Following are
a few commonly observed welding defects.
Porosity: This is caused by the entrapped gases during
the solidification of weld metal. The gases may be developed
during melting of the weld area or by chemical reaction during

welding. These gases may get entrapped within the liquid metal
and upon solidification small spherical cavities may be formed.
Slag inclusion: Slag is formed by the melting of fluxes and
the purpose of slag in to protect the weld metal from atmospheric
contamination. Slag is having lower density compared to metal
and will float above the weld pool. But during the welding
process, slag may get entrapped in weld pool and may not get
enough time to float above the liquid metal.
When the weld metal solidifies faster, slag inclusions
may result. In a multi pass welding, if the solidified slag of
the previous pass is not completely removed, slag inclusions
would be there.
Figure 2.8
Incomplete fusion: When the weld joint is not properly
melted and fused together, poor quality weld beads are
obtained. Some examples are shown in figure 2.8. This can be
avoided by preheating the base metal, cleaning the weld area
before welding or by changing the joint design.
Incomplete penetration: This defect results when the

welding process is not able to create a weld bead to cover the
complete thickness of base metal. (see figure 2.9). Here the
depth of welded joint is not sufficient to cover thickness of base
metal. This defect can be avoided by increasing the heat input,
reducing the speed of welding or by changing the joint design.
Under filling: Results when the joint is not filled with
sufficient amount of weld metal as shown in figure 2.9.
MODULE 2 WELDING 85
Under cutting: Some portion of base metal may get melted

away during welding and a small groove or notch may be
formed on the surface. This is called under cutting (see figure
2.9).
Overlaps: This may be caused by poor welding practice and
is a discontinuity on the welded surface.
Underfill Porosity
Inclusions Crack Un
Lack
nderfill Porosity
Crack Undercut
Lack of penetration
Figure 2.9
Cracks: Weld cracks are classified as hot cracks and cold
cracks. Hot cracks occur in the weld and fusion zone as the
metal solidifies. The main causes are:
• Presence of elements, such as phosphorus and sulfur in
the base plate.
• As the metal solidifies, a slightly convex bead will
provide material for shrinkage, but a very convex bead
will result in high tensile stresses that may result in
longitudinal cracks.
• Joint restraint, which causes high stresses in the
weld. A deep and narrow weld under conditions of high
restraint may cause internal cracks.
• Higher hardness results from higher carbon and alloy
content of the base metal, which may result in cracking.
• Moisture in the joint or electrode coating may cause
hydrogen pickup and embrittlement of the weld deposit.
• Rapid cooling increases the effect of the last two and
increase the occurrence of cracking.
Cold cracks are usually observed in the HAZ and are caused
by:
• High carbon or alloy content as affected by cooling.
• Hydrogen embrittlement through migration of hydrogen

liberated from the weld.
• Rate of cooling, controls the above and faster cooling
will lead to more cracks.
Residual Stresses
The high temperature developed during welding may cause
complex thermal stresses and these lead to residual stresses
and distortion in the welded structure. Residual stresses are
defined as those stresses which remain in a structure when
no external load is present. Presence of residual stresses may
reduce the service life of the welded joint.
Factors leading to residual stresses
• Heat input to weldment
• Cooling rate of the weldment
• Type of joint and method of welding
• Constraints to expansion and contraction of structure
during and after welding
• Stresses present in base metal before welding
2.2.1 Heat Treatment of Welded Joints

Heat or thermal treatments given to welded joints can be
grouped as Preheating and Postheating treatments.
Preheating
Preheating of the base metal before welding is an effective
method of reducing residual stresses and cracking of base
metal. Preheating as high as 650OC is followed for ductile cast
iron and upto 315OC is used for highly hardenable steels.
Furnace heating is usually done to ensure uniform heating.
Other modes of heating are electric strip heaters and induction
heating.
The preheating retards the cooling rate after welding and
reduces magnitude of shrinkage stresses. Preheating also helps
in favorable metallurgical structure in HAZ. As the cooling rate
is reduced, pearlite and bainite formation is promoted instead
of martensite.
Postweld Heat Treatment
For stress relieving, the welded structure is subjected to
uniform heating to a suitable temperature, holding at the
temperature for a fixed period of time and the cooling at a
uniform rate. The temperture will be always below the lower
critical range, so as no microstructural changes are there.
MODULE 2 WELDING 87
In stress relieving, the principle made use of is that the

yield stress of a metal decreases as the temperature is raised.
When the metal is heated to a higher temperature, localised
plastic deformation occurs and the residual tensile stress are
reduced. At the same time, the compressive stresses are also
reduced to restore equilibrium. In practice, the temperature is
raised until the yield stress has fallen to a low value at which
residual stresses can no longer be supported.
In addition to reduction and redistribution of residual
stresses, post welding heat treatments at higher temperatures
permits some tempering, precipitation or ageing effects to
occur. These metallurgical changes can reduce the hardness
of the welded structure, improving ductility and reducing the
risks of brittle fracture.
2.2.2 Inspection of Welded Joints

LO 2.5 Explain various methods used for inspection of
welded joints.
Inspection methods for weld joints can be broadly divided
into two groups: destructive testing and non destructive testing
(NDT) methods.
Destructive Testing Methods
Destructive testing methods commonly used to check the
quality of welded joints are hardness, tensile, izod, bend and
nick break tests. These tests make the welded joints unsuitable
for end use.
Hardness Tests
Hardness testing is the best method for evaluating the weld
and HAZ, without destroying the welded joint. For low carbon
steels, Brinnel hardness number (BHN) of 110 to 150 and for
high carbon steels, BHN of 212 to 322 are acceptable ranges.
A weld is generally classified as acceptable if the hardness of
cross section is within Rc 32 (Rockwell hardness). A maximum
value of Rc 40 is generally good when the joints are loaded in
compression.
Guided Bend Tests
Specimens of standard dimensions are cut from the welded
joint and used along with jigs as per the ASTM standard test.
The specimens should bend to 180O in order to satisfy the test.
The test is used to check the quality of base metal and weld, as
well the degree of penetration and fusion of the weld.
Nick Break Test

A specimen prepared from the weld joint and slotted at
its edges using a saw as shown in figure 2.10 is used for the
test. The specimen is then positioned as shown and struck
with a heavy hammer until the specimen fractures along the
weld. A good joint should be completely fused and free of slag
inclusions along the fractured weld surface.
Figure 2.10
Non Destructive Testing (NDT) Methods
Non destructive testing includes visual examination, liquid
particle, eddy current, ultrasonic, liquid penetrant, magnetic,
radiography, acoustic emission, thermal, and optical methods.
These tests will not affect the end use of welded joint in any
manner.
Visual Inspection
An experienced welder or inspector can detect most of the
weld defects by careful examination. The following defects can
be observed: undercut, overlap, surface cracks, slag inclusions,
penetration, and the extent of reinforcement. Some of these
defects are shown in figures 2.8 and 2.9.
Liquid Penetrant Test
The liquid penetrant test method involves flooding the
MODULE 2 WELDING 89
surface with a light oil-like penetrant solution that is drawn

into the surface discontinuity by capillary action. After the
excess liquid has been removed from the surface, a thin
coating of absorbent material is applied to draw the traces
of penetrant from the defects to the surface for observation.
Brightly colored dyes of fluorescent materials are added to the
penetrant solutions to make the traces more visible.
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection is based on the principle that
ferromagnetic materials, when magnetized, will have distorted
magnetic fields in which there are material flaws and that these
can be clearly shown with the application of magnetic particles.
The magnetic field can be set up by passing an electric current
through all or a portion of the part. The current may be passed
through the part or through a conductor in close proximity
to the part. To be effective, the direction of the induced field
should be almost perpendicular to the expected flaw.
Either AC or DC power can be used to generate the magnetic
field. Magnetization is better with AC for surface discontinuities,
while DC is used to locate subsurface discontinuities or
nonmetallic inclusions. The magnetic particles can be applied
either when the current is applied, or after the current has
been shut off.
After the particles have been sprayed or sprinkled on the
surface, the excess is gently removed by blowing or sweeping,
leaving only the magnetic pattern. Magnetic particles are
available in several colors or treated with fluorescent material
for observation under ultraviolet light.
Eddy-current Testing
When electrically conductive material is subjected to an
alternating magnetic field, small circulating electric currents
are generated in the material. These eddy currents are affected
by variations in conductivity, magnetic permeability, mass,
and homogeneity of the material. Conditions that affect these
characteristics can be sensed by measuring the eddy current
response of the part.
The eddy currents induced into the part interact with
the magnetic field of the exciting coil, thereby influencing
the impedance, which is the total opposition to the flow of
current from the combined effect of resistance, inductance,
and capacitance of the coil. By measuring the impedance of
the exciting coil, eddy-current testing can detect cracks, voids,
inclusions, seams, and laps. The best results are obtained

when the current flow is at right angles to the flaw.
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection consists of sending a high-frequency
vibration (beyond 20 kHz) through a component and observing
what happens when the beam hits a discontinuity or a change
in density. The altered ultrasonic signal can be used to detect
flaws within the material.
The sending transducer transforms a voltage change into
ultrasonic vibration. The transducer is coupled to the workpiece
by a liquid medium, such as water. A receiving transducer
converts the received ultrasonic wave into a corresponding
electrical signal. The signals are sent through the part, and
the time intervals that elapse between the initial pulse and the
arrival of the various echoes are displayed on an oscilloscope
screen. A flaw is recognized by the relative position and
amplitude of the echo.
Radiography
Radiography is essentially a shadow pattern created
when certain types of radiation penetrate an object and are
differentially absorbed depending on variations of thickness,
density, or chemical composition of the material. A schematic
of a typical radiographic testing system is shown in figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11
The shadowgraph is recorded on a photographic film to
provide a permanent record. Other methods of recording the
MODULE 2 WELDING 91
image include fluoroscopy, xerography, and closed circuit

television scanning. Three types of penetrating radiation are
presently used for industrial radiography: x-rays, gamma rays,
and neutron beams. The x-rays are a form of electromagnetic
radiation similar to light, radio waves. A distinguishing feature
of x-rays is their extremely short wavelength, and it is this
characteristic that tenable x-rays to penetrate materials that
absorb or reflect ordinary light. The x-rays are generated when
electrons, traveling at high speeds, collide with matter.
Gamma rays are emitted by disintegrating nuclei of
radioactive substances. In industrial radiography, artificially
produced radioactive isotopes, such as cobalt 60, are used
almost exclusively.
Acoustic Emission Monitoring
Engineering materials undergoing stress or plastic
deformation emit sound. The acoustic emission is in the form
of short bursts or trains of fast impulses in the ultrasonic
range. These acoustic emissions can be related to the physical
integrity of the material or structure in which they are
generated. The monitoring of these events permits detection
and location of flaws as well as prediction of impending failure.
The pulse rate and amplitude of acoustic emission bursts are
usually very high compared to most natural or artificial noises,
and therefore it is possible to isolate the significant signals by
careful measurement of emission rates and amplitudes.
Thermal Testing
Temperature measurement can be used to detect defective
components or devices that are themselves active heat sources;
or components can be artificially heated, and the dynamic
temperature distribution can provide significant data about
flaws. In any event, NDT testing involves detecting atypical
temperatures rather than the absolute temperature of the part.
Contact methods of measuring, can be affected by coating the
surface to be tested with a material that reacts to temperature
changes by altering its color or appearance. For noncontact
thermal testing, infrared detection systems are most frequently
used. Infrared scanning systems produce a thermal picture
of the part by representing various temperatures as different
shades of gray or shades of significant colors.
2.3 RESISTANCE WELDING

LO 2.6 Define and explain the principle of resistance
welding.
Resistance welding is a group of fusion welding processes
that uses a combination of heat and pressure to accomplish
coalescence between workpieces in contact. The heat is being
generated by electrical resistance to current flow at the junction
to be welded. The metal at the contact surface is melted due to
the heat generated by the electrical resistance. This results in
the formation of a weld nugget at the weld junction.
Comparing with arc welding, resistance welding uses no
shielding gas, filler metal or flux and the electrodes are not
consumable. Since there is no arcing, no spatter is produced.
As the metals are melted to form the joint, the resistance
welding is grouped as a fusion welding process. The general
arrangement for resistance welding is shown in figure 2.12.
The variables which govern the resistance welding process
are the heat and pressure applied. Heat is generated by the
electrical resistance, while passing AC or DC current of 3000A
to 40000A, with a voltage of 1 to 25 Volts though the two pieces
of metal to be welded.
Force
Electrode
Weld nugget
Sheet metal parts
Electrode
Force
Figure 2.12
MODULE 2 WELDING 93
The heat energy(H) developed can be determined from the

relationship.
H=I2Rt
where I is the current in Ampere, R-electrical resistance in
Ohms and t is the time for which the current is passed in
seconds.
LO 2.7 Explain the effect of various process parameters in

resistance welding.
2.3.1 Current
Temperature developed in resistance welding is regulated
by the magnitude and duration of welding current, when other
parameters are kept constant. When the current is low, it
does not provide proper heating and fusion. If the current is
too high, entire thickness of material will be heated to fusion
temperature and the electrodes may get embedded into the
work material.
In the majority of resistance welding equipment, AC current
is being used, though DC current also can be used for this
purpose.
The resistance (spot) welding process begins with positioning
the work material (generally as lap joints) in between the
electrodes. The upper electrode is moved downwards to apply
pressure on the work material. After this, weld current is
applied for a predetermined short duration. Now the welding
takes place. The pressure applied by electrode is maintained
for some more time and then withdrawn. Now the welded joint
is ready.
2.3.2 Resistance
Resistance in the welding circuit is the sum of resistance
of the electrodes (R0) resistance of work pieces (R1), contact
resistance between electrodes and work pieces (R2), and contact
resistance between the faying surfaces of the work material
(R3).
The resistance of electrodes (R0) needs to be minimised
by using materials like copper having low resistivities.
The resistance between the faying surfaces (R3) contribute
maximum towards the total resistance. And this is the region
where the maximum heat is needed for the metal to be melted
and joined.
The resistance of work pieces (R1) depends on the type of

material and its thickness. The contact resistance between
electrode and work piece (R2) also needs to be minimised
by keeping the surface cleaned and by maintaining proper
pressure between the two.
In short, the resistance of work pieces and the contact
surfaces between them contribute highly to the heat generation.
The temperature distribution in an ideal situation is shown
in figure 2.13. Over heating of the electrodes is avoided by
circulating water or a refrigerant.
Electrode
R0
R2
R1
R3
Work
pieces
Temperature
Figure 2.13
2.3.3 Time
The welding cycle in resistance welding consists of four
segments (see figure 2.14).
Squeeze time: During this period, the electrodes apply
pressure on the work material and keeps it ready for welding.
At the end of squeeze time the welding current is applied.
Weld Time: During this period, the welding current is
flowing through the circuit with the pressure applied. Now the
work material gets heated up and at the contact surface a weld
nugget is formed as a result of localised melting.
MODULE 2 WELDING 95
Hold time: The hold time starts when electric current is

switched off. During this period, the pressure continues to be
applied, but is released at the end. The weld nugget solidifies
during this period.
Off time: It is the period from the end of hold time to the
start of squeeze time of next welding cycle. During this period,
the welded joint is removed and a set of new workpieces are
kept in between the electrodes. This is also the setup time for
the next cycle.
(5)
(5)
nugget
Weld
Current
(4)
(4)
Figure 2.14
Molten
metal
Spot welding cycle

(3)
(3)
+
(2)
(2)
Force
Electrode
(1)
(1)
Force, current
The pressure applied by electrodes serve the following

purposes. It helps maintain a firm metallic contact. It prevents
expulsion of liquid metal from between the weld material
and also helps in consolidation of liquid metal and nugget
formation.
Resistance welding process is implemented in many different
ways. The most important types are spot, seam, projection and
percussion welding.
Advantages
• Faster process
• No filler material needed
• Semi automatic operation.
• Similar and dissimilar metals can be welded.
• High reliability
• Semi skilled workers are enough
• Economical process
• Suitable for mass production
Disadvantages
• Higher cost of equipment
• Skilled person needed for maintenance
• Larger thickness cannot be welded
Applications
• Used for joining sheets, bars, rods
• Used for making tubes & furniture
• Used for welding aircraft & automobile parts
• Used for welding house hold applications
• Used for making wire fabric, grids, grills, containers,
weld metal etc.
2.3.4 Resistance Spot Welding

LO 2.8 Explain the resistance spot welding process.
The resistance welding process explained so far is called
resistance spot welding (RSW) or simply spot welding. This is
the most commonly used resistance welding process. The steps
involved in the process were illustrated earlier in figure 2.14.
A typical resistance spot welding equipment is shown in figure
2.15.
Hence, fusion of faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at
one location by opposing electrodes. This process can be used
to join two metal plates in lap joint by forming a small nugget
at the interface of the plates.
MODULE 2 WELDING 97
Upper horn
Rocker arm
Electrodes
Pneumatic cylinder to
actuate rocker arm
Lower horn
Operator
foot pedal
Figure 2.15
Low carbon steels, high speed steel, stainless steels,

aluminium, copper, nickel and their alloys can be spot welded.
Steel plates having thickness upto 12.5mm and copper plates
upto 1.5mm can be successfully welded. In general, plate
thickness upto 3.5mm is considered as suitable for spot
welding.
When a number of spot welds are made on the same pair of
sheets, there will be a chance of completing the electric circuit
through the already formed nuggets. This is called shunting
effect. To overcome this problem, magnitude of current is
increased for the second spot onwards. Another way is to
maintain proper distance between consecutive spots.
Electrodes in Spot Welding
Functions of electrodes are to transmit current and force to
the work materials. Another function is to dissipate heat from
the weld zone. The properties needed for the electrode material
are electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, strength and
hardness at high temperatures and minimum tendency to join
with the metal being welded.
The materials suitable for these requirements are mainly
copper and copper alloys with very low percentage of cadmium,
chromium, beryllium and nickel as alloying elements. Alloys of
copper with 58% tungsten are used for welding copper plates.
Typical shapes of spot welding electrodes are pointed, dome
shaped and flat ended (see figure 2.16). Pointed electrodes are
widely used. Due to wear, the area of pointed end get enlarged
and flatten uniformly. This is called mushrooming. Even after

mushrooming, the electrodes can continue to be used for
welding. Domed electrodes can withstand high pressure and
severe heating without mushrooming.
Pointed Domed Flat

Figure 2.16
HAZ in Resistance Welding
As some region of the two sheets are heated to various
temperatures during the welding process, some amount of
heat affetced zone (HAZ) is unavoidable. The material within
the HAZ undergoes microstructural changes due to the heating
and cooling cycle. Some of the effects may be beneficial to the
weld joint and some others may affect the properties of the
weld joint. The goal in good resistance welding process is to
minimise the HAZ.
LO 2.9 Explain the different types of resistance welding
process.
2.3.5 Seam Welding

The seam welding is much similar to spot welding, except
that circular rolling electrodes are used to produce continuous
seam of overlapping welds. Cooling of the electrodes and work
are achieved by directing water jets on both sides of the work
material, as shown in figure 2.17.
Welding
electrodes
Cooling
water jets
Overlapping
welds
Figure 2.17
MODULE 2 WELDING 99
Seam welding produces a number of weld nuggets on

the weld material. The motion of electrode wheels and the
application of electric current are the parameters here.
In continuous motion seam welding, the electrodes rotate
at a uniform velocity. Along with this, the current may flow
continuously to form a continuous weld seam as in figure
2.18(a). When the current is switched off and on quickly, a set
of overlapping nuggets is obtained as in 2.18(b). This process
is known as stitch welding. When the duration of switching
off the current is increased, the spacing between individual
nuggets, increases and will lead to independent nuggets at
regular intervals. This process is known as roll spot welding.
Resulting weld joint may look like as in 2.18(c). In all the above
cases, the electrode wheels rotate at a uniform speed. The
continuous motion welding is used for welding work materials
upto 4.5mm thick.
Continuous Electrode wheel
weld stream
Steel-metal
parts
Electrode wheel
(a)
Electrode wheel Overlapping
Continuous
weld stream Continuous weld nuggets
Electrode wheel Individual
weld stream Overlapping weld nuggets
weld nuggets Overlapp
weld nug
Steel-metal
parts
Steel-metal
parts Steel-metal
parts
Individual (b)
(a)
weld nuggets (c)
Individual (b)
Individual (b)
weld nuggets
weld nuggets
(c)
(c)
Figure 2.18
For thicker materials, intermittent motion welding is used.

Here the electrodes travel a distance necessary for each
successive weld and stops there. Now the current is switched
on and a weld is made. The intermittent process also can
produce weld joints similar to that of stitch welding or roll spot
welding as in figure 2.18(b) and (c).
The materials which are satisfactorily welded by seam
welding are plain carbon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels,
aluminium, nickel, magnesium and their alloys.
Main advantage is that the process can produce air tight
joints. The seam welding can be used for the fabrication of gas
and liquid tanks, transformers, refrigerators, evaporators and
condensers. Major limitation is that the welding can be done
along straight line or uniformly curved lines only.
2.3.6 Projection Welding

Projection welding uses the same equipment as spot welding.
The electrodes used in projection welding are flat on the ends
and are slightly larger than those used in spot welding. Small
projections or deformations are made on the surface of the
material to be welded. The arrangement for projection welding
is illustrated in figure 2.19.
Figure 2.19
MODULE 2 WELDING 101
Proper surface preparation is important for the success of

projection welding. The contact between the surfaces to be weld
is obtained through the small projections on the surface. The
circuit for current flow is completed through the projections.
As the current flows, a weld nugget starts forming surrounding
the projection or point of contact. These weld points soon reach
plastic state and the force applied by the electrodes finishes
the weld nugget. When the points reach the plastic state, the
metal is compressed to obtain a finished weld similar to spot
weld. There will be small indentations on the surface and this
is the only difference we can see outside.
Like spot welding, here also no protective atmosphere is
needed for the welding process. One or more projections made
on the surface of plates are the places where the contact occurs
and these are the locations where fusion takes place. Projection
welding needs lower current and pressure requirements to form
a good joint between two surfaces. Due to these, the chances
of distortion and shrinkage are lower in the areas surrounding
the weld zone.
One of the areas of application is in the fabrication of
automobile body parts. The process is also used in fabrication
of many household and industrial equipment.
2.3.7 Stud Welding

This is a specialised arc welding process for joining studs,
threaded fasteners or similar components to another part,
usually flat plates. Here, an electric arc is used to heat the
components to be welded. The stud serves as one of the
electrodes and the other component serves as another electrode
to initiate an arc. A disposable ceramic ring called ferrule is
placed around the weld area to prevent oxidation and to retain
the molten metal in the weld zone.
Stud
Ceramic ferrule
Work part
Solidified
Molten Metal weld metal
Figure 2.20
Figure 2.20 shows the steps in stud welding process.

The method is used for attaching handles to cookware, heat
radiating fins in machinery, and similar applications in
automobile, electrical and ship building industry.
2.3.8 Percussion Welding

Unlike spot and seam welding, this process is usually used
for butt joints. The two surfaces to be joined are brought into
contact and an electric current is applied for an extremely
short duration of 1-10minutes. After a short contact, one of
the work pieces is retracted slightly to draw an arc. This arc
heats the faces of both work pieces to welding temperature.
Now, welding force is applied by moving the workpiece to come
into contact again. The arc gets extinguished and the force is
retained until the joint is formed and cooled down (see figure
2.21). The percussion of one work piece against the other
immediately after arcing helps forming the weld joint. This is
why the process has the name.
+ Moving
Contact
Work Work
Figure 2.21
The heating is very localised and is suitable for electronic
applications. The process is suitable for similar and dissimilar
metals.
The process is limited to butt joints only. It is highly suitable
for welding small wires to electrical components. Welding of
copper, nickel, aluminium alloys and plain carbon steels can
be done by this process.
Example 2.1
Two steel sheets of 2mm thickness are resistance welded
in a lap joint with a current of 10000A for 0.15 second. The
effective resistance of the joint can be taken as 150 . The
joint can be considered as a cylinder of 5mm diameter and 2
mm height. Heat required for melting steel can be taken as
10J/mm3. Determine the amount of heat generated and lost
during the welding.
Solution
Current, I=10000A
Resistance, R = 150
Time of current flow, t =0.15 sec

Heat supplied = I 2Rt 100002 150 106 0.15 2250 J
52 2
Volume of the joint, V 39.25mm3
4
Heat required for melting = 39.25 10 392.5 J
Heat lost to surroundings =2250 – 392.5 =1857.5J
2.4 ARC WELDING

LO 2.10 Define the arc welding process and list the major
types of arc welding processes.
Arc welding is a group of fusion welding processes wherein
coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc with or
without the use of filler metal and mostly without application
of pressure. There are many different types of arc welding
processes in use. The appropriate one is selected based on
the base metal dimensions, type of joint, weld position, quality
of weld and many other factors. Following is the list of a few
popular types of arc welding methods.
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
• Submerged arc welding (SAW)
• Metal inert gas welding (MIG)
• Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG)
• Plasma arc welding (PAW)
• Carbon arc welding
• Atomic hydogen welding.
• Flux cored arc welding.
• Electro slag welding.
• Electro gas welding.
In the electric arc welding process, an arc is produced
between the tip of an electrode and the base metal using an
AC or DC power supply. This electric arc develops temperature
of the order of 5000OC or higher sufficient to melt any metal
and filler material. A pool of molten metal is formed near the
electrode due to melting of base metal and filler metal. This
molten metal solidifies as the arc is moved along the joint.
2.4.1 Arc Welding Equipment

LO 2.11 Explain the working of electric arc welding
equipment and its types.
The arc welding process needs a source of electric power. This
can be of alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) type.
In AC machines, transformers are used to provide the power
supply, while in DC machine, a transformer with rectifier is
used to provide the DC power as per needs of welding process.
The DC arc welding is generally preferred became it provides
better control of heat input. In DC arc welding, about 70%
of heat is liberated near the positive terminal (anode). While
using DC, the electrode can be connected to the negative
terminal (cathode) and work piece to the positive terminal.
This arrangement is called straight polarity or direct polarity or
DCSP. As already mentioned this will liberate more heat near
the anode (work piece) and is suitable for thicker work pieces.
DCSP will lead to higher penetration of heat as shown in figure
2.22.
Bead
a) DC-straight polarity (DCSP)

Bead
b) DC-reverse polarity (DCRP)

Bead
c) AC
Figure 2.22
While using thinner materials, the polarity can be
reversed and the electrode can be made positive (anode). This
arrangement is called reversed polarity or DCRP. Hence the
depth of penetration will be smaller.
When using AC for welding, the polarities keep on changing

continuously. As a result, the depth of penetration would be
somewhere between the DCSP and DCRP modes. This is true
only when other parameters like voltage, current, electrode
diameter and arc length are kept constant.
A voltage of 40-50V is needed to start an arc and for
continuous welding 20 – 30V is enough. The current rating is
in the range of 150-800A.
2.4.2 Electrodes
LO 2.12 Explain the functions of electrodes in electric arc
welding process.
In general, there are two types of electrodes used in electric
arc welding processes, consumable and non-consumable types.
Most of the arc welding processes make use of consumable
type. Among this, the electrodes can be continuous or stick
type; bare or flux coated, and of various sizes.
The function of electrode is to provide heat input in arc
welding process. When the electrode is consumable, it also
supplies filler metal to the weld pool by melting its tip. Once
the arc is initiated, the electrode is continuously consumed
and hence it should be moved continuously towards work piece
in order to maintain the arc at a constant length. Consumable
electrodes are made of materials like steel, cast iron, copper,
brass, bronze or aluminium to suit various metals to be welded.
Non-consumable electrodes made of carbon, graphite or
tungsten are also used in arc welding. The carbon and graphite
electrodes are used in DC welding only, while tungsten is
used for both AC and DC processes. Here the filler material
is provided by a separate filler rod. Hence it is easy to control
heat input and amount of filler material deposited separately.
The consumable electrodes are of two types, bare or coated.
The coated electrodes are usually of stick type or in the form
of smaller sticks. The main ingredient of electrode coating is
oxide based flux. In addition, the coating may contain some
alloying elements that help improve physical properties of
the weld metal. The stick electrodes are normally available in
diameters 2.5 to 9.5mm and length of 250 to 450mm.
Functions of flux electrode coating
1. When heated, the coatings give off gases like carbon
dioxide which acts as a shielding around the molten metal

and protects it from contamination by oxygen, hydrogen and
nitrogen from the atmosphere.
2. The oxide based fluxes upon melting mixes with oxides
and other impurities present in the molten metal and forms
a slag. Since the slag is lighter than molten metal it floats
on top of the metal puddle or weld pool and protects it from
further oxidation. The slag also helps in reducing cooling rate
of molten metal.
3. The coating also contains materials to make the slag
viscous. This would be helpful in making welds in vertical
position, to cover the weld pool for a longer period of time.
4. Some elements which support arc stabilisation are also
included in coatings.
5. Some alloying elements which will improve strength
and physical properties of weld metal also are introduced
through the coatings.
6. Spattering is reduced.
2.5 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

LO 2.13 Explain the working of shielded metal arc welding
process.
This is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is
produced by heating the work piece with an electric arc set up
between a flux coated electrode and the work piece.
This is the most extensively used arc welding process and
about 50% industrial and maintenance welding is done by
this process. The consumable electrode is in the shape of thin
sticks and hence the process is also called as stick welding.
Other names for the process are manual metal arc welding
(MMAW) and flux shielded metal arc welding.
The figure 2.23 shows the typical arrangement for SMAW
process. The work piece is kept on a metallic table or the work
piece itself is connected to one of the leads of the power source.
The other lead is connected to the electrode holder into which
the electrode is placed. The electrode is then moved towards
the work piece to initiate an arc. Immediately it is slightly
withdrawn to keep a constant length of arc. A high current
with a smaller arc length produces intense heat. The arc melts
the end of electrode and the work piece. Droplets of metal are
transferred though the arc and deposited along the joint. The
molten metal at the joint and these droplets of metal together

forms a weld pool at the joint. The flux coating also melts
and produces a gaseous shield around the weld region and a
molten slag to cover the molten weld metal.
The edges of workpiece are to be cleaned prior to welding to
remove rust, scales, grease, paint and other foreign matters.
Butt joints with single V, double V, single U and double U are
used with SMAW. Other types of joints like lap corner, tee are
also possible. Though the flat position is the best, overhead
and vertical positions also can be done by SMAW.
Consumable Electrode holder

Electrode
Electrode
cable
Direction
of Travel
Welding
Arc Machine
Slag
AC or DC
Solidified power
weld metal source
Work
Molten weld metal

Clamp
Figure 2.23
The electrode used is always much similar in composition

to the base metal. Size of electrode varies from 2.5 to 9.5mm in
diameter and 250 to 450 mm in length. The electrode coating
contains cellulose mixed with oxides and carbonates bonded
together by a silicate binder.
Typical voltages used range from 15 to 45V and currents
in the range 30 to 300A. The power parameters are selected
based on type of base metal, electrode size, and depth of weld
penetration required.
Advantages
• SMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
• Equipment is portable and low cost.
• Wider range of metals and their alloys can be welded.
• Welding in any position can be done with highest quality.
• Wide variety of electrodes available for numerous
applications.
Disadvantages
• Mechanisation is difficult due to the limited length of
electrodes.
• Stick electrodes make it slower and prone to defects.
• Chances for slag entrapment is more as compared to
TIG and MIG
• Control of welding process is not easy as in TIG or MIG
Applications
• Almost all commonly used metals and alloys can be
welded.
• Used for fabrication, maintenance and repair works.
• Used for fabrication of pressure vessels, ships, bridges,
automobiles, air crafts, pipes and penstocks.
2.6 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

LO 2.14 Explain the working of submerged arc welding
process.
In submerged arc welding (SAW) process, instead of a flux
coated electrode, a continuous bare electrode and granular
flux are used. The arc between the electrode and job is the heat
source which is submerged under a blanket of the granular
flux. The heat of arc melts the electrode and the flux near to it.
The molten flux acts as a shield for the molten metal.
Figure 2.24 shows the arrangement for SAW process.
The weld region including the end of electrode is completely
under the cover of granular flux. This cover prevents sparks,
spatter and radiation of heat as in other arc welding processes.
When the electrode is brought closer to base metal, the arc is
initiated. The heat thus generated will melt the electrode and
some portion of granular flux. The molten flux is electrically
conductive and it helps maintain the arc inside. But the solid
granular flux in the outer layer is non conductive and acts as a
protective barrier. The electrode together with the hopper and
vacuum system are moved slowly in the direction of welding at
a predetermined speed.
The weld area is completely shielded by the granular flux
from outside. This ensures slow cooling of the weld metal
and a high quality weld with good ductility and toughness is
obtained. Heat loss to atmosphere is very limited.
Granular flux
from hopper Continuous Vacuum system for
Consumable recovery of
electrode granular flux
Direction to travel
Slag (Solidified flux)

Solidified weld metal
Base metal
Molten flux Molten weld metal
Figure 2.24
The power source used may be AC or DC, with constant
current or constant voltage. Typical range of current is 300A
to 2000A with a voltage rating of 440V. When higher current is
used, depth of penetration and deposition rate increases. For
thicker plates, higher current is used.
Electrode diameter is usually in the range 1.5mm to 10mm.
Increasing the electrode diameter with the same current and
arc length, leads to reduced depth of penetration.
Advantages
• Cleaner welds are obtained due to the protecting and
refining action by the granular flux.
• Less spatter and heat loss to surrounding.
• Thicker work pieces can be welded.
• Alloying elements can be added to granular flux as metal
powders.
• Welding is done without sparks, smoke or spatter.
• Weld metal possesses good ductility, impact strength
and corrosion resistance.
• Higher heat concentration, welding speeds, and high
metal deposition rates are achieved.
Disadvantages
• Heat input is very high. Hence size of weld is larger and
heat affected zone is larger.
• Only flat and circumferential welding can be done.
• Cannot see the position of weld at the time of welding.

Close control of process is difficult
• Thin sheets cannot be welded. Cast iron, aluminium,
magnesium alloys, lead and zinc cannot be welded.
• Requires proper edge preparation and accurate fit up on
the joint.
Applications
• For welding metals like mild steel, medium and high
carbon low alloy steels.
•
Fabrication of boilers, pressure vessels, structural
shapes, railway coaches, locomotives, automobiles,
ships, nuclear power equipment etc.
2.7 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW)

LO 2.15 Explain the flux cored arc welding process.
Flux cored arc welding process uses continuous wire
electrodes, which are flux cored. The cross section of the flux
cored tubular electrode wire is shown in figure 2.25. The flux
will get melted during the welding process and will form a slag
coating over the molten weld metal. Figure 2.26 shows the
schematic diagram of the process.
Figure 2.25
Figure 2.26
Two variants of the FCAW are in use, with gas shield and
without gas shield. Carbon dioxide is used as shielding gas
which will cover the area of welding from contamination by
atmospheric air. When gas shielding is not used, the flux will
contribute sufficient gas shielding to the area of welding.
Advantages
• High deposition rates can be achieved with small
diameter welding wires. It is nearly twice as that of
SMAW of a comparable setup.
• High quality weld metal deposit and excellent appearance
due to smooth and uniform welds.
• Can be used for a wide range of metal thicknesses,
starting from the thinnest of 1.57mm.
• Can be used in any position using smaller diameter
wires.
• Alloying elements and deoxidisers can be added to the
joint by including them with flux.
Disadvantages
• Large amount of fumes generated by the flux cored
wires.
• Usage is limited to welding ferrous metals and nickel
based alloys.
• Equipment and electrode wire are expensive.
Applications
• For fabricating structures using carbon and low alloy
steels.
• Gas shielded process is preferred for field use, while
both are used in shop fabrication work.
• Used in the construction of pressure vessels and
piping for chemical processing, petroleum and power
generation industries.
• Also used by automotive and heavy equipment industries
for the fabrication of axle housings, wheel rims, frames
and other parts.
2.8 ELECTRO SLAG WELDING
LO 2.16 Explain the electro slag welding process.

This is a modified version of submerged arc welding for
joining thick materials in vertical position. As in the submerged
arc welding, granular flux and a consumable wire electrode
are used here. Actually, this cannot be considered as an arc

welding process. The heat necessary to melt the filler material
and base metal are obtained from the electrical resistivity of
the molten flux.
A schematic diagram of the process is given in figure 2.27.
The granular flux is placed in the gap between the plates to
be welded before switching on the electric current. The gap
between the two vertical thick plates to be welded is covered
by two water cooled copper shoes (dams) on both sides. The
process is initiated by starting an electric arc between the
electrode and a starting block, tack welded to the bottom
of joint. As the flux melts, a blanket of slag of around 3cm
thickness forms. Now the arc goes out and the electric current
passes directly from the electrode wire through the slag. The
high resistance of the slag causes further heating of slag and
contributes the heat to continue the welding process.
Figure 2.27
The copper shoes are used on both sides of the weld region,
to retain the molten metal and slag in position. A temperature
sensitive mechanism is used to move the copper plates upward
as the welding progresses. The process is usually used to weld
plates of thickness ranging from 3.81 cm to 38.1 cm.
Advantages
• The process is automatic, and will continue until the job
is completed or runs out of wire.
• Joint preparation is not needed, except cleaning and
descaling.
• Metal deposition rates are high, upto 20kg per hour.
• Can weld very thick metal plates in a sigle pass.
• Consumption of flux is very low.
• No weld spatter and minimum distortion.
• Fastest process for large size and thick metal plates
Disadvantages
• Suitable only for thicker plates.
• Not suitable for materials thinner than 19mm.
• Can weld only carbon and low alloy steels, and some
stainless steels.
• Can weld in vertical or near to vertical positions only.
Applications
• Can be used to weld hot rolled carbon steels, high
strength low alloy steels and harderned low alloy steels.
• Can be used for structural fabrication of heavy
components of steel.
• Can be used in ship building industry for in-shop and
on-ship applications.
• Can be used to join cast components without affecting
metallurgical characteristics.
2.9 ELECTRO GAS WELDING
LO 2.17 Explain the electro gas welding process.

Electrogas welding operates on the same general principle
as electroslag welding, with the addition of some of the
principles of submerged arc welding. The major difference
between electroslag welding and electrogas welding is that
an inert gas, such as carbon dioxide, is used to shield the
weld from oxidation, and there is a continuous arc, such as in
submerged arc welding, to heat the weld pool.
The joints and the use of flux to cleanse the weld are the
same as in the electroslag process. The shoes that are used to
form the weld, as in the electroslag process, are also used in
the electrogas process to control the weld zone through water
cooling. The flux is either provided to the weld zone through
a hopper mechanism, or is incorporated within the electrode
itself in the form of a cored wire (Figure 2.28). The process
is used on thinner materials than those associated with
electroslag welding.
Figure 2.28
This is generally considerd as a machine welding process, as
the process uses automatic feeding of electrode wire, upward
movement of shoes, supply of shielding gas to the arc region
and cooling water supply to the shoes.
Applications
• Can be used for the fabrication of storage tanks, ship
hulls, structural members and pressure vessels.
• Suitable for welding in vertical position for various
materials of thickness 10 to 100mm.
2.10 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)
LO 2.18 Explain the gas tungesten arc welding process.

This is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is
produced by heating the job with an electric arc struck between
a tungsten electrode and the work piece. No flux is used here,
but the welding is done under the shielding of gases like argon,
helium, nitrogen etc.
The process is also known as tungsten inert gas welding
(TIG). As the electrode is non consumable one, filler material is
provided separately as bare wires. While welding thin sheets,
filler materials may not be required. The base metal melts
and forms the joint autogenously. Filler rods are used when
welding thicker plates with edge preparation.
Shielding Gas
Tungsten Electrode
Gas nozzle
Direction of Travel
Shielding Gas
Electrode tip
Solidified
weld metal
Base metal
Molten weld metal

Figure 2.29
A typical set up for GTAW is shown in figure 2.29. The
tungsten electrode is positioned at the centre of the welding
torch. The shielding gas is supplied to the welding zone through
the gas nozzle surrounding the electrode. During the welding
process, the electrode may get heated up. Usually the welding
torches are provided with arrangement for water circulation
for cooling.
Working
Welding current, gas and water supply are turned on. The
arc is struck by touching the electrode with a scrap tungsten
piece and then broken by increasing arc length. This procedure
is repeated twice for warming up the electrode. Finally an arc
is struck between electrode and the work piece. Once the arc
impinges on job, it is melted and a weld pool is developed.

The torch is now moved as in the gas welding to continue the
welding. At the end of welding, arc is broken by increasing the
arc length.
Both AC and DC machines are in use. DC with straight
polarity is preferred for welding of stainless steel, nickel, copper
and copper alloys. AC or DCRP is used for welding magnesium,
aluminium and their alloys.
Electrodes of tungsten are coated with thorium or zirconium
to increase current carrying capacity of electrodes. Uncoated
electrodes are suitable for currents upto 150A while coated
electrodes can be used for currents of 220-250A.
Shielding gases used are argon, helium and their mixtures,
argon-oxygen mixture, and argon-hydrogen mixture. The
GTAW process is being used to weld carbon and alloy steels,
stainless steels, heat resisting alloys, refractory alloys, alloys
of aluminium, copper, nickel etc.
All types of joints like butt, lap, cornor, edge and tee can
be made with GTAW process. Single V joints are used for
thickness upto 10mm. Double V is used for base metals thicker
than this.
Advantages
• A clean weld is obtained, without any slag coating or flux
entrapment.
• Contamination by oxygen and nitrogen is low.
• Since the arc and job are clearly visible, operator can
exercise better control on the process.
• Can be used to weld in all positions.
• Suitable for high quality welding of thin materials.
• The weld joints are stronger, more ductile and corrosion
resistant than made by SMAW.
• Thin plates of 2-3mm thickness can be welded
autogenously (without filler material).
• Heat affected zone is smaller.
Disadvantages
• Slow process as compared to gas metal arc welding where
continuous consumable electrode is used.
• If tungsten inclusion happens it is hard and brittle.
• Equipment cost is higher than SMAW.
• Limited depth of penetration.

• Not suitable for thicker plates.
Applications
• Can be used to weld sheet metal and thinner sections.
• Can be used to weld aluminium, magnesium, copper,
nickel and their alloys, carbon alloy and stainless steels,
zirconium, titanium, inconel etc.
• Precision and high quality welds for atomic energy,
aerospace and chemical industries.
2.11 GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)
LO 2.19 Explain the gas metal arc welding process.

This process is much similar to GTAW except that the
electrode is consumable and is fed from a continuous reel or
spool. In addition to argon and helium, carbon dioxide also is
used as shielding gas. The limitations of GTAW are overcome
by this process. As a consumable electrode is used, the process
is faster and hence productivity is high. The process is also
called as metal inert gas welding or MIG welding. The typical
arrangement for GMAW is shown in figure 2.30.
Feed from spool
Shielding Gas
Electrode wire
Direction of travel
Nozzle
Shielding Gas
Molten weld metal

Base metal
Figure 2.30
Before igniting the arc, gas and water flow are switched on.
Then the current is switched on and electrode is scratched
against the job to strike the arc. The electrode tip projects out
of the torch by 10-12mm and the arc length is kept at 1.5 to
4mm. The arc length is maintained constant during welding.
The torch is moved in a steady manner usually following
forehand welding technique. Once completed, the arc is broken
by increasing the arc length.
The power source can be AC or DC, but AC is generally not
recommended. DCSP produces weld with shallow penetration
and is suitable for thinner sections. DCRP is preferred for
welding aluminium and magnesium as it gives better cleaning
action and deeper penetration.
A wire feed mechanism delivers electrode to welding torch
at a definite speed. Electrode wires are available in various
diameters like 0.8, 1.2, 1.6mm etc. Electrodes used are having
similar composition as that of work pieces being welded.
Table 2.1 Popularly used shielding gases
Shielding gas Metals welded
Argon Aluminium, Magnesium,
Copper, Nickel, Titanium
Helium Aluminium, Magnesium, Copper
Carbon dioxide Mild steel
Nitrogen Copper
Argon + Oxygen Aluminium, low alloy steel,
stainless steels
Argon+CO2 Mild steel, low alloy steel,
stainless steel
Argon+Helium+CO2 Stainless steels
Argon+Helium Aluminium, Copper, Nickel &
their alloys
The MIG welding can be used with all the types of joints like
butt, lap, tee, cornor and edge joints.
Advantages
• GMAW is faster as compared to GTAW or SMAW, since
a continuous electrode is used.
• Can produce joints with deep penetration.
• Both thin and thick plates can be welded effectively.
• Large deposition rates achieved.
• Process can be easily mechanised.
• Smooth, clean and spatter free welded surfaces obtained
since no flux is used.
Disadvantages
• Process is complex as compared to GTAW or SMAW,
since a number of variables are to be controlled.
• Equipment is more complex, costly and not easily
portable.
• Outdoor welding is not easy.
• Weld metal cooling rates are high.
Applications
• Can be used for welding a wide variety of metals and
alloys like:
• Plain carbon steels
• Low alloy steels
• Stainless steels
• Aluminium, Magnesium, Copper, Nickel and their
alloys
• Titanium
• Tool steels
• Can be used for manufacture of
• Dies
• Refrigerator parts
• Automobiles
• Aircrafts
• Pressure vessels
• Ship building
2.12 PLASMA ARC WELDING
LO 2.20 Explain the plasma arc welding process.

Plasma is the state of matter present in between electrodes
in any electric arc. It is obtained when the gas is partially
ionised to make it a conductor of electric current.
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process wherein
the coalescence is obtained by the heat from a constricted arc
between a tungsten electrode and the job. Inert gas is used
for the formation of plasma and also as shielding gas. Filler
material may or may not be used. But pressure is not employed.
The PAW is having similarities with the GTAW process.

Both processes use non consumable tungsten electrode, and
shielding gas is used to protect the weld metal. Major difference
is in the construction of welding torch. The torch has a water
cooled small diameter nozzle which constricts the arc coming
out of it.
The details of a typical arrangement for PAW process is
shown in figure 2.31. The nozzle has separate passages for
gases for producing plasma and for shielding gas. Surrounding
the electrode, there is provision for supply of argon gas at low
pressure. This gas will be moving out of the nozzle through the
small constricted opening. There is an outer shielding ring for
the inner nozzle. Though the outer ring, the same or different
gas is fed at higher pressure. This gas comes out through the
outer nozzle and acts as shielding gas to protect the weld metal
from contaminations.
Tungsten electrode
Plasma gas
Shielding gas
Direction of travel
Shielding gas
Plasma stream
Molten weld metal

Base metal
Figure 2.31
To initiate the arc in PAW, a low current pilot arc is struck
between the tungsten electrode and the nozzle around it. This
arc ionises the gas flowing through the inner nozzle and forms
plasma. This plasma gas moving out through the constricted
nozzle reaches a very high temperature and helps initiate a
welding arc between the electrode and workpiece.
DCSP is normally used for PAW process with currents of 50
to 350A at low voltage of 27 to 30V. Typical gas flow rates are
2 to 40 litres per minute, with lower rates for orifice gas and
higher rates for shielding gas.
Argon is the commonly used as orifice and shielding gas.

Same or different gases are used as orifice gas and shielding gas.
In addition to argon, helium, argon+hydrogen, argon+helium
are also used in this process.
Base metals welded by PAW are carbon and alloy steels,
stainless steels, copper alloys, titanium alloys, aluminium
alloys, nickel and cobalt alloys.
Depending on plate thickness, butt joints are prepared as
square groove, single or double U and V. In addition, fillet, tee
and edge welds are also made as per needs.
Advantages
• Improved input heat distribution in the job as compared
to GTAW.
• Greater control over penetration by controlling arc
current and orifice gas flow.
• Better stability of arc.
• Excellent weld quality even at high speeds.
• Can weld steel plates upto 12mm thickness as square
butt joints in single run without filler material.
Disadvantages
• Infrared and ultraviolet radiations.
• Unpleasant, disturbing and damaging noise.
• Electrical hazards.
• Limited to 25mm thickness for butt welds.
• Equipment is complicated and costly.
• Gas consumption is high.
Applications
• Circumferential pipe welding.
• Cryogenic, aerospace and high temperature corrosion
resistant alloys.
• Welding rocket motor cases made of steel.
• Welding of stainless steel tubes and titanium plates
upto 8mm thick.
• Nickel and nickel alloys.
• Welding of high melting point metals.
2.13 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING
LO 2.21 Explain the electron beam welding process.

The electron beam is characterised by its intense localised
heating. Electron beam welding (EBW) utilises the kinetic
energy of electrons travelling at high velocity in vacuum, to
heat up the metal pieces to be joined. When the electrons strike
the surface of metal, they give up the bulk of their energy as
heat, and this energy is used to melt the metal. Thus, electron
beam welding needs free electrons suitably concentrated and
accelerated to an energy sufficient to produce welding heat as
they come to a sudden stop on hitting the metal.
The EBW is a fusion joining process that produces joint
of materials using the heat obtained by impinging a beam
composed primarily of high energy electrons onto the joint to
be welded.
Figure 2.32
Free electrons are supplied by a thermionic cathode, when
heated to a certain temperature such a cathode to act as an
electron emitter. The free electrons are then accelerated by
an electric field in which a considerable potential difference
is maintained between cathode and anode. The electrons are

concentrated, or focused, into a beam by magnetic fields. The
electron beam is suddenly stopped as it strikes the metal.
The electron beam is generated from a heated filament
called cathode, shaped and concentrated to the welding point.
Placed at some distance from the cathode is an accelerating
anode, with an opening. The cathode focuses the electrons
into a narrow beam with a diameter equal to that of the
opening in the anode. The positive potential at the accelerating
anode will accelerate the electrons emitted by the cathode to
a considerable velocity and energy on their way towards the
anode.
The electron beam then travels through the positioning
diaphragm and focusing lens, causing the electrons to
converge as a focused beam of greatly accelerated electrons.
The fast moving electrons strike a bounded area on the work,
and their kinetic energy is converted to heat which rapidly
heats the metal to a very high temperature. The greater the
kinetic energy, the greater the amount of heat released. Speed
of electrons can be controlled by the voltage applied, thus
controlling the amount of energy released.
Electron beam welding units operate on either 220 or 440
volts, 3-phase, 60Hz alternating current. The intensity of
electron beam also depends on the diameter of the beam and
current applied. This welding process can be applied to every
area where TIG welding is used. The usage is limited to edge,
butt, fillet and spot welds.
Advantages
• The weld zone and heat affected zone are relatively small
in electron beam welding.
• Distortion affects only a small area, about 0.0025mm
on each side of the weld bead.
• Electron beam welding is extremely successful in
achieving deep penetration with little distortion.
• The depth to width ratio can go as high as 25:1 with
electron beam welding.
• Input power is small when it is compared to the power
requirements of other electrical welding devices.
• Eliminates contamination of both the weld zone and the
weld bead because of the vacuum in which the weld is
done and because of the electrons doing the heating.

• The process is extremely efficient because it directly
converts electrical energy into beam output energy.
• Dissimilar metals and metals with high thermal
conductivity like copper can be welded.
Limitations
• Equipment is extremely expensive, and portable
equipment is rare.
• Some metals, such as zinc, lead, aluminum, and
magnesium, cannot be welded easily by this method.
• The usage is limited to edge, butt, fillet and spot welds.
• Radiation shielding is a must to ensure safety of welder
from the x-ray radiation generated.
• Precision machining, exact joint alignment and good fit
are needed for welds with high depth to width ratio.
Applications
• Electron beam machining finds application in high
precision and high production needs.
• Nuclear, aircraft, aerospace and electronic industries
use EBW to produce welded joints free from oxygen and
nitrogen contaminations.
• Products like nuclear fuel elements, jet engine
components, pressure vessels for rockets are some high
precision applications.
• Production of gears, frames, steering columns, thin
walled tubing, band saw and hack saw blades make use
of the high production rate and reliability of the process.
2.14 LASER BEAM WELDING

LO 2.22 Explain the laser beam welding process.
Laser Beam Welding (LBW) utilize the energy from the
coherent light beams called LASER (Light Amplification
by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). The basic principle
utilized in LBW is that, under proper conditions, light energy
of a particular frequency is used to stimulate the electrons
in an atom to emit additional light, with exactly the same
characteristics of the original light source.
The LBW is a fusion joining process that produces joint of

materials using the heat obtained by impinging a concentrated
beam of laser onto the joint to be welded.
The first laser was invented in 1960. Following this, a

number of lasers were invented. Uranium laser by IBM labs,
helium neon laser by Bell Laboratories, semiconductor laser by
Robert Hall, Nd:YAG (Neodymium doped Yttrium Aluminium
Garnet) laser and CO2 laser by Bell Laboratories, and a number
of others.
One of the important properties of laser is the coherency,

with a diverging angle of less than 1 to 2 milli radians. This
low divergence helps in achieving high intensity of energy. In
addition, if a focusing lens is used, then it is possible to get
energy enough for melting the workpiece material.
The Nd:YAG system is a solid state laser. The neodymium

atoms are responsible for the laser action and are held in
suspension in a low percentage mixture within the YAG
synthetic crystal. This type of laser develops about 40W of
laser energy per cubic centimeter of crystal volume, with an
efficiency between 2 to 4%.
CO2 gas lasers use a mixture of CO2, helium and nitrogen

gases in a laser tube to create laser beam. The laser action is
created by the CO2 molecule. The helium is utilised to cool the
gas mixture by transferring the energy to water cooled walls of
the flow system. The nitrogen acts as a catalyst to enhance the
CO2 laser action.
The laser welding system is composed of an electrical

storage unit, a capacitor bank, a triggering device, a flash
tube wrapped with a wire, the lasing material, a focusing lens
mechanism and a 3-axis worktable. The capacitor bank when
triggered, injects energy into the wire that surrounds the flash
tube. This wire establishes an imbalance in the material inside
the flash tube. Thick xenon is often used as the material for the
flash tube, producing high power levels for a very short period
of time. The flash tubes or lamps are designed for operation at
a rate of thousands of flashes per second. By operating in this
manner, the lamp becomes an efficient device for converting
electrical energy into light energy, the process of pumping the
laser. The laser is then activated. The beam is emitted through

the coated end of the lasing material. It goes through a focusing
device where it is pin pointed on the workpiece. Fusion takes
place and the weld is accomplished (Figure 2.33).
Figure 2.33
Advantages
• As many lasers pulse appproximately 10 times per second,
the workpiece does not even get hot except at one point
and the heat affected zone is narrow.
• In laser welds on stainless steel, the heat affected zone is
virtually non existent.
• The laser has sufficient temperatures to easily melt and
weld refractory metals like molybdenum, tantalum and
titanium even in small areas.
• Laser beams can penetrate a quartz tube to weld the metal
inside it without harming the tube.
• The intense heat produced by the process affects only a

small area.
• The process can be used to weld dissimilar metals with
entirely different physical properties also.
• High degree of precision is obtained even in welding very
small components.
• As the heat affected zone is smaller, thermal distrotion and
shrinkage are minimum
• No vacuum or x-ray shielding is required.
Limitations
• The major drawback of laser beam welds is the slow welding
speeds, resulting from the pulse rate and puddle sizes at
the fusion point.
• Cost of laser welding is extremely high.
• Energy losses with any laser system are high.
• Accurate positioning of joints under the beam is important
to ensure good results.
• Maximum joint thickness is limited to 20mm.
Applications
• Laser beam welding is used for welding refractory metals
as well for dissimilar metals.
• Laser welded joints are used for structural, assembly,
scaling and similar purposes.
• It is used for an extensive variety of applications like
production of automotive transmissions, air conditioners,
relays and relay containers.
• Other applications include sealing of electronic devices like
pacemakers.
• Continuous welding of aluminium tubing for thermal
windows and refrigerator doors is another area.
• A popular application is in welding of razor blades.
Automated equipment can produce welds of 0.5mm
diameter at a rate of 3 million welds per hour.
2.15 THERMIT WELDING
LO 2.23 Explain thermit welding process.

Thermit welding produces joint of metals by heating them
with superheated molten metal from an exothermic reaction
between a metal oxide and aluminium. Filler material is
obtained from the liquid metal formed by the reaction.
Commonly used materials for welding steel and cast iron
are fine particles of iron oxide (Fe3O4) and aluminium. When
the mixture is brought to its ignition temperature of 1200OC,
the thermit reaction starts. The exothermic reaction generates
a temperature around 3000OC in less than a minute. The large
amount of heat generated melts the ingredients of the thermit
mixture into a very fluid state. As aluminium has greater
affinity towards oxygen, it reduces the iron oxide to liberate
iron and oxygen. Due to the difference in densities, aluminium
oxide will float above the molten steel.
Figure 2.34
For welding different materials, other types of thermit

mixtures are used. Oxides of copper and aluminium are used
for thermit welding copper cables.
Thermit welding is basically a casting process, the molten

metal obtained from the thermit reaction is poured into a mould
prepared around the joint as shown in figure 2.34. A crucible
is used for burning the thermit mixture and the molten steel
produced by the reaction is collected in the crucible. Once
the reaction is completed, the bottom plug in the crucible is
opened and the liquid metal flows by gravity into the refractory
mould constructed around the joint. Once the joint solidifies,
the mould is removed and the joint is cleaned.
Applications
• Common application is in the welding of rail sections into
continuous lengths.
• Repair of broken machine beds of large sections,

reinforement bars in concrete beams and joining of heavy
copper cables are other typical applications.
2.16 FRICTION WELDING
LO 2.24 Explain the friction welding process.

In all the welding processes explained earlier, external
sources supplied the energy required for heating the joint. But
in friction welding the heat is generated through friction at the
interface of the workpieces being welded.
Friction welding is another solid state welding process
wherein coalescence is produced by the heat generated
from mechanically induced sliding motion between rubbing
surfaces, while the parts are held together under pressure.
The welding equipment is much similar to a lathe. The
two components to be welded are held in axial alignment.
One component is held in the chuck coupled to the rotating
spindle of machine, and rotated at a specified speed. The other
component is held in a non-rotating chuck which can be moved
axially towards the rotating component.
The non rotating workpiece is moved forward and pressed
against the rotating work piece. Rotation and pressure are
maintained until the parts are heated up and deformed
plastically at the contact surface. Now, a brake is applied
to stop rotation and the axial pressure is applied from both
sides to weld the two pieces together. This produces a slight
upsetting at the weld region. Figure 2.35 illustrates the steps.
Here, no melting occurs at the contact surfaces. The weld

joint is obtained without using any filler material, flux or
shielding gas.
Rotating Nonrotational
chuck chuck
Movable
axially
Rotation Axial force

stopped while applied
force is applied
Weld forming
Figure 2.35
Friction welding can be done with only one type of joint
and it is the butt joint. Moreover, one of the parts to be welded
must be round in shape and be rotating.
Inertia welding or inertia friction welding is a modified form
of friction welding. A flywheel supplies the energy required for
the frictional heating in this process.
One of the workpieces is attached to the flywheel which is
rotating at a specified speed. The other work piece is brought
into contact with the rotating one and an axial force is applied.
As the axial force is gradually increased, heat is generated and
the weld is formed. The weld is completed when the flywheel
comes to a stop (see figure 2.36).
Linear friction welding makes use a frictional heat generated
from the work piece subjected to a linear reciprocating motion.
Here, one part is moved across the face of the other using a
balanced reciprocating mechanism. Unlike the conventional
friction welding, the parts to be joined need not be of circular
or tubular in cross section. This process can join round, square
or rectangular cross sections of metals or plastics.
Fly wheel
Building up
kinetic energy
Welding begins
speed drops
Welding
Completed
Figure 2.36
Advantages
• Simplicity in operation.
• Lower power requirements.
• Good quality welds at lower cost.
• Narrow heat affected zone.
• No imperfection in welds
• No flux, gases, filler materials or slag.
• No smoke, spatter or fumes.
Disadvantages
• Use is restricted to butt welds.
• Applicable to small pieces of bar stock.
• Heavy flash is formed.
• Difficult to remove flash from high carbon steel and
other hard materials.
Applications
• Can weld steels, super alloys, non ferrous metals,
combination of metals.
• Can replace brazing, arc welding and resistance butt
welding.
• Used in the production of steering shafts, axle shafts,
engine valves, worm gears etc.
• Production of drills, taps, reamers etc.

• Dissimilar metal welding, bimetal fasteners, aluminium
steel transition joints etc.
Example 2.2
In an arc welding process, voltage is 25V and current is
300A. If the cross sectional area of the steel plate to be welded
is 25 mm2, determine the electrode travel speed. The heat
transfer efficiency can be taken as 85% and melting efficiency
is 35%. Heat required to melt steel is 10 J/mm3.
Solution
Given data
Voltage, V = 20V
Current, I= 300A
Heat transfer efficiency η = 0.85
Cross sectional area of steel plate, a=25mm2
Melting efficiency = 0.35
Heat required to melt steel = 10J/mm3
Net heat supplied = V I 20 300 0.85
5100W
Let v be the travel speed

Heat required for melting/sec
= Volume of metal melted/sec × heat required to melt steel
= Cross sectional area × travel speed × heat required to melt
steel
= 25 v 10 250 v
Heat required for melting
Melting efficiency =
Net heat supplied
250 v
0.35
5100
Example 2.3
The arc length characteristic of a DC welding arc is given
by V=24+1.5L, where L is the arc length and V is voltage.
Determine the heat input to a low carbon steel plate for the
following data.
Open circuit voltage of power source, Voc=65V

Short circuit current, Isc = 140A
Arc length, L=5mm
Efficiency of heat input, η =86%
Solution
Volt – amp characteristics of power source is given by
V I
1
Voc I sc
V 24 1.5L 24 1.5 5 31.5V
31.5 I
1
65 140
31.5
I 140 1 72.15 A
65
Power consumed=V I 31.5 72.15 2272.7W

Heat input to workpiece
= 2272.7 0.86 2272.7 1954.5W
Example 2.4
Determine the melting efficiency in the case of arc welding
of steel with a potential of 25V and current 220A. The travel
speed is 6mm/sec and cross sectional area of the joint is
20mm2. Heat required to melt steel may be taken as 12 J/mm3
and the heat transfer efficiency as 0.86.
Solution
Voltage V=25V
Current I = 200A
Total heat supplied 0.86 V I 0.86 25 220 4730W
Volume of base metal melted per second
= travel speed × cross sectional area
6 20 120mm3 /sec
Heat required for melting
120mm3 / sec 12J/mm3 1440 J/sec
1440
=
Melting efficiency = 0.3044
4730
2.17 OXYACETELENE GAS WELDING
LO 2.25 Explain the oxyacetelene gas welding process.

This is a fusion welding process where the heat is derived
from the combination of a fuel gas and oxygen mixture. The
edges of joint are completely melted by the heat and are fused
together to obtain a joint. Suitable filler metal is also added.
The fuel gases used along with oxygen are acetylene,
propane, hydrogen and natural gas. Among these acetylene
is the most popular and the process is called oxy-acetylene
welding. The maximum temperature developed by the oxy-
acetylene flame is 3200OC and this is sufficient to melt most
of the metals and alloys used commercially. The gas welding
process does not require any external force to be applied for
the welded joint to be formed.
2.17.1 Flame Characteristics
In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most important tool.
Certain amount of oxygen is required for the combustion to
take place. When the supply of oxygen varies, appearance and
characteristics of flame also varies. Based on the ratio of oxygen
and acetylene in the gas mixture, flames can be classified into
three types.
Neutral flame
For complete combustion, approximately equal quantity
of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and
burnt at the torch tip. This flame is called neutral flame and it
produces a maximum temperature upto 3200OC. The neutral
flame has a small light blue inner cone near to the torch tip
and an outer envelope of darker blue colour surrounding the
inner cone, as in figure 2.37. In a neutral flame the acetylene
is completely burnt and this is the most desirable flame in oxy
acetylene welding.
Inner cone
(light blue)
Torch tip
Outer blue flame
Figure 2.37
The neutral flame is preferred for the welding of mild steel,

stainless steel, cast iron, copper and aluminium. The neutral
flame, as the name says is neutral to the molten metal. It will
not oxidise or carburise the metal.
Oxidising flame
When oxygen is supplied in excess of acetylene, the flame
is called oxidising flame. The appearance is similar to neutral
flame with a smaller inner core of dark blue color, more pointed
than neutral flame. The outer flame envelope is much shorter
and not sharper like neutral flame. But it is much hotter and
the temperature is upto 3300OC (see figure 2.38)
Inner cone
(dark blue) Outer blue flame
Figure 2.38
The excess amount of oxygen causes oxidization of weld
metal. Hence oxidizing flame has limited use in welding. It is
not used to weld steels. But a flame having slightly oxidizing
nature is used to weld copper base metals, zinc base metals,
manganese steels and cast iron. The presence of excess oxygen
causes formation of an oxide film which acts as a protective
cover over the weld metal in welding of zinc and copper based
alloys.
Carburising flame
On the other side, volume of oxygen can be reduced and the
mixture will become rich in acetylene. The resulting flame
will be carburising or reducing nature. The flame is similar to
neutral flame with an additional intermediate reddish flame
feather in between the inner cone and outer flame envelope.
The smaller inner cone is white in colour and the outer envelope
is larger and blue in colour. The size of reddish feather is an
indication of the excess acetylene present.
Inner white cone

Intermediate Outer blue flame
flame feather
Figure 2.39
The carburising flame is not suggested for general use. As

the acetylene is not completely burnt, the temperature of the
flame is slightly lesser than the other flames and the maximum
is around 3000OC. This flame ensures the absence of oxidizing
condition. It is suitable for welding high carbon steel, cast iron
and copper alloys.
In general, neutral flame is usually used in gas welding.
For specific requirements of certain materials, oxidising or
carburising flames are sometimes used.
2.17.2 Welding Equipment
The basic equipment for gas welding is shown in figure
2.40. The main parts are the following.
Regulator
Oxygen
control valve Torch
Regulator
Acetylene
control valve
Acetylene
hose
Acetylene Oxygen
cylinder cylinder
Figure 2.40
Oxygen gas cylinder: Solid cylinder made of mild steel
or alloy steel, painted in black. The cylinder needs to be kept
upright always. It is provided with a pressure regulator and
appropriate safety measures. Oxygen is stored at high pressure
inside the cylinder. The pressure regulator helps in supplying
oxygen at regulated pressure for the welding purpose.
Acetylene gas cylinder: This is also a solid steel cylinder,
but painted in maroon colour. Due to safety reasons, it is to
be kept upright always. In addition, there are several safety
measures provided in the cylinder. The gas is kept at higher
pressure inside the cylinder. A pressure regulator attached to
the cylinder is used to reduce the pressure and regulate supply
of acetylene gas for welding.
Connecting hoses: Blue colored hoses are used for oxygen
gas and red hose is used for acetylene gas supply to the gas
torch. The hoses used here should be strong, non porous

and flexible. Usually rubber hoses reinforced with canvas are
preferred for this purpose.
Welding torch: From the pressure regulators on the
cylinders, the gases are carried to the welding torch though the
hoses. The pressure regulators supply the gases at reduced
pressures and the welding torch mixes and controls the flow
of gases to the welding nozzle. As the gas mixture comes out
of the torch tip it is ignited to produce a flame for the welding
process. A high pressure welding torch used for this purpose is
shown in figure 2.41. The welding torch is also called as blow-
pipe. Both oxygen and acetylene are fed to the torch at equal
pressures and are mixed prior to being fed to the nozzle tip.
The welding nozzle enables the welder to guide the flame and
direct it towards the welding spot easily.
Acetylene
control needle valve
Acetylene Mixer Nozzle
Oxygen
Oxygen Oxy-Acetylene Mixture
control needle valve
Figure 2.41
2.17.3 Gas Welding Technique
Using gas welding, joints like butt, lap, edge, tee and corner
joints can be made. Both fillet and groove welds can be used
depending on work piece and strength requirements. The
edges of work piece needs to be made free from rust, grease or
oil prior to welding.
There are two techniques of welding followed in gas welding,
namely, forehand welding and backhand welding. The
difference between these two depends on the ways in which
the welding torch and filler rod are positioned during welding.
Forehand or Leftward technique
Here the welder holds welding torch in his right hand and
filler rod in the left hand. This method is also called as leftward
technique. Welding begins at the right hand end of the joint
and proceeds towards the left hand side.
As indicated by figure 2.42, the welding flame is directed
away from the finished weld. It is directed towards the
unwelded part of the weld. This helps in preheating the edges
to be welded. This technique is usually used for metals having

thickness less than 5mm. For thicker work pieces, V joints are
used, but for thicker materials, weld quality may be poor.
60O to 70O
30O to 40O
Figure 2.42
Backhand or Rightward technique
Here also the welding torch is held in the right hand and
filler rod in the left hand. But welding starts at the left hand
end of the joint and proceeds towards the right. The direction of
welding is opposite to that when employing leftward technique.
The flame is directed towards the completed weld and the filler
rod is in between the torch and the welded region, as in figure
2.43.
O O
40 to 50
40O to 50O
Figure 2.43
2.17.4 Filler Metal
Additional material is usually added to the weld pool to
help filling the weld joint. This material is called filler metal.
The filler metal melts due to the heat of welding and forms an
integral part of weld joint. Filler metals are made of the same
metal or compatible metals as that of base metal.
It is generally available in the form of small rods which are
called filler rods. The filler rods are available in various sizes
ranging from 1.5mm to 6.3mm diameter, and are selected
depending on the thickness of base metal.
2.17.5 Fluxes
When metals are heated or melted in air, atmospheric
oxygen combines with metal to form oxides. Formation of
oxides result in poor quality welds and it needs to be prevented.
Flux is the material used to prevent and retard oxidation of

metal surfaces. The flux is a fusible material and it generates
a gaseous shield around the weld zone and hence reduces the
chances of oxidation. If some oxides are formed, the flux reacts
with the oxides and a slag is formed which floats above the
molten metal pool and protects it from further oxidation.
Flux is available in powder, paste or liquid form. It can
be applied directly on to the surface of the base metal or the
heated end of filler is dipped into the flux.
No fluxes are used while welding steel. But for stainless
steel, cast iron, aluminium, copper and their alloys suitable
fluxes are used. Some of the commonly used ingredients of
fluxes are borax, boric acid, lime, magnesium silicate, sodium
chloride, potassium fluoride etc.
Advantages
• Can be applied to a wide variety of manufacturing and
maintenance cases.
• The welder can control temperature of metal at weld
zone. Hence the flame can be properly co-ordinated with
speed of welding.
• The equipment is low cost, versatile and generally
portable.
• Maintenance cost of equipment is low compared with
other welding processes.
Disadvantages
• Heavy sections cannot be joined
• Refractory metals and reactive metals cannot be welded.
• Certain fluxes produce fumes which are irritating to
eyes, nose, throat and lungs.
• Gas flame takes more time to heat up the metal than
an arc.
• Safety problems are associated with the handling of
gases.
Applications
• For joining thin materials.
• For joining most ferrous and non ferrous materials.
• In automobile and aircraft industries
• In sheet metal fabrication
• In repair and maintenance work.
2.18 BRAZING
LO 2.26 Explain the brazing process in detail.

Brazing is defined as a group of joining processes wherein
coalescence is produced by heating to a temperature and by
using a filler metal having melting point (liquidus) above 427OC
and below the melting point (solidus) of the base metals.
Main difference with welding is that the base metal is not
melted here, but only the filler metal is melted and used to form
the joint. Figure 2.44 illustrates this difference in respect of
penetration of weld metal into base metal in welding. The filler
materials used in brazing are non-ferrous alloys having lower
melting point than the base metals. When melted, the filler
material is distributed between the surfaces of base metals by
way of capillary action.
Penetration into No penetration
base metal into base metal
Figure 2.44
Table 2.2 Difference between brazing and fusion welding.
Brazing Fusion Welding
Surface to be brazed are Surface to be joined are melted
heated but not melted to form the joint
Molten filler material Molten filler material mixes
spreads by capillary action with molten base metal and
solidifies there itself.
No penetration of filler Welded joint achieves
material into base metal penetration into base metal
Filler materials are low Filler materials are having
melting point alloys different nearly the same composition
from base metals as that of base metal
Large variety of dissimilar Not possible with fusion
metals can be brazed welding processes
Base metals of thinner Not possible with fusion
dimension can be brazed welding process
Brazing procedure includes the following steps
• Cleaning and preparing the surfaces to be brazed.
• Fluxing both the base metal and filler metal surfaces.
• Aligning the base metal parts to be joined.

• Heating the base metal parts.
• Applying brazing filler material into the joint.
• Cooling the brazed joint.
• Removing flux residue from the completed joint.
The joint types used for brazing include butt, lap, scarf,
stepped butt, tee, sandwiched lap etc. Figure 2.45 shows a few
conventional and modified types of joints used in brazing.
Lap Butt Scarf
Stepped Butt
Tee Sandwiched lap
Figure 2.45
Following is a list of base metals which are joined by brazing
process.
• Aluminium and aluminium alloys.
• Magnesium and magnesium allows
• Copper and copper alloys
• Beryllium
• Low carbon and low alloy steels
• Nickel and nickel alloys
• Stainless steel and cast iron
• High carbon steels, carbides, cermets and ceramics.
• Dissimilar metals.
2.18.1 Filler Materials

An alloy used as filler material (brazing alloy) in brazing
process should possess certain characteristics. Some of these
are the following.
• Melting temperature must be compatible with the base
metal.
• Surface tension in liquid state must be low for good

wettability of surfaces.
• Fluidity of molten metal must be high so that it fills

completely into the interface.
• Mechanical properties like strength and ductility when

solidified at the brazed joint.
Commonly used brazing alloys are
• Al-Si alloys used as general purpose brazing alloy.
• Mg based filler metals used for brazing magnesium

alloys.
• Cu and Cu-Zn filler alloys used for brazing ferrous alloys,

nickel and Cu based alloys.
• Cu-P filler metals used for joining copper and its alloys.
• Fe, Ni, Co based alloys are used where resistance to

oxidation and corrosion in required.
• Silver brazing metals are used to join most ferrous and

non ferrous metals except aluminium and magnesium.
2.18.2 Brazing Fluxes

Presence of oxide layers on the surface of base metals may
affect the quality of brazed joint. Suitable fluxes and gaseous
environment are used to prevent such undesirable situations,
during brazing.
The presence of fluxes helps to dissolve the oxides and
make the surface good for brazing. The molten flux spreads
over the base metal surface and prevents further oxidation. It
also promotes capillary action of filler material.
The brazing flux should have a melting point lower than
that of the filler material. It should not decompose at higher
temperatures and should not cause any contamination of the
brazed joint.
Flux is usually applied in the form of powder or paste.
The major constituents of flux are fused borax, borates and
fluorides of Na, K and Li, boric acid; hydroxides of Na and K,
chlorides etc.
Once the brazed joint has cooled down, flux coating over the
filler metal needs to be removed. This can be done by way of
washing in hot water, immersion in cold water or chemicals or
by means of wire brushing, chipping, shot blasting etc.
Advantages
• Can be used to join a large variety of dissimilar metals.
• Properly brazed joints are pressure tight.
• Work materials of different thicknesses can be easily
brazed.
• Thin walled tubes and thin sheets can be joined which is
not possible with welding.
• Protective metal coating or cladding is not damaged by
brazing.
• Metallurgical characteristics of work material can be
preserved.
Disadvantages
• Large castings and heavy plates cannot be brazed easily.
• Flux residues may cause corrosion when not removed
properly.
• When used at elevated temperature brazed joints may
fail.
• The mating parts needs to be machined properly to
ensure capillary flow of filler material
Applications
• Brazing can be used in the place of welding whenever

the metallurgical properties of the material need to be
preserved after joining.
• Brazing can be used to join similar or dissimilar materials

like metals to non-metals, porous components made by
powder processing, fiber and dispersion strengthened
composites.
2.18.3 Brazing Methods

Different methods are used for brazing. Major difference is in
the method of heating the workpieces to brazing temperature.
The method is selected based on the type, size and number of
jobs to be brazed. Following are the popularly used methods
of brazing.
Flame
Filler metal
Figure 2.46
Torch Brazing
This is the most versatile method and finds wide application
in fabrication and repair work. Ferrous and non-ferrous
materials can be joined using this method. Here a gas torch
similar to that used for gas welding is used to heat the joint
to be brazed. The gases used are oxy-acetylene, air-acetylene,
air-propene etc.
Along with heating, filler material is also melted by the heat
supplied by the torch. This method is a flexible process to heat
selected regions using a low cost equipment. But the process
is relatively slow.
Furnace Brazing
Here a suitable furnace is used for heating the base material
and to melt the filler metal. The metal pieces to be brazed
are pre assembled and placed inside the furnace. The filler
material also is preplaced near to the joint before placing in the
furnace. A suitable atmosphere is provided inside the furnace
to prevent oxidation or decarburization during brazing.
Upon heating, the filler material melts and fills the gap
between the workpieces. Then the assembly is removed
from the furnace and cooled in a separate chamber near the
furnace. Flux is not required here as a protective atmosphere
is provided inside the furnace.
This method is used when a large number of similar joints
are to be brazed. Good quality joints are obtained as the brazing
temperature is accurately controlled in furnace and the filler
material is uniformly distributed at the joint.
Vacuum Brazing
This is a modified form of furnace brazing where a vacuum
atmosphere is used inside the furnace. Usually the work
assembly is placed inside a container, which is then sealed,
evacuated and placed inside the furnace for heating.
This has the advantage that the vacuum atmosphere
provides a good quality brazed joint. Materials which are more
prone to oxidation are easily brazed using vacuum brazing
method.
Induction Brazing
High frequency electric current is passed through an
induction coil to heat the work material which is kept near the
coil. The materials to be brazed are assembled properly, flux
and filler material are placed in position and then kept inside
or near the induction coil for heating. The depth of heating can
be controlled by the frequency of current applied.
Induction brazing is a high speed process where controlled
localised heating is obtained and hence oxidation and warpage
are minimized. Main limitation is with large assemblies for
which special induction coils to be made. The method is used
for most of the common metals and alloys brazed by other
methods, except aluminium and magnesium.
Dip Brazing in Metal Bath
Smaller assemblies like wire connections and metal strips
can be joined by dipping into a bath of molten filler material.
Proper fixtures are used to hold the assembly in position and
the joint is cleaned and fluxed before dipping it into metal
bath. The assembly is then taken out of the bath, cooled and
then removed from the fixture.
Accurate temperature control is obtained in this process
and the joint is rapidly heated and the joint is made. Main
limitation is that only filler materials containing high melting
point metals can be used in this process.
2.19 SOLDERING
LO 2.27 Explain the soldering process in detail.

Soldering is a group of joining processes wherein coalescence
is produced by heating to a temperature not exceeding 427OC
and below the solidus temperature of base metals.
This process is very much similar to brazing in the sense
that the filler metal wets the surface to be joined and fills the
gap by capillary action. The base metal is not melted and no
heat affected zone is resulted. It is a commonly used method for
joining steel, copper and other materials including dissimilar
materials at lower temperatures.
The soldering process begins with selection of proper joint
design, right filler material (solder) and flux. After cleaning the
components, the flux is applied over the surface to be joined.
The solder is either preplaced at the joint or added along with
heating of the joint to the soldering temperature. The molten
solder fills into the gap between the joint and gets solidified
upon cooling. The flux residues are removed by cleaning the
joint.
Joint design
Basic joint types used in soldering are some combination or
modification of the butt and lap types. The usual types of joint
designs are shown in figure 2.47.
Lap Butt Scarf
Stepped Butt
Side seam joint
Pipe joint
Figure 2.47
2.19.1 Solders (Soldering Alloys)
The filler materials used in soldering are known as solders.
These are generally alloys having lower melting points. Many
different types of alloys are used as solders.
The selection is based on various factors like melting
temperature, wettability, surface tension etc; suitability with
respect to base materials to be soldered; and the mechanical
properties of the solder after solidification.
Tin-lead solders constitute the largest percentage of all
solders in use. These are used to join a variety of metals. Tin-
lead solders having melting points 183 to 300OC are called
plumber’s solder. The eutectic alloy with 62% tin and 38% lead
melts at 183OC and is called the tinman’s solder or soft solder.
Antimony in 2 to 8% is added to tin-lead alloys to improve
the mechanical properties and is used as a general purpose
solder with melting range 180-220OC.
Zinc-tin alloys are used as solders for joining aluminium.
With 9% zinc, this alloy forms an eutectic which melts at a
lower temperature of 199OC.
Lead-silver alloys are used for soldering copper and its
alloys. A typical composition is 97.5% lead and 2.5% silver
which melts at 305OC.
Cadmium-silver, cadmium-zinc and zinc-aluminium alloys

also are used for soldering aluminium.
2.19.2 Soldering Fluxes
Soldering flux is used to remove and prevent formation of
oxides and other compounds on the surfaces being soldered.
Before applying the flux, the surfaces should be cleaned to
remove grease, dirt and oxides, so that the flux can perform
well.
The flux is applied in the form of solid, liquid or as a gaseous
compound. The soldering fluxes are of inorganic, organic and
non-corrosive types.
The inorganic fluxes are corrosive type which consists of
zinc and ammonium chloride. With 75% zinc chloride, the
flux melts at 177OC and has excellent cleaning and protection
properties. The molten flux forms a protective coating over the
base metal, dissolves oxides and brings them on top of the
molten solder and flux. When the residue of this type of flux is
not completely removed, it may lead to corrosion of the joint.
Organic or mild fluxes are acidic and are less corrosive than
the inorganic fluxes, lactic acid, stearic acid, gluctamic acid etc.
are the contents of the organic type of soldering fluxes. These
fluxes are of corrosive nature in the as applied condition, but
become mildly corrosive on heating to soldering temperature.
The non corrosive category of flux is called rosin fluxes.
These consist of gum extracted from pine trees. This type
of flux does not dissolve or corrode the base, metal and its
residue has high electrical resistance. Rosin fluxes are used
with copper and copper alloys.
2.19.3 Soldering Techniques
The method of heat application is the main criterion based
on which soldering methods are classified. Upon application of
heat the surfaces to be joined are heated up and the solder is
melted to flow over to these surfaces to form the joint. Following
are a few commonly used soldering methods.
Soldering Iron Method
A soldering iron with a copper tip is used in this method.
The copper tip is heated by electricity, oil, coke or gas flame.
This is a simple, efficient and inexpensive method used for
soldering small number of joints.
Torch Methods
A gas torch is used to supply heat to the surfaces and
solder. This is preferred when the parts to be soldered are too
large in size and in smaller numbers. The method is used to
solder connections on motors and generators.
Dip Method
The assembled and flux coated joints are dipped into a bath
of liquid solder. The bath will heat up the surfaces and the
liquid solder enters into the gaps. Upon taking out, the joint
cools down and solidify to form a sound joint.
Wave soldering
This is an economical mass soldering method. The parts
to be soldered are carried by a conveyor. A liquid solder wave
is produced by pumping out the solder though a narrow slot.
The speed of conveyor and the wave are synchronised so that
the intermittent waves supply liquid solder to the joints and
soldering is carried out.
In addition to the above, the heat is supplied by different
sources like induction, resistance, ovens and ultrasonic
methods. The method is selected based on the joint design,
size, number of joints to be made etc.
Table 2.3 Comparison between brazing and soldering
Brazing Soldering
Filler material has melting Filler material has melting
point above 427OC point below 427OC
Joint is strong Joint is weak
Good corrosion resistance Low corrosion resistance
Smooth joint is obtained Small gap between the
parts
Air tight joints can be obtained Air tight joints are not
possible
Suitable even for thicker Suitable for thin similar
dissimilar metals sheet metals
Costlier than soldering Less costlier
2.20 ADHESIVE BONDING

LO 2.28 List the various adhesives used for adhesive
bonding process.
An adhesive is a material that adheres or bonds items
together. These adhesives are usually used in liquid or semi
solid state. During usage, the adhesives cure or harden by
evaporating a solvent or by chemical reactions that occur
between the constituents of it.
Adhesive bonding is a joining process in which the adhesive
is used as a filler material to hold two or more closely packed
parts together by surface attachment. The parts being joined
are called adherends. Adhesives of various types are used to
join similar or dissimilar structural materials.
There are many ways of classifying adhesives. Two broad
classifications are non structural and structural. In the first
category are household type glues like starch, casein, rosin,
shellac, and asphalt. These are characterized by poor moisture
resistance, but generally good resistance to heat and chemicals.
Structural adhesives are those that are capable of sustaining
load bearing joints for a long period of time. Structural adhesives
are composite systems containing several components
including liquids, pastes, solids, pellets, cartridges, tapes, and
films. The most widely used structural adhesives today are
epoxies, acrylics, anaerobics, cyanoacrylate, urethanes, and
hot melts.
Epoxies
Epoxy resins, a reaction product of acetone and phenol, are
the most popular of the adhesives used today. Epoxies may
be cured by the addition of a catalyst, resulting in a room
temperature cure. Epoxies bond well to most surfaces, even
with thin oil films. Surfaces should be cleaned and specially
prepared. Although the tensile shear strength is good, the
bond has low flexibility and poor impact strength.
Modified Epoxies
Modifications like epoxy-nylon, epoxy-polysulfide, epoxy-
phenolic, and epoxy-nitrile are employed to improve certain
characteristics of epoxies. The modified epoxies are excellent
for metal to metal bonding and bonding metal to concrete.
Another advantage is their ability to wet metal, glass, and
cement surfaces readily. Wetting refers to the ability of a liquid
to spread over a solid surface evenly without voids. In addition

to being more flexible, modified epoxies show an improvement
in peel strength. The properties of epoxy including high
adhesion, tensile strength, rigidity, creep resistance, easy
curing, and heat resistance, all can be enhanced by additives.
Urethane
Like epoxy, urethane adhesives are available in one or two
part systems, as solid hot melts, liquids or pastes, or as solvent
systems. The basic urethane is a thermoplastic material and
is often used in that form. Although it may take hours or days
to cure completely, most formulations cure to touch in a few
minutes.
Urethanes may be applied to both surfaces and after a
specified time are brought together when the adhesive is sticky
enough to hold the parts together. Alternatively, the two parts
may be allowed to dry and then be heated before bringing them
together. In general terms, urethane is preferable to epoxy
when greater elongation or a shorter cure time is needed, or
if the joint is to be subjected to prolonged vibration or other
cyclic stress.
Acrylics
Acrylics are two part adhesives, but are not mixed for
most applications. The resin is applied to one surface and the
accelerator to the other. The parts can be set aside for weeks
with no detrimental effects, and once they are mated, handling
strength is typically achieved in a few minutes. Curing can be
done at room temperature. Acrylics can now handle many of
the tasks originally reserved for epoxies.
Cyanoacrylates
The prime advantage of these adhesives is their rapid cure,
usually within seconds. Cyanoacrylates are costly, but the
amount used is small since a very thin glue line is required
to cure properly. The cure is too fast for many applications.
Often the cyanoacrylates can be used to retain components
in position while other operations such as welding are carried
out.
Anaerobics
Anaerobic sealants are so called because they harden
satisfactorily only in the absence of atmospheric oxygen. Hence
they must be stored in the presence of air.
The liquid anaerobics are capable of flowing into the most

minute crevice, and thus the whole of free space between
assembled components is readily and completely filled with
fluid. Anaerobics were popularly used for locking threaded and
other close fitting assemblies, and were popularly known by
the trade name Locktite.
Hot Melts
Hot melt adhesives, copolymers of polyethylene with
polyvinyl acetate, polypropylene nylon, or polyester, may be
formulated to make flexible or rigid bonds. These are usually
applied with a suitable gun and are fast setting, reaching
80% of their bond strength within seconds of application. An
example of hot melt application is the bonding of the inner and
outer panels of an automobile door. Here, the adhesive bonding
replaces spot welding. Higher joint strength is achieved along
with corrosion resistance.
Surface and Joint Preparation
A joint has to be clean in order to have a good adhesive
bonding (except for acrylics). Since a clean surface has high
surface energy, it can be wet easily. Materials like Teflon,
having low surface energy are hard to bond adhesively.
Just like brazing and soldering, joint strength for adhesives
is based on having adequate area over which the stress may
be distributed. Hence, the most commonly used joint type is
lap joint. Adhesive joints are primarily stressed in tension and
shear. Lap shear strengths are directly proportional to the
width of overlap, but the strength decreases with length of
overlap.
Advantages
• Can be used to join unlike materials.
• Can be used to join like or unlike materials without
the stress concentrations usually associated with other
joining methods, such as spot welds, rivets, or bolts
• Adhesives do not conduct electricity, and therefore
electrolytic corrosion is not set up in joints between
dissimilar metals.
• Flexible adhesives can absorb shock and vibration,
increasing the fatigue life.
• Bonded joints present a smooth, often improved,
appearance.
• Dissimilar thicknesses can be joined
• Large areas can be bonded in a relatively short time.
• Adhesives provide sealing action in addition to bonding.
Limitations
• Adhesives are more subject to deterioration by
environmental conditions.
• Adhesive joints are difficult to inspect once assembled.
• Adhesives have less strength than some other joining
methods. The poor resistance to peeling may require the
use of additional fasteners at stress points.
• Adhesive properties tend to degrade with time.
• Adhesives are not suited to elevated temperatures, only
a few are reliable over 316°C.
• Most adhesives have a limited shelf life.
Question no. 14 (a) from Model Question Paper
Example 2.5
Two 1-mm thick, flat Copper sheets are being spot welded using
a current of 5000A and a current flow time of t=0.18 seconds the
electrodes are 5mm in diameter. Estimate the heat generated
in the weld zone
Solution
Given, Current, I = 5000A
Time of current flow, t = 0.18sec
Plate thickness = 1mm
Electrode diameter = 5mm
Assume that the effective resistance of the joint is
= 150 × 10−6 Ω
R 150µΩ
=
2
Heat input = I Rt
= 50002 × 150 × 10−6 × 0.18
= 675J
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the functions of filler metals and fluxes L1

2. Differentiate between soldering and brazing. L1
3. Define dip soldering L1
4. Differentiate between soldering and welding. L1
5. Define wave soldering L1
6. List the types of electrodes used in arc welding L1
7. Compare MIG and TIG welding in respect of their L1
principle of working application
8. List the technical differences between brazing L1
and soldering
9. List the two joint types most commonly used in L1
brazing
10. List the desirable characteristics of a brazing L1
flux?
11. List the different types of adhesives used as L1
structural adhesives
12. List the disadvantages and limitations of brazing L1
13. List the two most common alloying metals used L1
in solders
14. List the advantages often attributed to soldering L1
as an industrial joining process.
15. List the disadvantages and drawbacks of L1
soldering?
16. Define resistance welding. L1
17. List the desirable properties of a metal that L1
would provide good weldability
18. Define resistance projection welding L1
19. List the important welding defects L1
20. List the factors that affect weldability L1
21. Differentiate between brazing and braze welding L1
22. List the relative advantages of braze welding and L1
fusion welding
23. What is the basic principle of resistance welding L1
24. Give any two examples of the applications of gas L1
welding, resistance welding, and arc welding
processes.
25. Define an oxidizing flame. When is it used? L1
26. Define a reducing flame. When is it used? L1
27. Give some applications of TIG welding process. L1

28. List the functions of tungsten in TIG we.lding L1
Which gases are used in TIG welding?
29. List out any three differences between welding L1
and soldering.
30. List any three practical applications of soldering L1
and brazing.
31. List the types and uses of fluxes in brazing L1
32. Explain resistance welding. L2
33. Explain butt welding. L2
34. Explain the principle of TIG welding. L2
35. Explain the equipment needed for oxy-acetylene L2
welding
36. Explain straight and reverse polarities in arc L2
welding
37. Explain the purpose of a coated electrode L2
38. Explain the use of straight and reverse polarity L2
in welding.
39. Explain why flux is not needed in gas-tungsten L2
arc welding
40. Discuss various welding positions with the help L2
of neat sketches.
41. Discuss the use of tungsten as the preferred L2
material for non-consumable electrode
42. Explain why the quality of submerged arc L2
welding is very good
43. Explain how plasma arc welding is carried out. L2
44. List and explain the various defects in welding. L2
45. Explain MIG welding with neat diagram. List its L2
applications
46. Sketch and explain TIG welding. L2
47. Discuss the difference between brazing and L2
soldering.
48. Explain how brazing and soldering differ from L2
the fusion welding processes
49. Explain how brazing and soldering differ from L2
the solid state welding processes
50. Explain the circumstances under which adhesive L2
bonding be preferred over soldering
51. Differentiate the heat transfer factor in arc- L2

welding processes that utilize consumable
electrodes with those that use nonconsumable
electrodes
52. Describe the shielded metal arc-welding (SMAW) L2
process.
53. Explain why the shielded metal arc-welding L2
(SMAW) process is difficult to automate
54. Describe submerged arc welding (SAW) L2
55. Explain why the temperatures are much higher L2
in plasma arc welding than in other arc welding
processes
56. Describe the sequence of steps in the cycle of a L2
resistance spot-welding operation.
57. Explain why the oxy-acetylene welding process L2
is favored over the other oxy-fuel welding
processes
58. Describe and distinguish the two basic types of L2
friction welding process.
59. Describe the features of a fusion welding and L2
identity the different regions in HAZ
60. Explain the characteristics of the heat-affected L2
zone in welding
61. Discuss the factors that influence weld quality. L2
62. Describe the common types of discontinuities in L2
welds.
63. Explain fusion as it relates to welding operations. L2
64. Describe the reactions that take place in L2
an oxyfuel gas torch. What is the level of
temperatures generated?
65. Describe the procedure to be followed in an L2
oxyfuel gas welding operation.
66. Explain the basic principles of arc-welding L2
processes.
67. Explain why is shielded metal-arc welding a L2
commonly used process? Why is it also called
stick welding?
68. Describe the features of three types of arcs in L2
gas metal-arc welding. Why has it been called
MIG welding?
69. Explain what is meant by solid-state welding. L2
70. Describe the principle of ultrasonic welding. L2

71. Explain the difference between friction welding L2
and inertia friction welding.
72. Describe the principle behind resistance welding L2
processes.
73. Explain the principle underlying brazing. L2
74. Describe the types of fluxes used in soldering L2
and their applications.
75. Explain how the filler metal is applied in furnace L2
brazing
76. State the advantages and limitations of (a) arc L2
welding (b) gas welding and (c) resistance welding
77. Distinguish between gas welding, arc welding, L2
and resistance welding with respect to
temperature generated, quality of welding
obtained, application and cost.
78. Discuss the factors that influence weld quality L2
79. Explain whether the filler metal be of the same L2
composition as that of the base metal to be
welded
80. Discuss weld penetration in DSCP and DCRP L3
welding
81. Explain the features of neutral, reducing and L3
oxidizing flames. Why is reducing flame so
called?
82. Explain why an oxidizing flame is desirable in L3
welding copper alloys
83. Explain why so many different welding processes L3
have been developed.
84. Explain why welding is not used for attaching L3
electrical components to circuit boards
85. Select the process of welding you are going to L3
suggest to weld broken leg of a mild steel chair
and explain the reasons for selection
86. Explain, with an example, the situation in L3
which joining process becomes essential when
compared to the other manufacturing processes.
87. Select and justify the method of welding which L3
will be best for welding high melting point metals.
88. Explain the consequences of (a) high current (b) L3

high speed and (c) high voltage in arc welding
processes
89. Justify whether oxy-acetylene flame can be used L3
for cutting.
90. Explain the consequences of substituting L3
methane in place of acetylene in gas welding
process.
91. Explain why some joints may have to be L3
preheated prior to welding? If the parts to be
welded are preheated, is the likelihood that
porosity will form increased or decreased?
Explain
92. Discuss why some metals are easier to weld L3
than the others
93. Two plates were welded together and then the L3
strength of the joint was tested. It is found
that the weld was stronger than either of the
plates. Do you think that the statement is
incorrect? Postulate, giving valid reasons with
neat sketches
94. What are the methods available for controlling L3
the distortions in welded assembly structure?
Describe their relative effects and application
95. Two 1-mm thick, flat Copper sheets are being L3
spot welded using a current of 5000A and a
current flow time of t=0.18 seconds the electrodes
are 5mm in diameter. Estimate the heat
generated in the weld zone
96. What does the strength of a weld nugget in L3
resistance spot welding depends on?
97. Explain how the atmosphere around the work L3
piece affect the weld obtained in electron beam
welding
98. Why is the quality of welds produced by L3
submerged arc welding very good?
99. What does the strength of a weld nugget in L3

resistance spot welding depends on?
100. What is the strength of a welded joint is inferior L3

or superior to the parent metal? Why?
101. Why some joints may have to be preheated prior L3

to welding.
102. Assume that you are asked to inspect a weld for L4

a critical application. Describe the procedure
you would follow. If you find a flaw during your
inspection, how would you go about etermining
whether or not this flaw is important for the
particular application?
104. In the building of large ships, there is a need to L4
weld large sections of steel together to form a
hull, for this application, which welding process
would you select? Why?
MODULE
3
ROLLING
Learning Objectives
LO 3.1 State and explain the principle of rolling.

LO 3.2 List various types of rolling mills and explain their
features.
LO 3.3 Explain the mechanics of flat rolling using the slab
method.
LO 3.4 Analyse the rolling process and determine the
power requirement.
LO 3.5 Compare the hot rolling and cold rolling process.
LO 3.6 List the major defects observed in rolled plates.
LO 3.7 List and explain popular shape rolling methods.
LO 3.8 Explain the ring rolling process.
LO 3.9 Explain different methods used in thread rolling.
LO 3.10 Explain different methods used in tube rolling.
LO 3.11 Explain how I beams and axles are made by
rolling.
LO 3.12 Define the terms normal strain, shear strain,
strain rate and velocity in terms of displacement.
LO 3.13 Define engineering stress and strain & compare

with true stress and true strain.
LO 3.14 Define flow stress and average flow stress.
LO 3.15 List the features of yield criteria by Tresca and
von Mises.
LO 3.16 Give a comparitive study of Tresca and von Mises
criteria for plastic deformation.
LO 3.17 Determine the power and energy requirements for
metal forming.
LO 3.18 Explain how heat generation and heat transfer
takes place during metal forming.
LO 3.19 Explain how heat dissipation takes place during
forging process.
MODULE 3 ROLLING 161
3.1 METAL FORMING

Metal forming is a manufacturing process which is also
known as mechanical working of metals. The main objective
of metal forming process is to provide desired shape and size,
under the action of external applied forces in metals. Such
processes are widely used to achieve optimum mechanical
properties and to reduce the defects in the form of voids or
cavities in the raw material. The deformation or shape changing
occurs within the plastic zone.
Types of metal forming processes are
1. Rolling.
2. Forging.
3. Extrusion.
4. Drawing
a. Wire drawing
b. Tube drawing
3.2 PRINCIPLE OF ROLLING
LO 3.1 State and explain the principle of rolling.

Rolling is a metal forming process in which the material is
allowed to pass between rotating rollers in order to reduce the
thickness and to obtain desired cross-section.The rollers or
rolls rotate as shown in figure 3.1 to pull and simultaneously
squeeze the work material placed between them. Due to
higher production rate and possibility of closer dimensional
tolerances, this process is one of the widely used metal forming
processes. The contour of the gap between rollers determines
the geometry of the rolled product. Due to high strength and
wear resistance requirements, commonly used roller materials
are cast iron, cast steel and forged steel.
Roller
Direction of Work flow
Work
Figure 3.1
Ingot is the end product of metal refining and alloying
industries. It is also the main raw material for the rolling
process. At the beginning of rolling operation, the ingot is
rolled to obtain a bloom which is having a square cross section

of size 150mm to 400mm and several meters in length. The
blooms are then rolled down into billets, which are having
square sections of size 40 to 300mm. The billets are used for
making forgings, extruded sections, hot rolled sections, bars,
flats, rods, etc. When an ingot is rolled in a slabbing mill, the
ingot changes into rectangular slabs having thickness 75mm
to 250mmand width between 300mm to 2000 mm. Slabs are
used for making rolled plates, sheets and strips. Figure 3.2
gives a pictorial representation of classification of the different
products of rolling.
Ingots
Slabs
Blooms Billets
Structural Plates
Rods Wires
Shapes
Strips
Bars
Rails
Tube Seamless Sheets
Rounds Pipes
Welded
Pipes
Figure 3.2
3.3 TYPES OF ROLLING MILLS

LO 3.2 List various types of rolling mills and explain their
features.
The rolling mills are classified according to the arrangement
and number of rollers.
3.3.1 2-high Rolling Mill
In a 2-high rolling mill, two rollers are used for performing
the rolling operation. The reduction in thickness is possible
in single stage. The rollers rotate in opposite directions, as
shown in figure 3.3. The 2-high rolling mill is reversible. The
movement of workpiece from one side to the other during the
rolling process is called a pass. In a reversible mill, a reverse
pass is possible.
Figure 3.3
3.3.2 3-high Rolling Mill
In a 3-high rolling mill, three rollers are used for performing
the rolling operation. The reduction in thickness of the
workpiece can be done in two stages. Firstly the strip is passed
between middle and bottom rollers such that a single stage
reduction takes place and the deformed strip is again passed
between top and middle rotating rollers in the opposite direction
so that desired thickness is obtained. In this type of mills, the
extreme rollers are rotating in the same direction while the
central rollers rotate in opposite directions.
3.3.3 4-high/Back up Rolling Mills

In order to reduce the force required for rolling operation,
the roller diameter has to be reduced. This, in turn, reduce
the load bearing capability of the rollers resulting in chance
of failure. This condition can be avoided by using backup or
supporting rollers. In 4-high rolling mills, the centers of all the
four rollers must lie on a single vertical axis, (as in figure 3.5)
otherwise the rolling system will fail. Hot or cold rolled plates
and sheets are produced using this process.
+
+
+
+ +
Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5

3.3.4 Cluster Rolling Mills

Cluster rolling mills are special type of four high rolling
mill in which each smaller roller is supported by two or more
supporting rollers. Commonly used for rolling hard thin
materials. For such materials, rollers of smaller diameter
and considerable length must be used. Figure 3.6 shows the
arrangement of rollers in a cluster rolling mill. These additional
rollers will provide adequate support to the working rollers.
Mainly used for cold working operations.
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
Figure 3.6
3.3.5 Tandem Rolling Mills
In all the above rolling processes, continuous pass of work
material between the rollers is not possible. This will increase
the manufacturing time. So, for mass production, a set of
two or three stands of rollers are placed in series such that a
continuous reduction in thickness is possible in a single pass
without stopping the rolling process or changing the direction
of feeding of material, as in figure 3.7.
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + +
+
+ + + +
Figure 3.7
3.3.6 Planetary Rolling Mill

This type of mill has a pair of large and heavy rollers
surrounded by a number of smaller rolls around their
circumference. In this mill, a slab can be reduced directly to
a strip in a single pass (see figure 3.8). Another name for this
kind of rolling mills is Sendzimir mill.
+ +
+ +
Figure 3.8
3.3.7 Applications of Rolling Operation

Rolling operation has a wide variety of applications in
manufacturing sector because of the great volume of material
that can be worked than any other metal forming process. A
bulk of metal can be deformed to form large shapes with high
production rate is the principal advantage of rolling process.
Rolling of structural shapes is one of the most complex
deformation processes. The billet or slab of rough shape is
rolled in several passes to form desired sections.
During rolling operation average force acting on the strip by
the roller causes equal and opposite force on to the roller and
it will try to separate the rollers. Hence the average force is also
termed as Roll separating force (RSF).
Reduction in roll separating force, (keeping speed of the
rollers, width of the strip, initial and final thickness of the strip
as constant) is the only method to reduce the power required
for rolling operation without affecting the productivity of the
rolling process.
The RSF can be reduced either by performing rolling
operation at hot working condition because during hot working
operation, the yield stress required is less or by the usage of
back up or supporting rollers.
3.4 MECHANICS OF FLAT ROLLING

LO 3.3 Explain the mechanics of flat rolling using the slab
method.
The figure 3.9 shows a view of the flat strip undergoing
rolling process. Let the initial thickness of strip be h1 which is
reduced to h2 by the rolling process. The strip passes through
the roll gap of length L between the pair of rotating rolls. The
rolls rotate at a uniform speed and the surface speed of rolls
beVr. As the strip enters into the roll gap, it starts to move at
an initial velocity of V1. This velocity gradually increases to V2
at the exit point from the roll gap. As the surface speed of roll is
constant, there will be relative sliding between the roll and the
strip along the arc of contact in the roll gap. At the entry point,
V1<Vr and gradually it increases and at the exit point such
that V2 >Vr. In between, the velocity of strip becomes equal to
roll velocity Vr. This condition is called no slip condition, since
there won’t be sliding or slipping between strip and rolls at this
position. This point along the arc of contact is called neutral
point or no slip point.
V1
h1
Workpiece
V2
L
h2
Figure 3.9
It can be said that the speed of billet on the entry side is less
than the surface speed of rolls. So the frictional stress on the
billet is directed in the direction of rolling. On the exit side, the
speed of billet is higher than the surface speed of rolls and the
frictional stress is directed against the flow of metal. Between
the entry and exit, there is a section called neutral section,
corresponding to the neutral point where the roll speed and
billet speed are the same. Thus the region of deformation is
divided into two zones, the lagging zone or entry zone which
extends from entry to neutral section and the leading zone or
exit zone from neutral section to exit.
The direction of frictional stress on the interface in entry

zone is opposite to that in the exit zone. The difference in
velocities in these zones leads to slip between rolls and billet.
The forward slip and backward slip are defined as follows:
V2 − Vr
Forward slip =
Vr
Vr − V1
Backward slip =
Vr
During rolling, the strip is pulled in by the rolls into the roll
gap and squeezed to reduced thickness. The pulling action on
the strip is due to the frictional force between the rolls and
strip. With reference to figure 3.10, the net frictional force to
the left of the neutral point must be higher than the frictional
force acting on the right side of neutral point. An increase
in friction leads to increased force and power requirements
to overcome friction. The high friction may also damage the
surface of strip. Hence, optimum frictional force needs to be
ensured by introducing proper lubricants.

R Roll
Vr
Neutral
point
V1 h1 h2 R
V2 h h2
R 1
Workpiece 2
Friction forces
L
Entry Roll Exit
zone gap,L zone
Figure 3.10
If µ is the coefficient of friction and R is the radius of the
roll, then
h1 h 2 2R
The term (h1-h2) is called draft which is the difference between

strip thickness at entry and exit (reduction in thickness).
This means, for higher friction and larger rolls, reduction in
thickness will be more. From the geometry of the triangle in
figure 3.10,
2
2 2 h1 h 2
L R R
2
2
h h 2 h1 h 2
R 2 R 2 2R 1
2 2
2
The last term inside the bracket h1 h 2 is very small and
can be neglected. 2
Now, L2 R h1 h 2 and L R h1 h 2
L d h1 − h 2
Also, =
µ tan=
α ≈ ≈ .
R −d R R
2
Here, α is the angle of bite or bite angle.
3.4.1 Roll Force and Power Requirement

LO 3.4 Analyse the rolling process and determine the
power requirement.
With reference to figure 3.11, it can be said that a force
perpendicular to the arc of contact is needed to deform the strip
and reduce its thickness. This force F is called roll force and is
shown perpendicular to the plane of strip. This assumption is
taken due to the reason that the arc of contact is always much
smaller than the roll radius.
The roll force can be determined using the formula,
F Lw avg
where L is the roll gap or the length of contact between roll
and strip, w is the width of stripF and
Lw avg is the average flow
stress of the material of strip. This formula does not consider
the effect of friction. For a high value of coefficient of friction,
the force predicted by the formula will be much lower than the
actual force.
To determine the power requirement per roll, it is assumed
that the roll force F acts at the midpoint of arc of contact.
Hence, torque per roll is obtained as the product of force F and
the distance L/2. When the rolls rotate at N rpm, the power per
roll can be obtained from the formula,
2FLN
Power kW
60000
The average flow stress can be determined from the values
of true yield stress at the onset of plastic deformation and the
flow stress at some other instant during the rolling process
(see section 3.8 for details).
Forces on the Rolls

Following assumptions are made in the analysis of forces
acting on the rolls.
• Only the forces applied by the rolls are acting on the
metal being rolled.
• There is uniform motion of the metal at entry and exit
• Both the rolls are driven and have same diameters and
velocities
• The metal being rolled is having homogenous mechanical
properties
Simple Rolling Process
Figure 3.11
With reference to figure 3.11 and under the above
assumptions, the forces applied on the rolls are represented
by a force F acting normal to the roll surface and two forces
of friction F1 and F2 acting tangentially. One of the forces of
friction are acting from the zone of backward slip and the other
from the zone of backward slip. Since the rolling process is
symmetrical, three similar forces will be acting on the lower roll
also. These six forces acting on the metal must be in balance.
For satisfying this, the overall resultant P1 of the three forces
applied by the upper roll should be equal to the resultant P2
of the three forces applied by the lower roll. These resultants
must be acting in the vertical direction as shown in figure 3.12.
Moreover, the rolled metal exerts the same pressure back on
the rolls. This force and the frictional forces acting on the rolls
develop a resultant P which is also directed vertically.
Figure 3.12
Without considering the frictional loss in bearings of the
rolls, the torque necessary to rotate one of the rolls is T1 = Pa
where a is the perpendicular distance between the line of
action of resultant from the centre of rotation of the roll. From
the geometry of figure 3.12, it can be written as
T1 Pa
= = PR sin β
where R is the radius of the roll, and β , the angle characterising
the point of application of the resultant of metal pressure on
the roll.
The torque required for the rotation of both the rolls is:
T 2=
= T1 2PR sin β
When longitudinal forces are applied to the rolled metal
When longitudinal forces of f1 and f2 are applied on the
rolled metal as shown in figure 3.13, then
T 2=
= Pa 2PR sin(β − θ) when f 1 > f 2
= 2PR sin(β + θ) when f 2 > f 1

When θ = β,T = 0 . The force P in this case will pass through
the centre of the roll and the entire rolling process takes place
as a result of the front tension.
Figure 3.13
Rolling with one driven roll
Consider the case when the lower roll alone is driven and
the upper roll is rolling freely. Now the resultant force P will act
along the line passing through the centre of the upper roll as
Figure 3.14
The resultant of the pressure exerted by the upper roll on
the metal is P1 and this is equal to P which is directed normal
to roll surface. The resultant force P2 on the bottom roll will be
equal to P1 and will act along the line of action of P. Here, the
torque required to rotate the driven bottom roll is T = Pa2 .
where a2 = (2R + h 2 )sin β and it is the perpendicular distance

between the line of action of resultant force P and the centre of
rotation of the driven roll.
T =P (2R + h 2 )sin β
Roll Pressure Distribution
2σy
3
Figure 3.15
The pressure on rolls starts from the entry point and
continues to build up till the neutral point. Then it gradually
decreases and reaches zero at exit. The stress (pressure)
distribution is shown schematically in figure 3.12. These
stresses increase with increasing friction and length of
deformation zone, L. When tensile stresses are applied to the
strip at entry or exit, the maximum stress will be reduced and
the location of neutral point gets shifted.
Elastic Deflection of Rolls
During rolling at room temperature, considerable amounts
of roll deflection and flattening may take place. Along the
width direction, the rolls are slightly bent and certain amount
of thickening of strip occurs at the centre. In the thickness
direction, roll flattening causes the roll radius to enlarge,
therby increasing the contact area.
Larger roll forces cause deflection and flattening of the rolls.
Reducing friction, increating temperature and reducing contact
area will lead to lower roll forces. Another effective method is
to apply longitudinal tensions to strip while rolling. Tension
applied at entry zone is called back tension and that applied at
exit zone is called front tension. In sheet rolling, back tension
is applied by a braking action to the reel which supplies the

sheet. Front tension is applied by increasing the speed of the
reel which takes up the rolled sheet.
Spreading
In rolling of thick plates, metal flow occurs in three
dimensions. The rolled material is elongated in the rolling
direction as well spread in the lateral or width direction. In
general, this happens when the width to thickness ratio is
relatively smaller. This increase in width is called spreading.
Spreading occurs in the rolling of square cross section also. It
increases with a decrease in the width to thickness ratio of the
material being rolled. Use of vertical rolls in contact with the
edges of the rolled material helps to prevent spreading.
3.5 HOT ROLLING AND COLD ROLLING
OPERATIONS
LO 3.5 Compare the hot rolling and cold rolling process.

Rolling operation can be broadly classified into hot rolling
and cold rolling process depending on the working temperature.
Figure 3.16
When the material is heated, the energy is absorbed by
the grains in the materials. When a certain minimum amount
of energy is absorbed by the grains, it starts to change its
behaviour at a temperature called starting temperature of
recrystallization. New crystal formation (physical as well as
chemical behaviour of grains completely changes) occurs
at this temperature. On further heating, the level of energy
absorbed by the grains starts to increase and reaches a
threshold level at which the grains show new behaviour and
complete the formation of new crystals. The corresponding

temperature is called recrystallization temperature (RCT) and
is approximately 33% to 50% of melting point of material.
Rolling operations carried out at a temperature greater than
recrystallization temperature are called hot rolling operations.
The energy required for changing the behaviour of grains for
hot rolled component will be nearly same as that of normal
component. Hence the RCT of hot rolled and normal component
will be same.
Rolling operations carried out at temperatures less than the
recrystallization temperature are called cold rolling operations.
In cold rolled components, internal residual stress will be
present in the form of energy pockets. During heating, these
energy pockets start distributing energy over the surrounding
molecules and grains. Hence during heating, the grains attain
higher energy levels through heating as well distribute the
available energy in the form of residual stress. Hence grains
attain required threshold energy at a lower temperature and
having low RCT. For the same amount of deformation to
be produced, the force and energy required for hot rolling
operation is less than that needed for cold rolling.
Table 3.1 Difference between Hot and Cold rolling
Hot Rolling Cold Rolling
Rolling operation is done Rolling operation is done
after the workpiece is heated after the workpiece is heated
above the recrystallization below its recrystallization
temperature. temperature.
In hot rolling, the metal is In cold rolling, the metal is
heated at high temperature heated at lower temperature
and the chances of oxide so the chances of oxide
formation is more. formation is less.
The surface finish of the The surface finish of the
component produced is component produced is
poor and close dimensional better and close dimensional
tolerance is not possible. tolerance is possible.
Coefficient of friction between The coefficient of friction
the rolls and the ingot between the rolls and the ingot
material is higher, which may material is comparatively low.
cause the shearing of metal
in contact with the rolls
Heavy reduction in cross Heavy reduction is not
sectional area of the possible.
workpiece can be obtained.
Mechanical properties Ductility reduces, hardness

are improved due to grain will get reduced. The tensile
refinement. The toughness and yield strength increases
and strength of the material during cold working
increases. operation.
Work hardening effect is not Work hardening effect is
present in hot worked metal. present in cold worked metal.
Roll radius is larger when Roll radius is smaller.
compared to cold worked
component.
Example 3.1
Determine the maximum possible reduction for cold rolling
of a 240mm slab when µ = 0.075 and the roll diameter is
400mm.What is the maximum reduction on the same mill for
hot rolling when µ = 0.45?
Solution
Given: h1=240mm
µ =0.075 for cold rolling
µ =0.45 for hot rolling
Diameter of roll, D = 400mm; Radius, R = 200mm
The maximum reduction per pass
µ 2R =
for cold rolling d max = 0.0752 × 200 =
1.125mm
for hot rolling d max =

µ 2R =
0.452 × 200 =
40.5mm
Example 3.2
Calculate the rolling load, if a steel sheet is hot rolled to
28% from a 50mm thick slab using a 600mm diameter roll.
The slab is 700mm wide. Assume µ =0.25. Average flow stress
is given as 200MPa.
Solution
Given:
Reduction ratio = 28%
Initial thickness h1=50mm
Diameter of roll, D=600mm, Radius, R=300mm
Width of slab, w= 700mm
µ =0.25
Average flow stress, σavg =
200MPa
h1 − h 2
Reduction ratio, × 100 =
28%
h1
50 − h 2
× 100 =
28% . So, h2=36mm
50
Reduction per pass, d = h1 − h 2 = 50 − 36 = 14mm
Contact length, L = R ×d = 300 × 14 = 64.8mm
Rolling force, F = wL σavg = 700 × 64.8 × 200
= 9072000N
= 9072kN
Example 3.3
A 400mm wide strip of 30mm thickness is fed through a
rolling mill with two powered rolls each of radius 300mm.
The work thickness is to be reduced to 25mm in one pass at a
roll speed of 50 rev/min. The work material has a flow curve
defined by K = 275MPa and n= 0.15. The coefficient of friction
between rolls and work is assumed to be 0.12. Determine the
roll force, torque and power.
Solution
Given:
Width, w = 400mm
Initial thickness, h1 = 30mm
Roll radius, R =300mm
Thickness after rolling, h2 =25mm
Roll speed, N = 50 rpm
K = 275MPa; n= 0.15
Coefficient of friction, µ =0.12
Thickness to be reduced, d = h1 − h 2 = 30 − 25 = 5mm
Maximum possible thickness reduction,
µ 2R =
d max = 0.122 × 300 =
4.32mm
Contact length, L = R ×d = 300 × 5 = 38.72mm
h1 30
=
True strain, ε ln= ln= 0.182
h2 25
K εn
Average flow stress, σavg =
n +1
275 × 0.1820.15
= = 185.25MPa
0.15 + 1
Roll force, F = wL σavg = 400 × 38.72 × 185.25
= 2869152N
Torque required to drive each roll,
T = 0.5FL
= 0.5 × 2869152 × 38.72 × 10−3
= 55547Nm
Torque required to drive both the rolls,
T1 = 2×55547Nm = 111094Nm
2πNT1 2π × 50 × 111094
Power required,
= P =
60 60
= 581685W = 581.685kW
Question no. 15 (a) from Model Question Paper
Example 3.4
An annealed Copper strip 228mm wide and 25mm thick
is rolled to a thickness 20mm in one pass. The roll radius
is 300mm and the rolls rotate at 100rpm. Calculate the
roll force and the power required in this operation
Solution
Given, Radius of roll, R = 300mm
Speed of rotation of roll, N = 100rpm
Initial thickness, h1 = 25mm
Final thickness, h2 = 20mm
Width of plate, w = 228mm
Average flow stress of copper is taken as σavg = 180MPa
from standard data.
The roll strip contact length, L R h1 h 2
= 300 ( 25 − =
20 ) 38.7mm
Roll force, F = wL σavg = 38.7 × 228 × 180

= 1588248N ≈ 1.6MN
Power required, 2πFLN 2π × 1.6 × 106 × 38.7 × 100

= P =
60000 60000
= 648kW
Power required for two rolls = 1296kW

3.6 DEFECTS IN ROLLED PLATES
LO 3.6 List the major defects observed in rolled plates.

Chatter: During the rolling process undesirable mechanical
vibrations lead to a surface defect called chatter on the rolled
sheets. This is commonly observed in cold rolling process.
In addition to roll vibration, variation in strip tension
and negative damping also leads to chatter. Chatters lead
to thickness variation across the width, surface damage and
undesirable noise at work place. The final product quality gets
affected by chatter marks on the surface of rolled strip and
appear as periodic pattern of light-dark band.
In rolling operation, the defects may occur due to the
interaction of plastically deforming workpiece with the
elastically deforming rolls and rolling mills. Due to the high
rolling forces, the entire mill gets elastically distorted. This
will lead to the bending and flattening of the rolls. The rolls
eventually deform more easily than the workpiece because of
the increase in roll pressure and elastic flattening.
The elastic flattening of rolls can be avoided by providing
slight camber to the roll surfaces. This will correct the deflection
under rolling condition by allowing elastic distortion of rolls.
Even after this, there are chances of occurrence various defects
in rolled plates. Some of the commonly observed defects are:
Cracking: During the rolling process, the workpiece element
across the width has a tendency to expand laterally (in
transverse direction of the sheet). This lateral spreading is
avoided by transverse friction forces. Because of high friction
on the central region of the sheet, the central region will spread
lesser than the outer elements near the edges.
In rolling process, the width of the workpiece is assumed to
be a constant, hence the decrease in thickness at the centre
portion will lead to the increase in the length of the sheet. The
decrease in thickness at the edges will lead to the slight lateral
spreading, which in turn leads to the bending at ends of the
sheet.
Due to difference in deformation occurring at the edges
and centre, the edges of the sheet are restrained in tension,
a condition which leads to edge cracking as shown in figure
3.17.
Figure 3.17
Zipper cracks also occur due to the same reasons, but at
the centre of the strips. Figure 3.18 shows the zipper cracks in
a rolled plate.
Figure 3.18
Alligatoring: The workpiece splits along the horizontal plane
and at the exit, with the top and bottom portion of the slab
following the respective rolls. This phenomenon is called the
alligatoring.
This will occur due to the following reasons:
• Metallurgical weakness along the centre line of the slab.
• When the ratio of the slab thickness to the length of
contact falls within the range of 1.4-1.7.
Figure 3.19
Wavy Edges: These are caused due to bending of the rolls.
As the edges of the strip are thinner near the edges, the
edges elongate more than the centre and are restrained from
expanding freely and they buckle as shown in figure 3.20.
Figure 3.20
Folds: Folding of the sheets occur when reduction in thickness/
pass is very less.
Laminations: Laminations are fracture defects occurring

during plate rolling, when the thickness per pass is excessive.
Fins: This defect is found on rolled products when the metal
forces itself into the clearance between rollers.
Oxide Formation: During the hot rolling of metals, when the
rolled surface is exposed to airm, formation of oxides or scales
may occur.
3.7 SHAPE ROLLING
LO 3.7 List and explain popular shape rolling methods.

What we have discussed till now was about flat rolling, the
basic type of rolling process. In addition to this, many different
shapes can be produced using the rolling process. All such
rolling processes together is called shape rolling. Solid bars
of various cross sections, channels, I-beams, rails etc. can be
manufactured using specially designed rolls. Based on the
cross section and degree of reduction in dimensions, a series of
rolls needs to be used to obtain the final shape of the section.
3.7.1 Roll Forging
Roll forging is a specialised rolling process in which a pair
rolls with shaped grooves is used for shaping the cross section
of circular bars as shown in figure 3.21. Roll forging can also
be used to produced tapered shafts, leaf springs, and hand
tools.
Figure 3.21
3.7.2 Ring Rolling

LO 3.8 Explain the ring rolling process.
Ring rolling is the process of expanding a thick ring (its
inner diameter is small when compared to thickness) into a
thin ring having larger inner diameter. After the ring rolling
process, cross section of the ring is reduced when compared
with initial cross section. The figure 3.18 shows a thick ring
undergoing ring rolling process, which is converted to a ring
of larger inner diameter and smaller cross section as shown in
figure 3.22.
Ring rolling process is mainly accomplished by using two
rollers: driven roll (main roll) and idler roll. Thickness of ring
is reduced by bringing the rolls closer to the ring as they
rotate. Since the volume of the ring material remains constant,
geometric reduction in the thickness will be compensated as
increase in the diameter of the ring. Two conical shaped rolls
are used during the ring rolling, to ensure a constant width for
the ring during the entire process. These two conical rolls are
known as edging rolls.
Edging Rolls Main roll

Idler roll
Work piece
Figure 3.22
Major advantage of rings produced by ring rolling process
is that favourable grain orientation that enhances strength of
the ring. Other advantages of ring rolling are short production
times, material savings and close dimensional tolerances.
Important applications of ring rolling are for producing rings
for rockets and turbines, jet engine cases, wheel rims, ball and
roller-bearing races, flanges, and reinforcing rings for pipes.
3.7.3 Thread Rolling

LO 3.9 Explain different methods used in thread rolling.
Thread rolling is a cold forming process by which threads
(straight or tapered) are formed on round rods. Hardened
steel dies are used for producing threads. Threaded faces of
the dies are pressed against the workpiece to form the thread
on the work surface. Unlike other threading processes, no
material is removed in the thread rolling process. The material
is compressed and deformed to the shape of threads on the
surface of the workpiece.
The major advantages of rolled threads are improved
physical characteristics (increased strength in tension, shear
and fatigue), greater accuracy, high degree of surface finish, no
wastage of material and higher production rate. Thread rolling
process finds applications in external and internal threaded
screws and also for tapered threads.
Methods of thread rolling
Most of the threads produced nowadays are rolled on
thread rolling machines. The machines used for producing
rolled threads depend on nature of parts, quality and quantity
required. The optimum rolling condition and product quality
can be obtained when correct method of rolling is used. The
different methods of thread rolling are:
Reciprocating Machines
These machines use flat dies for the purpose of rolling.
Figure 3.23 shows two views of reciprocating roller machine.
These machines are made in a number of sizes for different
range of diameters. In this method threads are formed on the
rod or blank with the help of a pair of flat dies. One of the dies
is stationary and the other is reciprocating. The threaded faces
of the dies are located on both sides of the blank. A thread is
formed on the blank during the forward stroke of the moving
die. The diameter of the finished thread depends on both the
diameter of blank and distance between the threaded faces
of the dies. The number of revolutions provided for rolling a
thread on a blank is dependent on the die length. When larger
blanks and dies are used, heat will be generated in both dies and
workpiece. To avoid this, continuous supply of coolant is used.
Blank
Moving Die
Stationary Die
Threaded Part
Figure 3.23
Rotary Planetary Machine
This machine have one central rotary die on a fixed axis and
one or more stationary concave segment dies located to the
outside of the rotary die as shown in figure 3.24.
Rotary Die Stationary segment Die
Blanks
Figure 3.24
At the starting end, a concave segment die and rotary
die will just contact the blank. The exit end of the concave
segment die is set closer to the axis of the rotary die. So the
penetration rate is usually greater at the exit end. One or more
blanks may be rolling simultaneously in a segment die. The
axial movement of the die is appreciable during rolling.
Cylindrical Die Machines

Cylindrical die machines are made with two or three dies
as shown in figures 3.25 and 3.26. In cylindrical machines the
rate of penetration is controlled by the amount of feed applied
to the dies.
Work rest Workpiece Stationary

Cylindrical
Die
Moving
Cylindrical
Die
Figure 3.25
Two types of cylindrical die machines are two cylinder die
machines and three cylinder die machines.
Cylindrical
Dies in Rolling
Position
Work piece
Cylindrical
Dies in Retracted
Position
Figure 3.26
In two cylinder die machines, the blank is supported

between the cylindrical dies by a work rest. Both the cylindrical
dies are rotating in opposite directions. One cylinder is fixed
and the other one is movable. The moving cylinder can be
used to insert the blank and to release the threaded blank.
The diameter of the finished thread is controlled by the size of
the blank, the distance between the dies and the position of
the centre of the blank.
Three cylinder die machines have dies equally spaced
around the blank, which floats between them as shown in the
figure 3.26. All the three dies are rotated in the same direction
and the feed is given by all three dies. The diameter of the
threaded blank is controlled by the size of the blank and the
distance between the three dies.
3.7.4 Gear Rolling
The gear rolling process is an efficient alternative to
gear cutting process for the production of high gears. The
manufacturing of involute gear profiles by rolling, has several
advantages like significantly shorter process times, no material
loss and subsequently no chip disposal, strength increase in
the forming zone and a high surface quality.
Figure 3.27
Gear rolling can be performed in two different ways. The
first way is to use circular toothed gears as the forming tools.
This is called the round rolling method. The second way of gear
rolling is to use flat tools (racks) as tools. This is called the flat
rolling method.
The round rolling process is carried out in three steps:
1. The first phase is to run the initial rolling. During this
phase the tools are in tangential contact to the workpiece
with a very small amount of engagement caused by the
pressure applied to the tools. The rotation of the tools
will generate the first imprint on the workpiece. The
required number of teeth on the workpiece is generated
at this stage of the process.
2. The second phase of round rolling is to start the
penetration of the rollers into the workpiece at the same
time as rolling them. The combination of linear and
rotational movement of the tools forces the workpiece
material to flow plastically. The gear teeth are formed
after several rolling cycles.
3. The last phase is to stop the penetration, when the full
required depth of tooth is reached. At this calibration
phase the rolling with no extra penetration equalizes the
distribution of deformation on all of the teeth on the
workpiece.
The gear rolling process with round tools is one example of
cold bulk metal forming technologies.
In flat rolling, the tools have linear movement. The workpiece
is in contact with both tools. The forming takes place in one
course of movement of the tools against each other. The
deformation is caused by the press load applied from the tools
into the workpiece at the same time as the linear movement.
The flat rolling process includes three main steps similar to the
round rolling process to form a gear wheel from a cylindrical
blank into a full teethed gear.
3.7.5 Rolling of Tubes
LO 3.10 Explain different methods used in tube rolling.
Another important area of application of rolling process is
in the production of seamless tubes from solid bars of different
cross sectional shapes. Rolling of tubes can be done in a
number of different methods and the two popular methods are
explained here.
Rotary Tube Piercing
Rotary tube piercing is also known as Mannesmann
process. It is a hot working operation used for the production
of seamless tubes having long and thick walls. Rotary tube

piercing is done on Mannesmann mills which consist of a
pair of skewed rolls and a mandrel. Skewed rolls help for the
drawing of the workpiece (bar) inside the rolls. The axes of the
rolls are inclined at an angle with reference to the axis of the
workpiece. This kind of rolling is called cross rolling. Mandrel
is a piercing shaft either fixed or floating type used to generate
hole in the centre of tube.
Firstly, the bar is centre drilled at one end and heated to the
suitable temperature. The heated blank is placed in position
and forced into the rolling mill as shown in the figure 3.28.
The two rolls are rotated in opposite directions and forcing the
blank to proceed against the mandrel. When the bar is pushed
between the rollers it gets squeezed and rotated. At the same
time, the mandrel pierces the bulk of the bar and develops
a hole inside it. This results in squeezing and bulging from
inside, which increases the diameter of hole.
Figure 3.28
Tube Rolling
Tube rolling process is used for reducing the diameter and
thickness of the seamless tubes. Pilger rolling is one of the
popular methods of tube rolling. The thick walled hollow shells
produced by the cross roll piercing mill are the raw materials
for the pilger rolling process. This is one of the complex metal
forming processes. It combines the elements of forging with
rolling.
The pilgering stand has two specially contoured work rolls
(the shaded rolls in figure 3.29) which are also called as dies
due to their forging action. These rolls are attached to two idle
guide rolls, indicated by the outer circles in figure 3.25.
Start of rolling (bite)
Forging/Pilgering
Hollow Shell
Tube
Mandrel
Pilger Roll Polishing
Guide Roll
Feed
Figure 3.29
Among all the different tube rolling processes, the pilger

rolling process has the wide range in respect of tube diameter
and wall thickness of seamless tubes. The pilger tube mills
are employed to produce tubes from 50 to 650mm diameter
with wall thickness ranging from 3 to 125mm. In addition to
circular tubes, special tubes of square and hexagonal cross
sections; stepped tubes; tubes with internally or externally
upset ends can also be made by this process.
The figure 3.29 shows a schematic representation of the
pilger rolling sequence. The hollow shell is pushed over a
lubricated cylindrical mandrel, the diameter of which roughly
corresponds to the desired inside diameter of the finished
tube. The shell and mandrel assembly is then fed into the
pilger rolls by a feeder. As the hollow shell is “bitten” by
the tapered inlet of the work rolls, a small wave of material
is pressed away from its external surface and then forged
to the desired wall thickness by the smoothing portion of
the work rolls acting on the mandrel. Then the hollow shell
together with mandrel is pushed backwards against the rolling
direction and the mandrel and hollow shell fed back to the
original rolling position. A helical spindle simultaneously
rotates the stock by 90° and a hydraulic system pushes the
feeder forward by a length equivalent to the previously rolled
hollow shell volume. Meanwhile, the rolls have rotated to the
point where the stock is once again bitten by the inlet portion
of the work rolls, with a new wave of material being pushed
over the shell surface in a repetition of the previous cycle.
Every area of the material is rolled at least twice in this way,
the resulting tube exhibits both a uniform wall thickness
and excellent concentricity. Once the pilgering process is
completed, the finished tube is stripped from the mandrel.
This stepwise rolling-cum-forging process with its recurring
backward and forward motion was given the name “pilger”
(German for “pilgrim”) owing to its similarity with a famous
pilgrim dancing procession in which participants take three
steps forward and two steps backward.
3.7.6 Rolling of I Beams
LO 3.11 Explain how I beams and axles are made by
rolling.
The beams having I shaped cross section are called I beams.
The horizontal member of the I beam is known as flange and
the vertical member is web. The I beams are most widely
used in the construction field, since these are very efficient
structures for carrying both bending and shear loads. These

are usually made of structural steels, aluminium and other
materials. Rolling is the common method of manufacture of I
beams.
(a) Blooming (b) Edging
(d) Intermediate Rolling

(c) Roughing
(e) Edging
(f) Finishing
Figure 3.30
Rolling of I beam consist of a number of steps in the
following sequence as explained below and as shown in figure
3.30. The number of passes for rolling depends upon the roll
pass design. The initial workpiece usually used is having
rectangular section called an ingot. This material is passed
through six different roll passes. The steps are:

Blooming: in the first step, the rectangular ingot is passed
through the blooming mill. Blooming mills are high capacity
rolling mills used for the reduction of larger cross sections of
works into blooms. When the ingot is passed through blooming
mill it gets deformed into an initial shape of I beam (figure
3.30a).
Edging: After blooming, the sections are passed through
edging mills to increase the dimension of the vertical member
of I beam, the web (figure 3.30b).
Roughing: The roughing mill is used to reduce the
thickness of flange section in the I beams. For this operation,
both horizontal and vertical rollers are made use of. As the
name indicates, in this step metal deforms roughly into the
small thickness (figure 3.30c).
Intermediate rolling: This operation also utilizes both
horizontal and vertical rolls. The operation is similar to the
third step, which reduces the thickness of the flanges(figure
3.30d).
Edging: This process is similar to the second step. During
the edging operation, length of the web is again increased
(figure 3.30e).
Finishing: This is the final step in the rolling of I beams.
Both the horizontal and vertical rollers are used in this
operation (figure 3.30f).
Rolling of rail sections can also be done by an identical
process involving a number of roll passes. Here, the roll pass
design needs to be changed to suit the requirements of rail
section. Figure 3.31 shows a few steps in the roll pass design
for rolling of rail sections.
Turn A few more

section sizing
O
by 90 passes
Figure 3.31
3.7.7 Rolling of Axles

Axles are long axisymmetric components having a stepped
configuration on the outer surface. Special types of rolling
process are employed to make axles. Two methods which are
used for rolling of axles are cross wedge rolling (CWR) and
skew rolling processes. The CWR is a time tested process
developed years back and also employed for the manufacture
of other products like spanners, connecting rods, lever forks
and cranks. The skew rolling process is a recently developed
technique.
Cross Wedge Rolling
Rolled part
Wedge tool
Auxiliary
surface
Forming
surface
Billet
Figure 3.32
The process consists of forming axially symmetric products
by means of wedge shaped tools. These tools are mounted
over the concave surfaces of rolling mills. The process involves
three steps of knifing, forming and sizing. The wedge shaped
tools are designed to implement these three steps in a single
pass. During knifing, the wedge gradually sinks into the
work material and thus reducing the diameter. The forming
zone makes use of the side walls of the wedge and a spiral
reduction over the whole length of the rolled region occurs.
The sizing zone of the tool subjects the workpiece to rotary
reducing and surface irregularities are removed. The wedge
has a typical shape as shown in figure 3.32, when it is over
a flat surface. Similar shaped wedges can be milled over the
surface of cylindrical rollers. The pointed end of the wedge
effects the knifing, the lateral sides help the forming and the
parallel edges assist in the sizing actions.

The CWR process can be implemented in many different
ways, depending on the wedge shape and how the wedges are
powered. Three popular methods are:
With two rolls: Here, the axle is formed by means of wedge
segments milled on the surface of rollers having parallel axes,
as shown in figure 3.33.
Figure 3.33
With flat tools: This is easy to construct and the accuracy
is better. Here the wedge segments are formed on two flat
plates between which the billet is placed and rolled by the
reciprocating movement of the plates. The rolling action
deforms the billet and forms it into the shape of axle (see figure
3.34).
Figure 3.34
Figure 3.35
The CWR has the advantages of higher output and lower
material wastage. But one of the shortcomings of the process
is in the difficulty of forming longer axles, which require longer
rolls with the wedges.
3.7.8 Skew Rolling

For effective manufacture of long axisymmetric parts like
axles, skew rolling method with three tapered rolls can be used.
The method involves forming the part by three tapered rolls
which are located on the workpiece surface at every 120O. The
arrangement is illustrated in figure 3.36. The axes of the rolls
are set at an inclination of θO with the axis of the workpiece to
form shapes of steps with inclination of θO.
Figure 3.36
3.8 PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF METALS

LO 3.12 Define the terms normal strain, shear strain,
strain rate and velocity in terms of displacement.
For studying the plastic deformation behavior of a metal, it
is necessary to consider uniform or homogenous deformation
conditions. The yield stress of the metal under uniaxial
loading, as a function of strain, strain rate and temperature
can be considered as flow stress. The metal starts deforming
plastically or starts flowing when the applied stress reaches
the value of yield stress or flow stress.
Hence, strains or deformations, strain rates and velocities or
displacements per unit time, are to be defined in order to study
plastic deformation during metal forming. Consider a very
small rectangular element abcd as shown in figure 3.37. After
a small amount of plastic deformation, the element changes its
shape into a parallelogram a′b′c′d′ . The analysis given in two
dimensions is equally applicable to three dimensional cases.
Figure 3.37
Let the co-ordinates of point a be (x, y). After a small amount
of deformation, the point will have co-ordinates (x ′, y ′) at the
position a′ .
If the displacement of the point a in the x-direction is ux,

then the magnitude of displacement of the point ubx can be
approximated as
∂u
= ux + x dx
ubx (3.1)
∂x
∂ux
The term represents the rate of change of ux with respect
∂x
to x over the distance dx.
The relative elongation of the line ab or strain εx in the
x-direction can be expressed as
∂u x
ux + dx − u x
ubx − u x ∂x = ∂ux
=εx =
dx dx ∂x
Similarly, strains εy and εz along y and z-directions can
be obtained as
∂u ∂u
εy = y and εz = z
∂y ∂z
The small deformations also causes angular changes in the
small element abcd as shown in figure. These angular changes
α and β are very small and hence
tan α = α and tan β = β

uby − uy
α= (3.2)
ubx + dx − u x
Similar to eqn. (3.1) uby can be expressed as
∂u
= uy + y dy
uby (3.3)
∂y
Using eqn. (3.1) and (3.3) yields (neglecting smaller terms)
∂u ∂u x
α = y and β =
∂x ∂y
Total angular deformation in the xy plane or shear strain
∂uy ∂ux
γ xy = α + β = +
∂x ∂y
Similarly
∂uy ∂uz
γ yz= +
∂z ∂y
∂uz ∂u x
γ zx= +
∂x ∂z
Now, these are the definitions for components of strain
in terms of components of displacement (for small strains).
It should be noted that rate of change of displacement with
respect to a co-ordinate direction gives the normal strain along

that direction.
Velocities and strain rates
The rate of change of displacement with respect to time
is velocity. Using different components of displacement, we
can determine the components of velocity Vx, Vy, Vz within
the deforming materials, along the x, y, z directions. The
components of velocity describe the metal flow in that material
undergoing plastic deformation.
∂ux ∂uy ∂uz

=Vx = ; Vy = ; Vz
∂t ∂t ∂t
The variations of strain with respect to time is called strain

rate,
∂εx ∂ ∂ux ∂ ∂ux ∂Vx

ε =
x = = =
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂t ∂x
∂Vy ∂Vz
ε y
Similarly, = ;=ε z
∂y ∂z
∂Vx ∂Vy ∂Vy ∂Vz ∂Vz ∂Vx
γ xy= + ; γ yz= + ; γ zx= +
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z
In every element undergoing plastic deformation, it is
possible to orient the co-ordinate system such that the element
is not subjected to shear loads.
Now, the shear strain components would be zero and the
element deforms along the principal axes of deformation. In
most of the forming processes, amount of plastic strain is
much larger than elastic strain. For deformation along the
principal axes,
εx + εy + εz =0 and ε x + ε y + ε z =0
3.8.1 Stress - Strain Relationships

LO 3.13 Define engineering stress and strain & compare
with true stress and true strain.
Definitions of stress and strain (engineering stress &
engineering stain) which you are familiar with are with respect
to loading within the elastic range (proportionality limit in
stress-strain curve).
F
Engineering stress, e
Ao
L L0
Engineering strain, e
L0

As the material undergoes deformation, these definitions
may not be appropriate. Instead, true stress and true strain
at any instant needs to be considered here. True stress is
obtained by dividing the applied load by the instantaneous
value of area of cross section.
F

A
Similarly, true strain is the instantaneous elongation per
unit length of the material. The value of true strain in a tensile
test can be obtained by dividing the total elongation into
small increments, calculating the engineering strain for each
increment on the basis of its starting length and then adding
up the strain values. Now, true strain is defined as:
L
dL L
L
ln
L0
L0
where L0 is the original length and L is instantaneous length at

any moment during elongation. At the end of deformation the
final strain value can be calculated using L=Lf
Lf
ln
L0
When the stress-strain curve is plotted using true stress

and strain values, we get a curve as in figure 3.38.
if no necking
occurred
Start of necking
Yield point,
start of plastic region
True stress,
Elastic region
True strain,
Figure 3.38
In the elastic region, Hooke’s law can be used to relate true

stress to true strain E . As the strains are small, true
strain is nearly equal to engineering strain.
In the plastic region, stress values are higher as the
cross sectional area is reduced during elongation. As the
strain becomes significant in the plastic region, true strain
and engineering strain becomes different and are related by
ln(1 e )
Similarly true stress and engineering strain are related by
e (1 e )
From figure 3.38 it can be noted that in the plastic region
stress also increases as strain is increased. This means
the material is becoming stranger as strain increases. This
behaviour is called strain hardening or work hardening. If the
stress strain curve is plotted on a logarithmic scale as in figure
3.39 we can observe a linear relationship between true stress
and true strain.
Relationship between true stress and true strain in the
plastic region can be expressed as
K n
This equation is called flow curve and given a good
approximation of behaviour of metals in the plastic region. The
constant K is called strength coefficient and n is a parameter
called strain hardening exponent.
100 Start of necking
K
True stress,
a
b
10
n = a/b
1
0.01 0.1 a/b 1.0
True strain
Figure 3.39
In short, Hooke’s law, E governs the behaviour of

metal in elastic region, and the flow curve K n determines
the behaviour in the plastic region. Most of the ductile metals
initially deform elastically and thereafter undergo plastic
deformation with strain hardening. Manufacturing processes
that deform material though application of tensile stresses
include wire drawing and stretch forming. Processes like
rolling forging and extrusion make use of compressive loading
to deform the materials.
As a compressive stress is applied on a metallic material, its
cross sectional area is increased. Engineering stress is defined
as:
F
e
Ao
This is same as that in tensile loading. Engineering strain

is defined as:
h h0
e
h0
where h is the instantaneous height of specimen and h0 is the

original height. When the engineering strain is plotted against
engineering strain in compression we get a plot as in figure
3.40.
Stress,
Yield point,
start of plastic region
Elastic region
Strain,
Figure 3.40
The compressive stress causes the cross section to increase.

Thus engineering stress will be having higher values. In
addition, friction also causes an increase in the engineering
stress.
Although differences exist between engineering stress-
strain curves in tension and compression, the relationships
are identical when true stress-strain data is plotted. The flow
curve parameters K and n can be derived from tensile data
and the same can be used for compressive loading also. In
figures 3.38 and 3.39, dashed lines are drawn to indicate
the behaviour when necking does not occur. In compressive
loading, no necking occurs and the dashed region in true
stress-strain curve can be approximated for the compressive
deformation.
3.8.2 Flow Stress

LO 3.14 Define flow stress and average flow stress.
Flow stress is the strength property that determines forces
and power required to attain a particular forming operation.
The flow stress is defined as the instantaneous value of stress
required to continue deforming the material. It can be called as
the yield strength of the metal as a function of strain.
f K n
In certain forging operations the instantaneous force during
compression can be determined from the flow stress value.
Similarly maximum force can be determined from the flow
stress corresponding to the final strain at the end of forging.
3.8.3 Average Flow Stress

This is the average value of stress over the stress-strain
curve from the starting value to final value of strain during
deformation as illustrated in figure 3.41.
The average flow stress is the area under the stress-strain
curve in figure 3.37. It is determined by integrating the flow
curve equation between zero and final strain value.
K n
f avg
1n
True stress, f
f avg
0
True strain, f
Figure 3.41
Average flow stress is used in the calculation of force in
various deformation processes. Based on the given values of K
and n for a material, the above equation can be used determine
average flow stress.
LO 3.15 List the features of yield criteria by Tresca and

von Mises.
3.8.4 Tresca’s Yield Criterion

This theory is also known as Guest’s theory or Coulomb’s
theory, which is developed based on the observations made in
the course of extrusion of soft metals. This theory states that
the plastic deformation occurs when the maximum shear stress
induced in the system reaches the value of maximum shear
stress developed at yielding in an axial tensile or compressive
test on the material. In the 2-D case, the maximum shear
stress is given by the following:
1
max (1 2 )
2
The Tresca yield criterion states that plastic flow starts
when the maximum shear stress τmax reaches a certain critical
value, k, or when τmax = k , where k is the shear flow stress
which is a characteristic of the material.
If σY is the yield stress in uniaxial test, then shear stress
σ
due to this is Y . According to this theory, the conditions for
1 2 k
yielding is 1 2 Y
2 2 2
These can be written as 1 2 Y , which is applicable

to principal stresses of the opposite type (one is tensile and
other is compressive). When the principal stresses are alike,
(both tensile or compressive) then the higher value of principal
stress must be less than the limiting value σY . The Tresca
rule can be expressed as plastic flow starts if the difference of
maximum and minimum principal stresses is equal to yield
stress σY or k, shear flow stress.
Hence, 1 Y and 2 Y can be used along with
1 2 Y to determine the boundaries of yield locus and
can be graphically represented as shown in figure 3.42. The
yield locus is of hexagonal shape which is called as Tresca
hexagon.
Figure 3.42
In the 3-D case, the principal stresses are σ1, σ2 & σ3

and σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3 . While considering the largest and smallest
1
principal stresses in 3D, it would be written as τmax= (σ1 − σ3 )
2
The state of stress which causes plastic deformation can be
illustrated using Mohr’s circle of radius k as shown in figure
3.43, for the case of uniaxial tensile loading.
In a bar subjected to uniaxial loading, the maximum shear
stress occurs on a plane at 45O to the load axis. Tension tests
conducted on mild steel bars show that at the time of yielding,
the slip planes occur approximately at 45O, thus supporting
this theory. In the case of brittle materials, the slip planes
differ considerably from the planes of maximum shear.
Figure 3.43
3.8.5 von Mises Yield Criterion
This theory is also known as maximum shear strain energy
theory, maximum distortion energy theory and popularly as
von Mises theory.
This theory differs from the previous one by considering
the fact that the portion of strain energy producing change in
shape of the element is assumed to be completely responsible
for the failure of the material by yielding. The portion which
is ineffective in causing failure by yielding is the hydrostatic
component of strain energy (energy of volumetric change).
According to this theory, the plastic deformation will occur
when the shear strain energy (distortion) density at any point
in a stressed body is equal to the shear strain energy density
absorbed by the material at yield point in uniaxial loading.
The energy of distortion can be obtained by subtracting the
energy of volumetric change from the total strain energy.
Shear strain energy density in 2-D stress system is
1 2
Us
3E

1 22 12
Strain energy density at yield point in simple tension or
1 2
compression is Y
3E
According to this theory, the above two should be equal.
12 22 12 Y2 (3.4)
This theory is in good agreement with experimental results

for ductile materials. Hence, it is accepted to be valid for ductile
materials and is extensively used in design.
The eqn 3.4 represents an ellipse and the yield locus
corresponding to this theory of failure is an ellipse as shown in
figure 3.44. The yield locus shows that it agrees fairly well with
the maximum shear stress theory. The hexagon representing
the maximum shear stress theory is fully enclosed by the
ellipse now. The ellipse drawn according to maximum strain
energy theory will become identical with the present one for
the largest possible value of 0.5 .
Figure 3.44
In general, the theory can be stated for the 3 dimensional

case as
1
( σx − σy ) + ( σy − σz ) + ( σz − σx )2 + 3 ( τ2xy + τyz2 + τ2zx )
2 2 2
σ=
2 
Y
In terms of principal stresses, this reduces to

1
( σ1 − σ2 ) + ( σ2 − σ3 ) + ( σ3 − σ1 ) 
2 2 2 2
σ=
Y
2  (3.5)
The elastic strain energy stored in the elastically deformed
material prior to yielding is represented by the above
expressions. The flow rule says that the plastic flow or plastic
deformation starts when this elastic energy reaches a critical
value.
3.8.6 Comparison of Tresca and von Mises criteria

LO 3.16 Give a comparitive study of Tresca and von Mises
criteria for plastic deformation.
F
In uniaxial tension, σ1 = and σ2 =σ3 =0 .
A
1 2
Now, eqn (3.5) reduces to σY2 = 2σ1
2
or σY =σ1 (3.6)
The same result was obtained from Tresca’s theory also.

Hence it can be stated that, under uniaxial tension, both yield
criteria give the same results.
σ σ
From Tresca’s theory, τmax = 1 = Y , which is also valid
2 2
here.
Mohr’s circle for pure shear is shown in figure 3.45. Here

the situation is different. Pure shear exists for σ3 =−σ1, σ2 =0 .
σ
The Tresca’s theory gives τmax =σ1 = Y in pure shear.
2
Figure 3.45
From eqn. 3.5, the von Mises theory gives

1 2
σY =
2
( σ1 + σ12 + 4σ12 ) = 3σ1 (3.7)
σY
From figure 3.45, τmax =σ1 = =0.577σY
3
This means, there is a 15% difference between values of
τmax obtained from the Tresca and von Mises theories. There
are experimental evidences to indicate that the von Mises rule
is a better criterion than the Tresca’s, when combined shear
and tensile loading is applied.
Plastic flow or plastic deformation starts when the stresses

in the metal reach a certain level as specified by the yield
criterion of flow rule (Tresca or von Mises). Analysis of plastic
deformation needs a relationship between applied stresses
and velocity field (strain rate). Such a set of relations between
stresses along principal directions and strain rates is called
plasticity equations as given by eqns (3.8) to (3.10).
ε1 = λ(σ1 − σm ) (3.8)
ε 2 = λ(σ2 − σm ) (3.9)
ε 3 = λ(σ3 − σm ) (3.10)
The variable λ depends on direction of plastic flow,

temperature, material, strain and strain rate.
1
σm= ( σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) .
3
3.9 POWER AND ENERGY OF DEFORMATION

LO 3.17 Determine the power and energy requirements for
metal forming.
The mechanical energy consumed during plastic
deformation is transformed mainly into heat, and the process
is not reversible. Consider the homogenous deformation along
the principal directions, of a block of dimensions l, h, and w as
The following relations for strains and strain rates are valid
for this case.
l v
εl =ε1 =ln ; ε1 = l
l0 l
h v w v
εh =ε2 =ln ; ε 2 = h & εw =ε3 =ln ; ε 3 = w
h0 h w0 w
Figure 3.46
In figure 3.46, the forces acting on each face is shown as

principal stress × area of face. The instantaneous power of
deformation P is given by force × velocity.
P = σ1whvl + σ2wlvh + σ3hlv w
= σ1wh × l ε1 + σ2wl × h ε 2 + σ3hl × w ε 3
= σ1ε1 × lwh + σ2ε 2 × lwh + σ3ε 3 × lwh
= ( σ1ε1 + σ2ε 2 + σ3ε 3 ) × lwh

= ( σ1ε1 + σ2ε 2 + σ3ε 3 ) × V
where V is the volume of the deforming block. The energy of
deformation E is given by
t1 t1
= V ∫ ( σ1ε1 + σ2ε 2 + σ3ε 3 ) dt

E = ∫ Pdt
t0 t0
3.9.1 Heat Generation and Heat Transfer in Metal Forming

LO 3.18 Explain how heat generation and heat transfer
dissipation takes place during metal forming.
Plastic deformation and friction generate heat during any
metal forming process. About 95% of the mechanical energy
involved in the process is transformed into heat. The increase
in temperature may be more than several hundred degrees in
the case of continuous processes like drawing and extrusion.
The heat generated during the process is distributed into
the deformed and undeformed parts of the material as well
to the tooling used. The conditions of lubrication, tool life
and the properties of deformed product are affected by the
high temperatures developed. Consequently, the maximum
deformation speed is dependent on the heat generated during
plastic deformation.
The major factors affecting the magnitude and distribution

of temperatures during metal forming are:
• The initial temperature of material and die
• Heat generation due to plastic deformation and friction

at the interface between die and material
• Heat transfer between material and dies & between

material and the environment.
In processes like forging and extrusion, minimum

lubricants are used. Here the heat transfer to environment
through radiation and conduction can be neglected. The
average temperature in the deforming material is contributed
by the initial temperature, the increase in temperature due to
deformation, temperature increase due to friction and the drop
in temperature due to heat transfer into the dies.
In forming operations, there is a temperature gradient

between the deforming material and the dies. There will be
higher temperature at the material die interface due to the heat
generated by friction. This temperature decreases towards the
inside of material and the die.
In metal forming process like cold forging, deformation
takes place within a very short period of time like fraction of
a second. During this short period, the material and die are
in contact. After deformation, the part is removed from the die,
and the dies will get a cool off time before the next part is loaded.
In a continuous forming process like wire drawing, the

deforming material is continuously in contact with the die
and there is a cumulative temperature increase in the die.
This increase in temperature has significant effect on die life,
production rate and quality of the drawn material.
3.9.2 Temperature in Forging
LO 3.19 Explain how heat dissipation takes place during
forging process.
Forging process is a forming operation in which the metal
flow is not continuous. Here, the contact between the deforming
metal and the dies is intermittent. The duration of contact
and the nature of heat transfer at the die/material interface
influence temperatures significantly. The most significant
factor is the contact time between the dies and deforming
material under pressure.
In the case of die forging, as hot material (billet) is placed
in the die, it (die) gets heated up. As the ram comes in contact
with the billet and load is applied, the heat transfer rate will
be maximum. During the contact time, billet temperature
decreases significantly and the die surface temperature shows
significant increase. It is interesting to note that, when the ram
and the applied load are removed, the rate of temperature drop
decreases significantly. Once it is removed from the die, the
rate of temperature drop increases again.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Classify the metal forming processes. L1
2. List the consequences of having rolls made of (a) L1
very smooth surfaces, and (b) rough surfaces?
3. List the various processes of metal working. L1
4. List the advantages of hot working over cold L1
working of metals
5. Compare the specific merits of cold working over L1
hot working
6. State two parameters which determine the extent L1
of deformation possible in a given material in a
metal working process.
7. Define ‘grain flow’ in the case of forged or rolled L1
components
8. Differentiate cold rolling from hot rolling in terms L1
of the process and product
9. List the methods in which the roll-separating L1

force could be reduced in cold rolling.
10. Define the terms ingot, slab, bloom and billet. L1
11. List the advantages and disadvantages of hot L1
working
12. List the common hot working processes L1
13. Define the principle involved in hot rolling. L1
14. Classify the types of rolling mills and sketch L1
them.
15. List the advantages and disadvantages of cold L1
working
16. Define ‘Rolling’. Differentiate cold rolling from hot L1
rolling
17. List the main process variables in a rolling L1
process.
18. Define (a) roll gap (b) neutral point (c) draft. L1
19. Describe the difference between a bloom, a slab L1
and a billet.
20. List the defects commonly observed after flat L1
rolling.
21. List the advantages of tandem rolling L1
22. Make a list of some parts that can be made by L1
shape rolling.
23. Name the four basic bulk deformation processes. L1
24. Define draft in rolling operation L1
25. Do you think metal forming process is more L2
competitive when compared to machining or
casting process? Explain your answer with an
example.
26. In a four-high rolling mill, why do we use small L2
diameter rolls as working rolls and larger diameter
rolls as back up rolls. Explain
27. Justify whether thread rolling be a hot working L2
process.
28. Specify the temperature to which a given plain- L2
carbon steel be heated for hot working
29. Give a line diagram of the various processes L2
involved in the manufacture of the steel sheet,
starting from steel ingots.
30. Explain why the strength of a rolled part L2

considered usually better than a cast piece
31. Explain the principle of rolling with a neat sketch. L2
32. Explain some defects that can be present in rolled L2
products with their remedies.
33. Describe the arrangement of rolls, specific uses L2
and other details of any two types of rolling mills
in commercial use.
34. Explain planetary rolling mill in detail. L2
35. Describe what happens to metal when it is rolled. L2
36. Discuss briefly principle and mechanism of L2
rolling.
37. Describe briefly “Cluster rolls’ and “Planetary L2
mill”
38. Explain briefly various defects observed in rolling. L2
39. Explain the factors contribute to spreading in flat L2
rolling
40. Explain the types of deflection that rolls undergo. L2
41. Explain how seamless tubes are produced by L2
rolling
42. Describe the process of thread rolling. L2
43. Identify some of the ways in which force in flat L2
rolling can be reduced.
44. Explain the working of a two-high rolling mill L2
45. Explain the features of a reversing mill in rolling L2
46. Besides flat rolling and shape rolling, identify L2
some additional bulk forming processes that use
rolls to effect the deformation.
47. An annealed Copper strip 228mm wide and 25mm L2
thick is rolled to a thickness 20mm in one pass.
The roll radius is 300mm and the rolls rotate at
100rpm. Calculate the roll force and the power
required in this operation
48. Explain how do you select the speed of the rolls at L3
different stands in a continuous rolling mill.
49. Suggest a suitable process for the manufacture of L3
rails and justify your answer.
50. Explain the reasons why the bulk deformation L3
processes are important commercially and
technologically
51. Explain how to choose the material for making L3

rolls
52. A 100mm square billet is to be rolled into a L3
rod of 12.5mm diameter. Draw the sequence of
operations
53. Explain the yield criteria of Tresca, von Mises and L3
compare each other
54. Simply stretching the material can reduce L3
thickness of the material. Explain why do we
require rolling process.
55. Explain what happens in rolling process if L3
(a) rolls are made from different sizes,
(b) rolls are made from materials having different
properties, and
(c) rolls rotate at different speeds.
56. An annealed Copper strip 228mm wide and 25mm L3
thick is rolled to a thickness 20mm in one pass.
The roll radius is 300mm and the rolls rotate at
100rpm. Calculate the roll force and the power
required in this operation
MODULE
4
FORGING
EXTRUSION
DRAWING
Learning Objectives
LO 4.1 Define forging process and list out its advantages

over other manufacturing processes.
LO 4.2 Give a comparitive study of grain flow observed in

products made from forging, casting and machining.
LO 4.3 List and explain various ways in which forging

process is classified.
LO 4.4 Describe the basic steps in forging process.
LO 4.5 Explain the different methods used to carry out the

forging process.
LO 4.6 Analyse the forging pressure using slab method.
LO 4.7 Describe the major features of a forging die and its

design.
LO 4.8 List the major defects observed in forged parts.
LO 4.9 Define the extrusion process and explain the

important features.
LO 4.10 Classify the extrusion process and describe

different types.
LO 4.11 Analyse the extrusion process in detail.
LO 4.12 List the commonly observed extrusion defects.
LO 4.13 Define the drawing process used for drawing

wire, rod and tube.
LO 4.14 Explain the processes of wire, rod and tube

drawing.
LO 4.15 Define the deep drawing process and explain its

features and applications.
LO 4.16 Define deep drawability.

MODULE 4 FORGING 217
4.1 FORGING
LO 4.1 Define forging process and list out its advantages
over other manufacturing processes.
Forging is a metal forming process through the application
of compressive stress for deformation. It is carried out either in
hot or cold condition, but generally is a hot working process. In
this process, the work material is heated and a force is applied
either by impact or by gradual pressure to deform the material
to the required size and shape. This is one of the ancient metal
forming processes, people employed for making coins, jewellry,
weapons etc.
Forging has several advantages. Closer dimensional
accuracies achieved require very little machining after
forging. Material saving is the result. Higher strength, greater
productivity, favorable grain orientation and high degree
of surface finish are the other merits. However, complex die
making is costly.
Typical applications of forging include bolts, disks, gears,
crank shaft, connecting rod, valve bodies, small components
for hydraulic circuits etc.
4.1.1 Grain Flow in Forgings

LO 4.2 Give a comparitive study of grain flow observed in
products made from forging, casting and machining.
Grain flow is a directional orientation of metal grains that
have been deformed by forging. Individual grains are elongated
in the direction of the metal flow or plastic deformation. Grain
flow occurs to some degree in all metal forming processes.
Figure 4.1 shows the comparison of grain flow in components
made by forging, casting and machining processes. Some
mechanical properties do vary with respect to the orientation
relative to grain flow. But it should be noted that all the
mechanical properties will not vary significantly with grain
flow.
For example, strength and hardness of the material are not
influenced by grain flow. The grain flow has significant effect
on crack propagation in a material. Properties like fatigue
strength, impact toughness and ductility can be improved if
the crack propagation direction and grain flow are properly
aligned. The optional alignment occurs when direction of
maximum principal stress is aligned with grain flow lines.
Figure 4.1
The billet or bar used for forging already will have a grain
flow direction. This may be altered by the forging process. As
the billet is compressed in the longitudinal direction, the grain
flow undergoes reorientation especially in the material close
to the flash. It can be observed that the grain flow in the flash
region gradually changes from longitudinal to radial direction.
Metallic grains will deform in the path of least resistance
during forging. The grain flow in a forging is the result of the
shape of forging, preform design, billet size, material behaviour
and processing conditions. As a result of the above, the forged
component will be anisotropic with respect to a number of
mechanical properties.
In short, forging yields a grain structure oriented to the
part shape, resulting in optimum strength, ductility and
resistance to impact and fatigue. By properly controlling metal
flow and grain structure, forged parts having good strength
and toughness can be obtained, which can be used for highly
stressed and critical applications.
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FORGING

LO 4.3 List and explain various ways in which forging
process is classified.
Forging process can be classified based on the following
parameters
• Working temperature
• Forging equipment
• Forging constraints
Based on working temperature
Based on the working temperature, forging is classified
into hot forging and cold forging. Hot forging is carried out
at temperatures above the recrystallization temperatures,
typically 0.6 Tm, or above, where Tm is melting temperature.
Cold forging or warm forging is done in the temperature range
of 0.3 Tm to 0.5 Tm. Cold forging has advantages such as good
surface finish, high strength and greater accuracy. Hot forging
requires lower loads, because the flow stress (see section 3.8
for more details) gets reduced at higher temperatures.
Based on equipment
Forging can be grouped as hand forging and power forging.
Hand forging or manual forging is used only for small parts
made in small quantities. Power forging is most common
and is used for large scale manufacture of small to very large
components.
In the manual process, impact pressure is applied to the
work piece by way of hammering. Various forging tools are also
used to deform the workpiece suitably as per needs. Manual
forging is also called smith forging. The power forging process
makes use of both impact and gradually applied loads. A
machine that applies an impact load is called forging hammer,
while the machine that applies gradual pressure is called
forging press. The forging process using hammer is called drop
forging and that using forging press is called press forging.
Based on constraints to metal flow
As shown in figure 4.2, there are three types under this
category. Here the classification is based on the constraint
imposed to the flow of work metal by the dies. Dies are the
parts of forging machine between which the work material is
squeezed to deform as per the contour of dies. In open die

forging, the work piece is placed between two flat dies allowing
the metal to flow freely without any constraints along the
lateral directions.
In closed die forging or impression die forging, the die
surfaces are shaped according to the required contour of the
final product of forging. Here the work material is constrained
to flow as per the shape of the dies. When there is excess
material, it will flow outside the die cavity and will form a flash.
In flashless forging, the work piece is completely constrained
inside the dies and no flash is produced. Here the volume of
initial workpiece is closely controlled so that it completely fills
the cavity between the dies.
Workpiece
Upper die
Workpiece Flash
Lower die
(Stationary)
Punch
Workpiece
Die(Stationary)
Figure 4.2
4.3 FORGING OPERATIONS

LO 4.4 Describe the basic steps in forging process.
There are several basic steps of forging by which hand
forging is carried out. In power forging, these steps are carried
out together by the actions of different areas of the dies.
Following are the steps or methods of forging commonly used,
to arrive at the final configuration of the forged product.
Hammer
Bar
Anvil
Figure 4.3
Upsetting. This is the process applied to increase the cross

sectional area at the expense of its length. Force is applied
along the axial direction to reduce the length and thereby
increasing the cross sectional area. This is also known as
jumping or heading.
Drawing Down: This is an operation just opposite to

upsetting. Here the length is increased at the expense of its
width, or thickness or both. Here, force is applied perpendicular
to the length direction of the component. This is also called as
drawing out.
Figure 4.4
Flattening: The surface of workpiece after drawing down or
fullering will have marks left on it. These are leveled off by the
flattening operation with suitable tools.
Flatter
Swage block
Figure 4.5
Fullering: This is the process of reducing the cross sectional

area of a portion of the workpiece. Here also the length of
workpiece is increased through an outward metal flow away
from the centre of the fuller. Fuller is a hard tool used for this
purpose.
Hammer
Fuller
Piece of heated metal
Tongs
Flat surface
Figure 4.6
Edging: Edging is used to shape the ends of bars by
concentrating metal at the ends. Concave shaped open dies
are used for this.
Figure 4.7
Swaging: Swaging is a finishing process to convert the bar
stock to final dimension and cross sectional shape like round,
square or hexagonal. It is achieved by means of successive
rapid hammer blows. Concave shaped dies of the required
shape are used here.
Figure 4.8
Bending: Angular and curvilinear bending can be carried
out by forging. Usually in smith forging, the edge of anvil is
used to develop a curvilinear bend on a bar stock. Various

edges of rectangular block are used for making angular bends.
Work
Bending
Horn(Anvil)
Figure 4.9
Punching: It refers to the operation in which a punch is
forced through a work piece to create a hole. The hot work
piece is usually placed over the anvil face. Punching creates a
hole by removing some material from it.
Figure 4.10
Piercing: This is the process of making an indentation on
the hot workpiece. But no material is cut and removed from
the work piece. The work piece is usually confined in a die
cavity and a cavity is made on it without removing any scrap
material from it.
Figure 4.11
4.4 FORGING METHODS
LO 4.5 Explain the different methods used to carry out the
forging process.
As already discussed there are different methods by which

the forging process is implemented. All these cannot be
categorised based on a single criterion. But there are significant
differences based on multiple criteria.
4.4.1 Smith Forging
Smith forging involves heating the work piece in a black
smith’s furnace and hammering it over the surface of anvil.
This needs skilled operators who select suitable tools and
operations to manipulate the workpiece to attain the final
shape.
The forging operations like upsetting, drawing out, fullering,
flattening, bending etc. are used by the operator for carrying
out the work. This is a time consuming process, but still
economical for small scale production.
Hammer
Fuller
Piece of heated metal
Tongs
Flat surface
Anvil
Base
Figure 4.12
Different tools used by the smith forging process include
anvils, swages, hammers of various types, tongs, punches,
swage block etc.
4.4.2 Power Forging
All power assisted forging methods are commonly called
as power forging. Smith forging or hand forging is suitable
for smaller work pieces only. Forging machines are designed
to shape a hot workpiece by the forging action. The forging
machines are used for larger work pieces to be made in larger
quantities. Basically there are forging machines of two types,
impact loading types and gradual loading types. The impact
loading type is generally called as drop forging machine and

the gradually loading type is called as press forging machine.
In general, all forging machines make use of a pair of
dies. The lower part of die is attached to the stationary anvil
of the machine and the upper part of die is attached to the
moving part (ram) of the machine. The hot work piece is placed
above the fixed die and forging pressure is applied though the
downward movement of ram.
4.4.3 Drop Forging
In drop forging, repeated hammering is used to shape the
work piece as per the shape of die cavity. The machine used for
drop forging is called drop stamp or drop hammer. The drop
forging machines are powered by different means.
The hot work piece is placed above the lower die while
the ram along with the upper die delivers a few blows on the
work piece, so that the metal spreads and fills the die cavity
completely.
It is not easy to remove forgings of complex shapes from
the die cavity. Hence drop forging is not used for complex
shapes with deep pockets, internal cavities etc. Depending on
the shape of component, a number of passes may be needed
to manipulate the work piece. A few products made by drop
forging are crane hook, wrench, crank and crank shaft.
Drop forging machines are called forging hammers. Different
types like drop board hammer, pneumatic and steam hammer
are in use.
4.4.4 Press Forging
Instead of a series of blows as in drop forging, here the
metal is shaped by means of a single continuous squeezing
action by the dies. Press forging dies are similar to drop forging
dies, but here the squeezing is obtained by the pressing action
by mechanical or hydraulic means. Hydraulic presses are used
for heavy work and mechanical presses for lighter work.
The presses provide high squeezing force and the continuous
action gets the material deformed throughout the entire depth.
The press forging process is suitable even for complex
shapes with internal cavities, deep pockets etc. Compared to
drop forging, this is a faster and quite process. Quality of the
forged product is superior to that obtained from drop forging.
Forging presses are of two types: hydraulic and mechanical

types. Mechanical presses are of screw type and crank type.
Mechanical presses operate faster than hydraulic presses.
These are suitable for automation.
Some of the products made by press forging are large levers,
flanges, propellers, railway wheels, toothed wheels etc.
Table 4.1 Comparison between press forging and drop forging
Press forging Drop forging
Slow process Fast process
No restriction on size of Limitation on size of
component component
Life of presses and dies is Life of hammers and dies is
more less
Lesser vibration and noise More vibration and noise
Semi skilled operator is Highly skilled operator is
sufficient needed
Complex shapes with Lower dimensional accuracy
dimensional accuracy can
be produced
Die alignment is easier Die alignment is difficult
Range 20 to 1500 Tons Range upto 10 Tons
4.4.5 Machine Forging

As in press forging here also the material is deformed by
squeezing into the shape of dies in the machine. But here the
squeezing action happens in the horizontal direction. This type
of forging involves only the upsetting operation and hence it is
also called as upset forging.
This process is suitable for components in which an
increased volume of metal is required at one end or centre.
In an upsetting machine a set of dies and a punch or
heading tool are used to carry out the forging operation. The
die consists of a stationary part and a movable part. The hot
work piece is held in position between the two dies.
The upset forging operation starts with the movable die
sliding towards the fixed die to grip the workpiece. When the
two dies are in closed position, the required shape of cavity will
be formed, and the work piece in position as in figure 4.13. Now
the punch moves forward to squeeze and upset the material to
fill the die cavity. After completing this, the punch moves back
and the movable part of die releases the forged component.
Figure 4.13
The machine forging process is suitable for mass production

of components like nuts, bolts, axles, gear blanks etc. This
process gives better quality of forging and better productivity
compared to drop forging. But the tooling cost is higher and is
not suitable for complex and heavy jobs.
4.4.6 Open Die Forging
In open die forging, the metal is not completely confined as
it is undergoing forging process. In the simplest form, a solid
cylindrical work piece is placed between two flat dies (platens)
and compressed to reduce the height and deform it laterally.
This process is known as upsetting. Consider a block of
rectangular cross section as shown in figure 4.14 undergoing
open die forging. Under the ideal condition, the workpiece gets
deformed as in figure 4.14(b). Due to friction between the die
and workpiece surface, the work piece deforms into a barrel
shape as in figure 4.14(c). Barelling can be minimized by the

use of lubricants or by the use of heated dies. Most of the
open-die forgings are produced using flat dies or platens.
Die Friction force
Workpiece di hi
df hf hf
Die
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.14
Round swages and V dies are also used in pairs or with a
flat die for open die forging (see figure 4.15). The basic forging
operations of upsetting, fullering, edging and drawing down
can be carried out by the open die forging method. Only simple
shapes can be generated by open die forging. Some examples
are shafts, discs and rings.
Flat
Flat dies
dies V-dies
V-dies Flat
Flat die
die and
and V-die
V-die Swage
Swage dies
dies
Figure 4.15
Advantages
• Simple to operate.
• Favorable grain flow and metallurgical structure.
• Suitable for low volume of production.
• Equipment and tooling are inexpensive.
• Wide range of workpiece sizes.
Limitations
• Suitable for simple shapes only.
• Closer tolerances are difficult to obtain.
• Moderately skilled workers needed.
• Further finishing is needed for products.
4.4.7 Impression Die Forging

Here the work piece gets deformed into the shape of die
cavities when it is forged between the closed dies. The die
cavities have the replicated shape of the forged component.
When the two dies are brought together, the work piece
undergoes plastic deformation until its deformed sides touch
the side walls of die (see figure 4.16).
Figure 4.16
As the die closes to its final position, some metal flows
out through the small gap between the dies to form a flash.
The flash cools rapidly and provides increased resistance to
further deformation. The flash effectively acts as a part of die
and helps to form a closed die cavity. Further forging pressure
acting on the dies lead to increased pressure on the work piece
and helps the material flow into unfilled areas of the die cavity.
Upper die
Billet
Forging Flash
Lower die
Figure 4.17
Several steps may be required in impression die forging to
transform the starting blank into the desired final shape of
product. Separate sets of dies with different cavities are needed
for this. The initial steps are designed to redistribute the metal
to achieve uniform deformation and the final steps bring the
part to its desired geometry.
Advantages
• Can be used for production of complex shapes
• Good dimensional accuracy

• The grain flow of metal can be controlled to ensure
good mechanical properties.
• Less time consuming than open die forging.
• Minimum wastage of material
Limitations
• More steps are required for each forging.
• Higher cost of equipment &tooling
Table 4.2 Comparison between open and impression die

forging
Open die forging Impression die forging
Two flat dies are used Impressions are cut in the
dies
Metal is free to deform Metal is forced to occupy the
laterally cavity in the die
Suitable for small scale Suitable for large scale
production production
Used for small to large sized Used for small and medium
components sized parts
Lower dimensional accuracy Good dimensional accuracy
Only simple shapes can be Complicated shapes can be
made obtained
Lower initial cost High initial cost
4.4.8 Flashless Forging

The impression die forging is often called as closed die
forging. But in the true closed die forging, no flash is formed.
Here the hot workpiece is deformed to completely fill the cavity
as shown in figure 4.18. The term, flashless forging is more
appropriate for this process. Proper control of the volume of
work material is essential to obtain a good quality forging as
there is no provision for flash formation. If the starting blank
is larger in volume than the volume of cavity, it may damage
the dies upon application of pressure. If the blank is smaller
in volume than needed, the cavity will not be filled completely.
Punch
Finished part
Die
Figure 4.18
4.4.9 Precision Forging

Features like thinner sections, complex geometries, closer
tolerances could be attained from impression die forging with
the improvements in technology. Forging process with such
features is called precision forging. Operations in which the
product is close to final dimensions of the desired component
are known as near net shape process. Precision forging is a
near net shape process.
In precision forging, special dies produce parts having greater
accuracies which require much less machining as compared
with impression die forging. Aluminium and magnesium alloys
are much suitable for precision forging. Steels and titanium
also can be precision forged. Gears, connecting rods, housings
and turbine blades are some examples of precision forged
products.
Major features of precision forging are:
• Special and complex dies.
• Precise control of billet volume.
• Accurate positioning of billet in die.
These lead to higher investment. But in precision forging
less material is wasted and lesser finishing is needed. When
the production volume is large and when cost of material and
machining are high, precision forging would be economical.
Upper punch
Billet
Forging
Lower punch
Figure 4.19
4.5 ANALYSIS OF FORGING PROCESS
LO 4.6 Analyse the forging pressure using slab method.

When a metal is deformed by a metal forming process, the
total work done per unit volume of the metal is given by
Wtotal Wideal W friction Wredundant (4.1)
where Wideal - actual or ideal work of deformation

W friction - work done to overcome friction
Wredundant - redundant work
The redundant work does not contribute to the change in
shape of the work. But it is involved in the internal shearing
process due to non uniform deformation.
The figure 4.20 shows the cross section of a billet before and
after deformation. If there is perfect lubrication at the interface
of work and die, the square grid before compression will deform
into a rectangular grid after deformation. Here, the height of
each segment in the grid gets shortened and its length gets
increased. Such a deformation is called uniform deformation.
But in a real situation, friction is present at the interface of
work piece and die. Then the grid will deform in a distorted
way along with barrelling and bulging on the sides, as in figure
4.20c. Bulging refers to the non-uniform flow considered on
the plane of the loading, while barrelling refers to the non-
uniform deformation along the height of the specimen. This
extra work done to distort the grid and to create bulging and
barrelling is called redundant work as the work is not spent
for useful deformation. This type of deformation is called non-
uniform deformation.
without friction with friction

(a) (b) (c)
Before Deformation After Deformation
Figure 4.20
Similar to eqn (4.1), energy required for the deformation
process can be written as
U total U ideal U friction U redundant (4.2)
Based on the above, efficiency of a metal forming process
is given by
U ideal

U total
η = 0.3 to 0.6 for extrusion
η = 0.75 to 0.95 for rolling
η = 0.1 to 0.2 for closed die forging.
To analyse the forging process, different methods are in
use. Slab method is one among these used to analyse open die
plane strain forging. The figure 4.21 shows a schematic view
of the forging process. In plane strain, there is no normal and
shear strain acting along the z-direction (perpendicular to the
plane of the paper). The slab undergoes stain along the y-axis
(height) and x-axis (width) directions only.
y
h
dx
L
Figure 4.21
Now, consider a billet of dimensions as in figure 4.22.

During forging process, consider an elemental strip of width
dx and height h. As the dies come closer to each other, there is
lateral flow of work material. Due to this, frictional forces are
set up at the contact surface which are directed towards the
centre line opposing metal flow.
At any instant of forging, the equilibrium equation of the
element in the x-direction gives
x d x Bh x Bh 2x Bdx 0
Dividing all terms by Bhdx, we can write,
d x 2 x
0 (4.3)
dx h
This is the force balance equation for this case.
y
y
x x +dx
y
y
Figure 4.22
In the forging process, there can be three different conditions
based on the status of friction between work and die.
1. Sliding friction with a low coefficient of friction.
2. Sticking friction when the coefficient of friction is high
3. Sliding and sticking friction when the coefficient of
friction varies along the contact surface.
Case 1: Sliding or slipping friction
Let µ be the coefficient of friction, then the shear stress
along x-direction is x y
d x 2y
Hence, 0 (4.4)
dx h
2
As per von Mises criterion for plane strain, y x 0 ,
3
if σx and σy are principal stresses and σ0 is the yield stress
of the material in tension or compression. For the sake of
2
convenience, take 0 0
3
d x d y
Hence, , as the yield stress σ0 is constant.
dx dx
Now, the force balance equation (4.4) becomes,
d y 2y
0
dx h
d y 2
From this, we can write, dx
y h
2x

h
Upon solving, we get, y A e p (4.5)
where p is the forging pressure.
Applying the boundary condition at x=L, x 0
From yield criterion, at x=L, p 0
2L

Hence, A 0 e h
Substituting for A in eqn (4.5),
2( L x )

h
Forging pressure, p 0 e
As L h increases, forging pressure increases, this means

resistance to compressive deformation increases. Variation of
forging pressure and σx is shown in figure 4.23. The pressure
distribution curve is called friction hill. Area under the friction
hill represents the work done during forging.
At the centre, σx and σy will be maximum.

2L

At x=0, pmax 0 e h
When forging pressure is applied, h decreases and forging
pressure p will increase for the same value of µ
pmax
Work Done 0
L
Figure 4.23
L
1
Average forging pressure, pavg pdx
L0
0 h h
2L
On integrating and solving, pavg e 1
L 2

Note that the forging pressure is a function of instantaneous
height of the billet. As height gets reduced, after successive
plastic flow, forging pressure increases. If the rectangular billet
is subjected to plane stress compression, there will be material
flow in the width direction. It is found that the extent of flow
along width direction is several times greater than the flow
along longitudinal direction. Because of lower friction along
width, material flows freely along width direction.
Case 2: Sticking friction
If the friction is high, the condition of sticking friction
extends over the whole interface. Under the condition of
sticking friction, the workpiece does not slide along the die
face, but becomes a part of die face. Here, the frictional shear
stress at the interface cannot be more than the yield stress
of the material. This means, in the case of sticking friction,
frictional shear stress at the interface is equal to the yield
strength of material in shear, K.

Now, x 0 K
2
d x 0
0
dx h
Yield criterion is x p 0

d x dp d x dp
0 or
dx dx dx dx
dp 0
Then
dx h

On integrating, p y 0 x C
h
0
C 0 (L x )
h
(L x )
p 0 1
h
Figure 4.24 shows the distribution of forging pressure in
compression with sticking friction. It is clear that there is
a linear relationship between p and x. Maximum value of p
occurs at centre x=0.
L
Average pressure is pavg 20 1 (4.7)
2h
pmax
pmax
WorkDone
Work Done
0 0
L L
Figure 4.24
Case 3: Compression with slipping and sticking friction

With intermediate values of friction and suitable ratios of
L , both slipping and sticking friction regions may be present
h
at the interface between the die and the metal. The interface
pressure increases as we go from edge of the strip to its centre
line.
0
For sticking friction, x K
2
d x 0 d y 0
Hence, 0 or 0
dx h dx h
Upon solving, we get
0
Forging pressure, p x C
h
Usually, the sliding friction exists near the edges of the
workpiece (near x=L) where the pressure is low, but at some
distance near to center line sticking friction may exist. Let
sticking friction occurs at x=xs where
0
x p
2
2( L x s )
0 h
0 e
2
2( L x s )
h 1
e
2
h 1
From the above, xs can be determined as x s L ln
2 2
At x=xs, p=ps
0
Then ps xs C
h
0
C ps xs
h
In the sticking region, p ps 0 x x s
h
2( L x s )
h
ps 0 e
The pressure distribution on the die in slipping and sticking

zones is shown in figure 4.25. The average forging pressure is
obtained by integrating p over slipping and sticking regions.
L xs
1 1
pavg
Lx pdx
L pdx
s 0
0 x2 x h
2( L x s )
On solving, pavg s s e h 1 (4.8)
2L h

pmax
Work Done
0
xs
L
Figure 4.25
Neutral surface
During forging, the metal is stationary at the centre line of
the plate which defines the neutral surface. The flow of metal
is always outwards, away from the neutral surface. When the
forging is having a complex geometry, it is not easy to establish
the neutral surface.
4.5.1 Forging Force
The forging force required in open die forging operation
on a cylindrical piece of metal can be determined using the
following formula.
 2µr 
F = σ f πr 2 1 + 
 3h  (4.9)
where σ f is the flow stress of the material, which is the
stress required to continue plastic deformation of the workpiece
at a particular true strain (see section 3.8 for more details), μ
is the coefficient of friction, r is the radius and h is the height
of the workpiece.
Question no. 18(b) from Model Question Paper
Example 4.1
A cylindrical specimen made of annealed 4135 steel has a
diameter of 6 inches and is 4inch high. It is upset by open die
forging with flat dies to a height of 2inch at room temperature.
Assuming that the coefficient of friction is 0.2, calculate the force
required at the end of the stroke. Use average pressure formula
Solution
Given, Diameter of specimen = 6 inch
Radius of specimen, r1 = 3 inch ≈ 75mm
Height of specimen, h1 = 4 inch ≈ 100mm
Final height of specimen, h = 2 inch ≈ 50mm
Coefficient of friction, μ = 0.2
Using the volume consitency, final radius of specimen can
be determined.
π × 752 × 100 = π × r 2 × 50
From this, r = 106mm
Flow stress for the material is taken as σ f =1000MPa
 2µr 
Forging force, F = σ f πr 2 1 +
 3h 
 2 × 0.2 × 106 
= 1000 × π × 1062 1 + 
 3 × 50 
= 45253814N = 45.25MN
4.6 DIE DESIGN

LO 4.7 Describe the major features of a forging die and its
design.
The first step in the design of a forging die is the decision
regarding what stages are necessary for achieving the required
shape and strength for the forging. Normally fullering, edging
and finishing impressions are needed for this. Blocking,
bending and flattening impressions are also used as per the
requirements of the product design.
Proper die design is important in the success of a forging
operation. The product design also should consider the
principles and limitations of the forging process.
Preshaping
Preshaping in forging is similar to the preshaping of dough
into a spherical form to make a round chapati or roti. In a
properly preshaped workpiece, the material should not flow
easily into flash, the grain flow pattern should be favourable
and there should be minimised sliding between work-die
interfaces.
Selection of shapes is based on calculation of cross sectional

areas at various locations in the forging, as well based on
previous experience of designer. CAD techniques are now
available to predict material flow pattern in die cavity and to
predict formation of defects.
Preshaping and preform design is the most difficult and
critical step is forging design. Proper preform design assures
defect free flow, complete filling of die and minimum loss in
flash.
4.6.1 Design Features
Some of the principles and limitations that must be
considered in the design and selection of forging as the
manufacturing process are listed below. Figure 4.26 gives
some of the terminology related to an impression die.
Parting line: It is the plane that divides the upper part of
die from the lower part. This line is also called as flash line
in impression die forging. Selection of location of parting line
affects grain flow in the part, required load and flash formation.
Parting line should be at the largest cross section of the
part. Wherever possible, it should be a straight line along the
centre of the forging. Parting line is to be so chosen such that
the flow of material is uniformly divided between the two dies.
Internal InternalInternal
Internal
External
ExternalExternal
External
draft draft
angle draft
angle
draft angle
angle
draft
draft angle draft
angle
draft angle
angle
Flash Flash Flash

Flash
utter Gutter Gutter
Gutter Rib Rib RibRib
Parting
ng Line Parting
LineLineLine
Parting WebWebW
Web
Fillet Fillet Fillet
Fillet
Land Land Land

Land Corner
Corner Corner
Corner
Figure 4.26
Draft Angles: Draft is the amount of taper on the sides of

the product to facilitate easy removal from the die. Taper on
the sides of die cavity also referred to as draft. Typical draft
angles are 5O to 7O on steel forgings and 3O on aluminium
and magnesium forgings. For precision forgings, draft angle
is nearly zero. Upon cooling, the forging shrinks both radially
and longitudinally. To facilitate easy removal internal draft
angles are made larger than external ones. Range of values for
internal angles is about 7O to 10O, while external angles are
about 3O to 5O.
Webs and Ribs: A web is a thin portion that is parallel to
parting line, while rib is a thin portion perpendicular to parting
line. The webs and ribs cause difficulty in metal flow as they
become thinner.
Fillet and cornor radii: Small radii tend to limit metal
flow and increase stresses on die surface during forging. Hence
small radii are undesirable. Small fillet radii can cause fatigue
cracking of the dies. In general, these radii need to be as large
as permitted by the forging design.
Flash: Formation of flash facilitates pressure buildup
inside die and promotes filling of the cavity. Hence flash plays a
critical role in impression die forging. Flash clearance between
dies is limited to 3% of the maximum thickness of forging.
Land: Land determines the surface area along which the
lateral flow of metal occurs. Hence it controls the pressure
increase inside the die. The length of land is usually 2 to 5
times the flash thickness.
Gutter: Is the provision for excess metal to escape without
causing forging load to reach extreme values.
4.6.2 Die Materials
Forging operation is generally carried out as hot forging
process at elevated temperatures. The dies are subjected to
heavy loads depending on the size and shape of the forgings.
The general requirements for die materials are
• Strength and toughness at elevated temperature
• Hardenability and ability to harden uniformly.
• Resistance to mechanical and thermal shock.
• Wear resistance, especially resistance to abrasive wear.
• High dimensional stability
• High machinability
Selection of proper die material depends on various other
factors like
• Size, composition and properties of work piece.
• Complexity of shape
• Forging temperature
• Type of forging operation
• Cost of die materials.
• Number of forgings required.
• Rate of heat transfer from workpiece to dies.
Commonly used die materials are tool and die steels
containing alloying elements like chromium, nickel,
molybdenum and vanadium. Presence of chromium (0.5
to 4%) will increase high temperature strength, nickel (1 to
5%) increases toughness and impact strength, molybdenum
improves hardenability and red hardness. Vanadium (0.1 to
0.3%) contributes to improved wear and fatigue resistance.
Tungsten (2 to 3%) also is used as an alloying element to enhance
the effect of other elements and to improve hardenability and
wear resistance.
Carbon steels with 0.7 to 0.85% C are suitable for small
tools and flat impressions. Highly alloyed steels are used for
high temperature resistant dies used in presses. Medium
alloyed steels are used for drop forging dies.
Die blocks used for making dies are made from high grade
special tool and die steels as mentioned earlier. The ingots
are forged to the size of die blocks to ensure grain refinement
and shock resistance. Then the die blocks are normalised,
quenched and tempered to the required hardness. Usual
practice is to procure die blocks as hardened and tempered
forgings and then to machine the impressions as per design
of dies. Common range of hardness for dies is 340-375 BHN.
Machining of the die blocks can be done by mechanical
machining processes or numerically controlled milling process.
Electric discharge machining (EDM) and electro chemical
machining (ECM) also are popularly used for machining of die
blocks. When a large number of the same die are needed, cast
dies are made which are finished using the EDM process.
4.6.3 Lubricants in Forging

Use of lubricants significantly influence friction and wear.
Consequently they affect the forces required and the flow of
material in the die cavity. The lubricant can also act as a
thermal barrier between the hot workpiece and the cooler dies
thereby improving metal flow. Another function of lubricant
is to prevent sticking between dies and work piece. Proper
lubrication plays a role in the accuracy and surface finish of
forging.
Commonly used lubricants for hot forging are graphite,
molybdenum disulfide and glass. For cold forging, mineral oils
and soaps are used as lubricants.
4.7 FORGING MACHINES
There are lots of different types of forging machines in use
today. But based on the working principles, a few are explained
below.
The forging machines are classified based on their

applications into hammers and presses. Hammers are used for
drop forging and the presses are machines for press forging.
4.7.1 Drop Forging Machines

These are basically hammers which operate in a vertical
position. Drop hammers are of two types, gravity drop hammers
and power drop hammers. Gravity drop hammers achieve
their energy by the falling weight of a heavy ram. Power drop
hammers accelerate the ram by pressurised air or steam.
Board drop hammer
Figure 4.27 shows typical board drop hammer. Here a heavy
mass called ram is mounted on a wooden board which passes
between two pinch rolls. As the rolls rotate, the board along
with ram is raised to a predetermined height and is allowed to
fall down under gravity. The die attached to the ram hits the
work piece placed above the lower die attached to the anvil.
The impact leads to deformation of the workpiece.
Roll
Board
Ram
Upper die
Work
Lower die
Anvil
Figure 4.27
Pneumatic hammer
Air Valve
Compressed air
Piston from compressor
cylinder to forge
Ram
cylinder Compressed air
from compressor
cylinder to lift the ram
Crank drive
Ram
Upper die
Work
Lower die Hand-lever
Anvil
Figure 4.28
Working principle of a typical pneumatic hammer is shown
in figure 4.28. Here, there are two cylinders called compression
cylinder and ram cylinder. Air is compressed in the compressor
during upward and downward strokes of the piston in the
compressor cylinder. When the compressed air is delivered
to the lower side of ram cylinder, the piston moves upwards

along with ram. By operating a hand lever, compressed air
can be diverted to the upper side of piston in the ram cylinder,
thereby moving the ram downwards delivering the hammer
blow to the work piece.
Steam Hammer
Steam hammers are similar in design to the pneumatic
hammers. There is no built in compressor here and hence
compressed steam is supplied separately. The hammer can be
single acting or double acting. In single acting type, the ram
is moved upwards by the compressed steam and it falls down
due to gravity. But in double acting type, the fall of ram also is
assisted by energy of steam. Figure 4.29 shows the working of
a double acting steam hammer.
Compressed
Piston steam to forge
Ram
cylinder Compressed steam
to lift the ram
Ram
Upper die
Work
Lower die
Anvil
Figure 4.29
4.7.2 Press Forging Machines
Press forging is accomplished by gradual pressure instead
of the sudden impact in drop forging. The machines employed
for this are called forging presses which also operate in vertical
position. Mechanical presses operate by means of cranks,
eccentrics or knuckle joints which convert rotary motion of
motor into translatory motion of the ram. Hydraulic presses
make use of a hydraulically driven piston to actuate the
ram. Screw presses apply the compressive force by a screw
mechanism to drive the ram.
Mechanical Presses
The crank type of mechanical press is illustrated in figure
4.30. Corresponding to the rotation of crank, the ram moves
up and down. The compressive force exerted by the ram on
the die and work piece depends on the stroke position with
the maximum at the bottom dead centre position. An electric
motor is used to drive the crank though a flywheel and belt
drive.
Figure 4.30
Screw Press
A flywheel is used to provide power to a screw press. As the
flywheel is rotated, it rotates a screw which passes through
a nut. The ram is moved up and down by the screw as the
flywheel is driven by the driving discs. Here the ram speed
can be controlled precisely and is suitable for small quantity
production of precision components. See figure 4.31 for details
of the arrangement.
Hydraulic Press
A schematic diagram of hydraulic press is given in figure
4.32. A hydraulic press consists of pistons, cylinders, rams and
hydraulic pumps driven by electric motors. Hydraulic presses
have a constant low speed and are load limited. Large amount
of energy can be transmitted to work piece by a constant load
available throughout the stroke. Compared with mechanical
presses, hydraulic presses are slower and involves higher
initial costs.
Flywheel
Fluid
Screw

Figure 4.31 Figure 4.32
4.8 FORGING DEFECTS
LO 4.8 List the major defects observed in forged parts.

Forging process generally leads to superior quality products
compared to other manufacturing processes. Still there are
some defects which are likely to occur if proper care is not
taken in forging process design. Following are a few such
defects observed.
Cold shut: When the corner and fillet radii are small, metal
does not flow properly into the corners and cold shut results.
These appear as small cracks at the corners of the forgings.
Unfilled section: Due to insufficient metal or insufficient

heating of the metals die cavity may not be filled completely
and this defect occurs.
Flakes: Flakes are formed due to improper cooling of large

forgings. These are internal ruptures.
Scale pits: These irregular depressions on the surface of the

forging are caused due to improper cleaning of the workpiece
used for forging.
Internal cranks: These are resulted from too drastic

change in the shape of the work material at a faster rate.
Die shift: Misalignment of the two halves of dies causes

die shift. Due to this defect two halves of the forging to be of
improper shape.
Surface cracks: Due to die wall chilling, an increase in

resistance to metal flow near surface may result. This leads to
surface cracks.
4.9 EXTRUSION
LO 4.9 Define the extrusion process and explain the
important features.
Extrusion is the process by which a block of metal is reduced

in cross section by forcing it to flow through a die orifice under
high pressure. The process is very much similar to squeezing
tooth paste from its tube. Depending on the shape of orifice,
the shape of extruded cross section can be different.
Typical products made by extrusion are tubes having

various cross sections; structural and architectural shapes;
door and window frames. Commonly extruded materials are
aluminium, copper, magnesium and their alloys; steel and
lead. Plastics also can be extruded using special equipment.
An important feature of the extrusion process is that the

grain flow of the material lies in the direction most suited to
resist applied stresses during usage. It is possible to obtain
even complex shapes which cannot be obtained by rolling
or other means. This is due to the fact that the dies used in
extrusion are very simple and easy to make.
Extrusion is a single pass process and the reduction possible

is much large. Even brittle materials also can be extruded. It is
possible to make thin section and tubes of large diameter and
longer size.
Extrusion ratio is the ratio of cross sectional area of the

work material to the cross sectional area of the product. For
steel under hot extrusion it is about 40:1 and for aluminium it
is as high as 400:1.
4.10 CLASSIFICATION OF EXTRUSION
LO 4.10 Classify the extrusion process and describe
different types.
Figure 4.33 shows the classification of extrusion process.

Extrusion
Hot Cold
Forward Backward Forward Backward
Extrusion Impact
Hydrostatic
Forging
Figure 4.33
4.10.1 Hot Extrusion
In hot extrusion, the work material is heated to a temperature
above its recrystallisation temperature. The high temperature
reduces the strength and increases ductility of the material.
This facilitates extreme size reductions and complex shapes to
be extruded.
While extruding steel, special lubricants like glass are
used. In addition to reducing friction, it also provides thermal
insulation between the billet and extrusion chamber. Hot
extrusion can be carried out as forward or backward process.
4.10.2 Forward Extrusion
Container
Ram Final shape

of work
Die
Work billet
Figure 4.34
The heated billet (piece of metal) is placed inside the
container portion of the equipment and the ram is moved to
apply pressure on to the billet. The metal is extruded through
the die until a small amount remains. A typical arrangement

for the process is shown in figure 4.34.
Here the extruded metal flows in the same direction as
that of the movement of the ram, and hence the name, forward
extrusion. This is also called as direct extrusion.
4.10.3 Backward Extrusion
Here the extruded metal moves out in the opposite direction
of the movement of the ram. The process is also known as
indirect or reverse extrusion. Figure 4.35 shows a typical
arrangement for indirect extrusion. Here the billet in the
container remains stationary and hence no friction is involved.
The ram or plunger houses the die within it, and the extruded
metal comes out through the hollow plunger. Handling the
extruded metal is not much easy and the use of backward
extrusion is limited.
Container
Hollow ram
Final Work Die Work billet
Shape
Figure 4.35
4.10.4 Cold Extrusion
Extrusion at room temperature or at temperatures lower
than recrystallization temperature of work material is known as
cold extrusion. It is primarily used to produce parts in finished
or nearly finished forms. Main advantages of cold extrusion
are increased strength due to strain hardening, better surface
finish, closer tolerances and higher production rates. As the
metal is not heated, it eliminates formation of oxide layers on
the surface of the extruded parts. Usually cold extrusion is not
a continuous process, but a discrete process in which a single
part is produced in each extrusion cycle.
Cold extrusion done in forward form is known as hydrostatic
extrusion and in the backward from it is called impact
extrusion.
4.10.5 Hydrostatic Extrusion

This is an extrusion method in which the required pressure
is applied through a fluid medium surrounding the cold billet.
The presence of fluid inside the extrusion chamber eliminates
the friction between billet and chamber walls. Figure 4.36
shows the arrangement for hydrostatic extrusion. It needs
specialised equipment, tooling and higher set up time. This
process is having only limited industrial applications.
Even brittle materials can be extruded by this process.
Commonly used fluids are glycerine, mineral lubricating oil,
castor oil and isopentane. A few applications of the process
are in making wires of less ductile materials and extrusion of
nuclear reactor fuel rods.
Container
Ram
Extruded shape
Fluid
Work billet
Die
Figure 4.36
4.10.6 Impact Extrusion
Backward cold extrusion is usually called as impact
extrusion. It works with softer materials like aluminium and
its alloys. The setup consist of a punch and die arranged
vertically.
The billet is kept on the die as shown in figure 4.37. The
punch is then allowed to strike the billet against the die. Due
to the impact, the metal is extruded through the gap between
the punch and die. The extruded metal moves out in the
direction opposite to the movement of punch and hence it is
called backward extrusion.
Punch
Die
Slug
Figure 4.37
4.10.7 Extrusion Forging
Cold extrusion forging is much similar to impact extrusion,
but the difference is that the side walls are much thicker and
their height is smaller. Here also a die and punch does the
work as shown in figure 4.38. The punch comes down and hits
the billet kept on the die, thus forging some metal between the
die and punch. The remaining metal is extruded through the
clearance between punch and side walls of the die.
These backward extrusion processes produce directly
usable products during each extrusion cycle. But applications
of these are limited to smaller sizes and for nonferrous alloys
only.
Punch
Slug Die
Punch
Ejector
Figure 4.38
4.11 ANALYSIS OF FORCES IN EXTRUSION

LO 4.11 Analyse the extrusion process in detail.
The pressure (stress) required to extrude a given section
depends on:
• Flow stress, of the extruded material under the existing
temperature and extrusion conditions.
• Friction at the interface between die and material.
• Extrusion ratio or reduction ratio.
• Shape of the extruded section
In figure 4.39, assume that both the billet and extruded
metal are round in cross section. Extrusion ratio is an important
parameter related to extrusion. This ratio is defined as
A
rx = o
Af
where Ao-cross sectional area of billet and Af- final cross

sectional area of extruded section. This ratio is also called
reduction ratio and is applicable to backward extrusion also.
The value of rx can be used to determine true strain in
extrusion, using the relationship,
A
ln rx ln o
A f (4.10)

Here it is assumed that ideal deformation takes place
without friction and redundant work.
A0 Af

Die
Figure 4.39
The pressure applied by the ram to compress the billet
through the die opening is
p f avg ln rx
K n
where, f (see section 3.8.2))
avg 1n
Actually, there is friction between die and the billet as it

is squeezed through the die opening. Also there is friction
between container walls and billet surface in forward extrusion.
An empirical equation to estimate the actual true strain is
x a b ln rx
where εx is extrusion true strain, a and b are empirical
constants for a given die angle.
Typical values are a=0.8 and b=1.2 to 1.5. Values of a and
b tend to increase with increasing die angle.
Ram pressure in indirect extrusion can be estimated based
on the empirical formula as
p f avg x
In the case of direct extrusion, frictional force between billet

and container is pc Do L .
where µ - coefficient of friction, pc – pressure of billet against
container wall and πDo L is surface area of billet and L is the
length of billet remaining to be extruded.
The additional ram force needed to overcome this friction is
p f πDo2
4
where pf – pressure required to overcome friction.
p Do2
Then pc Do L f
4
When sticking occurs at the container wall, friction stress
equals shear yield strength of the work material.
pc Do L s Do L
f avg
where τs is shear yield stress. It can be assumed that s
2
Do2 f avg
Then pc Do L p f Do L
4 2
2L
p f f avg
Do
Now, ram pressure in direct extrusion can be written as
2L
p f avg x (4.11)
Do
With good lubrication, ram pressure would be lower than this.
Ram force in direct or indirect extrusion is given by
F = pAo
where Ao is the original cross sectional area of billet.
Power required to carry out extrusion is

P = Fv
where v is the velocity of ram.
4.11.1 Extrusion Die Angles
The die used in extrusion process has a pronounced
effect on the total force needed to form the metal, on the flow
patterns, and on the soundness of the extrusion. The extruding
stress changes continuously with the die angle and reaches a
minimum at the optimal angle. The semicone angle α of the
die as shown in figure 4.40 is having significant effect on the
extrusion process. When the semicone angle is in the range
of 6 to 30 degrees, a sound flow of metal through the die is
obtained.
Figure 4.40
Excessive die angles cause the metal to shear within itself

and form its own cone angle that does not conform to the
contour of the die, as shown in figure 4.41. The new angle that
forms is known as the dead zone cone angle. For any semicone
angle between 30 and 60, the dead zone angle will form. As the
semicone angle goes beyond 60 the die acts like a cutting tool
and shaves the billet off.
Three interacting parameters like ideal deformation, shear
resistance, and friction losses vary with the semicone angle of
the die. The ideal deformation factor involves only the power
required to reduce the diameter of the billet, which varies
only a little with changes in the semicone angle. The shear
resistance parameter is determined by the force needed to
produce a specific amount of distortion and increases as the
semicone angle becomes larger. In either drawing or extrusion,

friction depends on the contact with the die wall. With a small
semicone angle, the contact between the die and billet is large
and therefore the friction losses are large. As the angle becomes
larger, the die billet contact area and friction loss decreases.
For any one set of friction and reduction conditions, an optimal
semicone angle can be arrived at.
Figure 4.41
4.12 EXTRUSION DEFECTS
LO 4.12 List the commonly observed extrusion defects.

A number of defects can occur in extruded products due to
the heavy deformation involved in the process. Following are
the three main defects observed in extrusion products.
Centre cracking: The central portion of extruded products
may develop cracks called internal cracking, centre burst,
arrow head fracture, or chevron cracking as shown in figure
4.42(a). The state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the centre line
in the deformation zone is the reason for this kind of defects.
The chances for centre cracking increases with increase in die
angle, presence of impurities, extrusion ratio and friction.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.42
Pipe defect: The metal flow pattern during extrusion may
draw the surface defects and impurities towards the centre of
the billet like a funnel. This defect occurs when the friction
is high and metal flow is not uniform. This is also known as
tailpipe or fishtailing or simply as extrusion defect and is
shown in figure 4.42(b). By removing the surface defects and
impurities in the billet, the occurance of this defect can be
reduced.
Surface Cracking: Development of surface cracks are due
to the rise in temperature of billet due to the heat generated
by extrusion process. When the speed of extrusion is reduced,
the temperature and hence chances of surface cracks can
be reduced. Generally surface cracks are observed with
aluminium, magnesium and zinc alloys. The figure 4.42(c)
illustrates this type of a defect.
The surface cracks occurring at low temperature is due
to the sticking of the extruded product along the die during
extrusion.
4.13 DRAWING
LO 4.13 Define the drawing process used for drawing
wire, rod and tube.
This is the process of pulling metal though a die to achieve
a reduction in diameter. Bars, rods and tubes are subjected
to tensile force at the exit side of die to deform by this cold
working process. The process is very much similar to extrusion.
In extrusion, the material is pushed out through a die opening,
but in drawing it is pulled out though the die. The process
can be used to reduce the size, increase strength and better
surface finish.
The major parameters in the process are reduction in cross
sectional area, die angle, friction between die and work piece
and drawing speed. The die angle influences the drawing force
and the quality of drawn product.
Land
Die angle
Wire or rod
Ao Af
Die
Figure 4.43
The expression for drawing force under frictionless condition
is similar to that for extrusion.
A
F f avg A f ln o
A f (4.12)

where σ f avg is the mean true stress (average flow stress) of
the work material, Ao cross sectional area before drawing and
Af cross sectional area after drawing as in figure 4.43. As the
reduction in cross section is more, the drawing force increases.
But the drawing force cannot be increased beyond certain
limits. This is because, during the drawing process yielding
and plastic deformation should happen; but never necking
should happen here. Ideally, the maximum reduction in cross
sectional area per pass is limited to 63%.
Various cross sectional shapes can be made through the
drawing process using dies of different profiles. Round or
square shaped sections are used as the work material initially
in a drawing sequence. Wires, rods and tubes of various cross
sections are the end products of drawing process. According to
the application of drawing process, it can be classified as wire
drawing, rod drawing, tube drawing and deep drawing.
LO 4.14 Explain the processes of wire, rod and tube
drawing.
4.13.1 Wire Drawing

The drawing process is also called in general as wire and
bar drawing. Wire drawing is the process of drawing flexible
circular wires of very small diameters. Bar drawing refers to
drawing of bars and rods of larger dimensions of various cross
sectional shapes.
The process of wire drawing is to obtain wires from bars of
larger diameter. Diameters as small as 0.03mm can be made
with the wire drawing process. This is always used as a cold

working process.
Initially the end of bar or rod to be drawn is made into a
pointed shape and inserted through the die opening. This end
is gripped on the other side with a gripper to pull it through the
die. During pulling, compressive stresses act on the material,
at the dies along with the tensile stress exerted by the gripper.
This will help reduce the cross sectional area and increase
length of the wire. The wire coming out the die is coiled in a
round power reel, as shown in figure 4.44.
Drawing die
Power Reel
Jaw
Figure 4.44
In order to impart sufficient ductility, the bar stock is
initially annealed property before the drawing process. To clean
the surface of bars of any scales and rust, it is also subjected
to acid pickling before drawing. The required reduction in
cross section may not be obtained in a single pass of the
wire drawing process. In such cases, the wire is successively
passed through a number of dies having holes of decreasing
sizes. This kind of an arrangement is called as continuous wire
drawing or tandem process.
Wire drawing improves the mechanical properties of the
wire due to strain hardening. But intermediate annealing may
be needed to improve ductility when it is continuously drawn.
The dies are usually made of die steels, tungsten carbide
or diamond. Large amount of heat is generated during the
drawing process and proper cooling arrangement is made by
circulating water for continuous cooling of dies and wires.
Wire drawing employs speeds upto 50 m/sec in drawing
wires of smaller diameter.
4.13.2 Rod or Bar Drawing

Rod or bar drawing is very much similar in principle to the
wire drawing process. The basic difference is in the larger size
of bar stock used for bar drawing. Straight bars of round or
other shapes are used in this cold forming process. In general,
rods may have sections smaller than bars. Draw benches and
heavy equipment are used for rod or bar drawing.
Close dimensional tolerances and good surface finishes
are obtained in rod or bar drawing. Maximum reduction in
cross sectional area per pass is limited to 45%. Drawn rods are
used for shafts, spindles and as raw materials for bolts, nails,
screws, rivets etc. The die geometry is basically conical with a
bell shape entry to promote lubrication of die. Half die angles
or semi cone angles range from 2 to 10O.
Drawing dies are usually made of carbide or diamond, to
increase die life. Slower speeds around 1 m/sec are used for
bar drawing.
Table 4.3 Differences between Wire Drawing and Rod Drawing
Wire Drawing Rod Drawing
Used to reduce the diameter Used to reduce the cross
of a wire by pulling it through sectional area of a rod by
a single or series of drawing shrinking it by drawing
dies through a die.
Drawn wire is would as a coil Drawn rods are not coiled,
using a power reel. but used as straight rods.
Wires are of diameter as low Rods are having larger
as 0.03mm sections of different shapes.
Done in multiple steps. Done in a single step.
4.13.3 Tube Drawing

Tube drawing is similar to the other drawing processes,
except that the starting material is a tube. Cylinders or tubes
made by extrusion process are finished to the required inner
and outer dimensions by the tube drawing. The tube drawing
process is used to reduce the wall thickness, improve surface
finish and improve dimensional accuracy, in addition to the
reduction in the diameter of tube. Different cross sections
like circular, square or hexagonal tubes are subjected to tube
drawing using suitable dies and mandrels.
The mandrel is used to control the inner dimension of the
tube and shape of the hole. If the shape and size of hole are not
important, mandrel can be avoided. In general, tube drawing

can be classified into the following types.
• Tube sinking
• Tube drawing with fixed plug or mandrel
• Tube drawing with floating mandrel
• Tube drawing with moving mandrel
Tube sinking is the process of tube drawing without a
mandrel. Here, only the outer diameter of the tube is reduced
by the drawing process. During the process, there may be
some changes in the inner dimensions and finish of the inner
surface.
For effecting controlled reduction of inner diameter, along
with good surface finish, the other three methods are used.
Here, a mandrel or plug of suitable shape and dimensions is
placed inside the tube and the tube is pulled out through the
die. Outer dimension is governed by the die and inner dimension
by the mandrel. Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
are obtained. While using a fixed plug, friction will be more,
drawing load will be more and maximum reduction is limited
to 40%. With a floating plug inside the die, reduction upto 45%
can be achieved.
Limitations of the above types are overcome by a moving
long mandrel, which is drawn through the die along with the
tube. Reduction in dimensions upto 50% can be achieved
with the moving mandrel. Figure 4.45 shows the tube drawing
process with a moving mandrel.
Figure 4.45
4.14 DEEP DRAWING

LO 4.15 Define the deep drawing process and explain its
features and applications.
Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process where a sheet
metal blank is radially drawn into a forming die by penetrating
with a punch by mechanical action. Deep drawing stresses the
metal blank a little more than the yield stress, but much lower
than the ultimate stress of the material.
In deep drawing, usually, the depth of cup is one or more
times the diameter. The process is also called stamping or cup
drawing, using which circular, rectangular or complex outlined
cups can be drawn.
Initially a round sheet metal blank is placed over a circular
die opening and is held in position by a blank holder. Then the
punch is allowed to move down to force the blank into the die
cavity to form a cup shaped product. This is the basic process
of deep drawing.
The figure 4.46 shows different stages of deformation during
the process. During the travel of punch towards the final
bottom position, the blank experiences a complex sequence of
stresses and strains. At the beginning, as the punch begins to
push the work, it is bent over the corner of punch. The outer
edges of the blank moves slightly towards the centre at this
stage.
As the punch moves down, the material also moves down,
and a straightening action takes place in the bent metal (figure
4.46c). During this process, the flange is likely to wrinkle, but
the force applied by the blankholder reduces or eliminates it.
By proper control of this force as a function of punch travel,
better results can be obtained.
When the bent metal gets straightened and moves down,
more material comes from the outside edges of the blank. Here
the metal is drawn towards the die opening by the action of
punch. It is this type of metal flow though a constricted space
which gives the drawing process its name.
As the metal in the outer periphery of the blank is drawn
towards centre, it becomes thicker also (figure 4.46d). The
progressive downward motion of the punch results in a
continuation of the metal flow due to drawing and compression.
Here some thinning of the side walls of the cup occurs as in
figure 4.46(e).
This process can be used to make cup shaped, box shaped

or any complex shaped hollow parts. Some of the products
made by the drawing process, are kitchen sinks, cooking
utensils, containers for food and beverages, automobile fuel
tanks, body parts etc.
Punch
Blank
holder
Die B
(a) (b)
Punch
Blank
holder Compression and
thickening of flange
Die Bending
Bending
(d)
(b) Straightening (c) Straighten

(a) (a) (b) (c)
Compression and Compression and

thickening of flangethickening of flange
(d) (d) (e) (e)
Figure 4.46
A larger blank diameter will lead to more severe deep drawing
conditions. The ratio between the initial blank diameter and the
diameter of the deep drawn cup is called the limiting drawing
ratio. If D is the diameter of blank and d the diameter of cup,
then:
D
r =
d
The drawing force to be applied depends on the yield strength
of the material, σY , the diameter and thickness, t of the cup or
tube drawn. Force needed for deep drawing a circular cup from
a circular balnk can be determined as:
D 
Drawing force, F = πdt  − 0.6 σY (4.13)
 d 
The force determined above is spent for deforming the
workpiece. Additional force ranging from 20 to 40% of the
drawing force may be needed to keep the blank under pressure
to prevent wrinkles in the drawn part. The limit of deformation
is reached when the force required deform the blank becomes
greater than the load carrying capacity of the cup wall.
Blank size calculation is important to ensure quality of the
drawn product. In this computation, it is assumed that the
thickness of blank does not change during drawing. This can
be calculated by equating the suface area of deformed part and
that of the blank.
For a cylindrical cup of diameter d and height h,
Total surface area = bottom area + cylindical surface area
π 2 π 2

=
4
d + π=
dh
4
(d + 4dh )
π
If D is diameter of the blank, area = D 2
4
π 2 π 2
Equating these two areas, =
4
D
4
(d + 4dh )
D
Blank diameter,= d 2 + 4dh (4.14)
The percentage reduction can be calculated using the

relationship,
D −d
=
%Reduction × 100
D (4.15)
The inside diameter of cup wall is usually used for the above
calculations. This diameter is same as the punch diameter.
Example 4.2
Determine the force required for drawing a cup of 40 mm
diameter from a mild steel blank of 70mm diameter and 2mm
thickness. Also determine the maximum height of the cup
drawn, if the yield strength of mild steel is 300MPa.
Solution
Given, Diameter of blank, D = 70mm
Thickness of blank, t = 2mm
Diameter of cup, d = 40mm
Yield strength of mild steel, σY =300MPa
D 
Drawing force, F =
πdt  − 0.6 σY
d 
 70 
= π × 40 × 2  − 0.6 × 300
 40 
= 86664N
= 86.664kN

Dimensions of blank and cup are related by
π 2 π 2
=
4
D
4
(d + 4dh )
D 2 − d 2 702 − 402
=
From this, height, h = = 20.625mm
4d 4 × 40
Height of the cup will be 20.625mm
Defects in Deep Drawing
• Wrinkling in flange and cup wall: This is like ups
and downs or waviness that is developed on the flange.
If the flange is drawn into the die hole, it will be retained
in cup wall region.
• Tearing: It is a crack in the cup, near the base,
happening due to high tensile stresses causing thinning
and failure of the metal at this place. This can also occur
due to sharp die corner.
• Earing: The edges of cups made by drawing may become
wavy. This is called earing. This is caused by the planar
anisotropy of the sheet material.
• Surface scratches: Usage of rough punch, dies and
poor lubrication cause scratches in a drawn cup.
4.14.1 Deep Drawability
LO 4.16 Define deep drawability.
During deep drawing, the sheet material must be capable of
undergoing a reduction in width due to reduction in diameter.
The sheet should also resist thinning under the longitudinal
tensile stress in the cup wall.
Deep drawability is expressed in terms of limiting drawing
ratio (LDR), which is a ratio of the diameter of the blank, D,
before drawing to that of the cup or tube, d, after drawing.

D
LDRr =
d
Normal anisotropy or plastic anisotropy, R of the sheet
metal is defined in terms of the true strains that the specimen
undergoes in tensile loading.
Width Strain ε
R = w
Thickness Strain εt
Normal anisotropy is a factor which determines whether a

sheet metal can be successfully deep drawn into a round cup
shaped object without defects.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Classify the metal forming processes L1
2. Name the forming process used to make wire coat L1
hanger
3. List any 5 components manufactured by extrusion L1
process.
4. Compare forged components with cast components, L1
in respect of grain flow
5. Differentiate between drop forging and press L1
forging.
6. List the various types of forging methods available L1
to a manufacturing engineer.
8. List the advantages of hot working over cold working L1
of metals
9. List the specific merits of cold working over hot L1
working
10. Specify the temperature that should plain-carbon L1
steel be heated for hot working
11. Distinguish between open and closed die-forging L1
processes.
12. Distinguish clearly between drop forging and press- L1
forging processes with reference to the process and
products obtained.
13. List the advantages of forging of metals. L1
14. Differentiate upsetting and fullering in forging L1
15. Compare forged components with cast components L1
16. Differentiate between impact extrusion and cold L1

extrusion forging
17. Distinguish between wire drawing and tube drawing L1
with sketches.
18. List the advantages and disadvantages of hot L1
working
19. List out the various forging defects and explain any L1
two in detail.
20. Differentiate ‘hand forging’ from ‘machine forging’ L1
21. State the advantages and disadvantages of forging. L1
22. List the advantages, limitations and applications of L1
extrusion process.
23. Classify the extrusion process. L1
24. List the difference between extrusion and drawing L1
25. List the types of defects may occur in extrusion and L1
in drawing
26. Name the important process variables in the L1
drawing of rod and wire.
27. Compare extrusion and drawing of tubes. L1
28. Indicate some of the advantages of cold working L1
relative to warm and hot working.
29. Distinguish between direct and indirect extrusion L1
30. Name some products that are produced by L1
extrusion.
31. Differentiate between wire drawing and bar drawing L1
32. Explain why stainless steel is not used in extrusion L2
process
33. Explain (a) forward extrusion (b) backward extrusion L2
(c) impact extrusion and (d) tube extrusion process.
34. Explain how toothpaste tubes are manufactured by L2
impact extrusion process are filled.
35. Explain with an example, each for (a) hand forging L2
(b) drop forging and (c) press forging, mentioning
the type of job performed by the three processes.
36. Explain with the help of neat sketches, how L2
a hexagonal nut can be manufactured from a
cylindrical rod.
37. Explain the basic operations that are normally L2
employed in forging.
38. Explain how forging improves the mechanical L2

properties of components.
39. Explain why draft is provided in a drop-forging die L2
40. Explain the significance of recrystallisation L2
temperature in metal working
41. Differentiate the features of ‘grain flow’ in the case L2
of forged or rolled components
42. List the different stages in the drop forging process L2
in production of a component such as spanner.
43. Explain the term “flash” in a forging, with the help L2
of a sketch.
44. Draw the cross section of a drawing die, labeling L2
various features of it.
45. Explain with sketches the difference between direct L2
and indirect extrusion.
46. Explain why the whole of the material (billet) put in L2
the container for extrusion is not extruded.
47. List the various materials used for making wire- L2
drawing dies and list the applications of each of
them.
48. Explain how collapsible tubes of aluminium L2
(such as those used for tooth paste tubes) are
manufactured.
49. Explain the common hot working processes L2
50. Describe the process of hot extrusion of tubes. L2
51. Describe the indirect extrusion process for solid L2
and hollow workpiece and hydrostatic extrusion
process.
52. Explain briefly the following three basic categories L2
of forging a) Open-die forging; b) Impression die
forging; c) Closed-die forging
53. Explain briefly the following extrusion processes a) L2
Hydrostatic extrusion; b) Backward extrusion; c)
Impact extrusion
54. Describe briefly the extrusion defects L2
55. Explain the wire drawing process with a neat L2
sketch.
56. Explain the features of a typical forging die. L2
57. Explain the function of flash in impression die L2
forging.
58. Explain why there are so many different types of L2

forging machines.
59. Explain why cold extrusion has become an L2
important manufacturing process.
60. Explain why friction is generally undesirable in L2
metal forming operations
61. Explain sticking friction in metal working L2
62. Classify forging operations by the degree to which L2
the work is constrained in the die. Name the three
basic types according to this classification.
63. Explain why flash is desirable in impression die L2
forging
64. Justify with examples, whether metal forming L3
process is more competitive when compared to
machining or casting process.
65. Justify with reasoning whether a gear can be L3
manufactured by extrusion process
66. Justify whether backward extrusion process can be L3
substituted for forward extrusion process.
67. Justify whether it is possible to forge all the L3
materials.
68. Explain how the parting line is chosen in the case L3
of drop-forging operations? Give examples
69. Explain why brittle materials can be worked by L3
extrusion more successfully than by some other
metal-working methods.
70. Show by schematic sketches the process of forward L3
and backward extrusion, with the help of two
examples of components produced by extrusion.
71. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of direct L3
extrusion and indirect extrusion
72. Explain the principles of different forging machines. L3
73. Explain the concerns in the layout of upsetting L3
dies.
74. Explain why extrusion is a batch or semicontinuous L3
process. Do you think it can be made into a
continuous process? Explain.
75. Explain the different ways by which changing the L3
die angle affects the extrusion process.
76. Although the work piece in a wire drawing operation L3

is obviously subjected to tensile stresses, Explain
how compressive stresses also play a role in the
process
77. Explain why in a wire drawing operation, the L3
drawing stress never exceed the yield strength of
the work metal
78. Explain why crankshaft of an automobile is L3
manufactured by forging and not by casting
79. Assume that you are reducing the diameter of two L3
round rods, one by simple tension and the other
by indirect extrusion. Which methods would be
better? Explain
80. A cylindrical specimen made of annealed 4135 L3
steel has a diameter of 6 inches and is 4inch high.
It is upset by open die forging with flat dies to a
height of 2inch at room temperature. Assuming
that the coefficient of friction is 0.2, calculate the
force required at the end of the stroke. Use average
pressure formula.
81. How can you tell whether a certain part is forged L3
or cast? Describe the features that you would
investigate to arrive at a conclusion.
82. Explain why forged parts withstand high loads L3
compared to cast parts.
83. Explain why the die pressure in drawing process L3
decreases towards the exit of the die
84. Explain what can be expected, if during the wire- L3
drawing operation, the reduction attempted is more
than the recommended value
85. Estimate the limiting drawing ratio that you would L4
expect from a sheet metal that, when stretched by
23 percentage in length, decreases in thickness by
10 percentage
86. Explain why crankshaft of an automobile is L4
manufactured by forging and not by casting
87. Assume that you are reducing the diameter of two L4
round rods, one by simple tension and the other
by indirect extrusion. Which methods would be
better? Explain
88. Two solid cylindrical specimens A and B, made of L4

a perfectly plastic material, are being forged with
friction and isothermally at room temperature to
a reduction in height of 50%. Specimen A has a
height of 2 inch and cross sectional area of 1 square
inch, and specimen B has a height of is 1 inch and
a cross sectional area of 2 square inch will the work
done be the same for the two specimens? Explain.
MODULE
JIGS & FIXTURES

5
PRESS WORKING
Learning Objectives
LO 5.1 Comment on the needs for Jigs and Fixtures.

LO 5.2 List various principles of location.
LO 5.3 Define degrees of freedom.
LO 5.4 Explain the 3-2-1 principle of locating.
LO 5.5 List and explain how locating with reference to a
plane is achieved.
circular surface is achieved.
LO 5.7 List and explain how locating with reference to an
irregular surface is achieved.
LO 5.8 List the needs for clamping and principles followed
in clamping.
LO 5.9 List and explain major types of manual clamps
used.
LO 5.10 List the need for power clamps and explain major
types of power assisted clamps used.
LO 5.11 List the need for press working and the different
processes used for sheet metal processing.
LO 5.12 Explain the shearing action during press working
in detail.
LO 5.13 Analyse the shearing process to determine
clearances.
LO 5.14 Explain the sheet metal forming operations carried
out by applying tensile stress on the work.
out by applying compressive stress on the work.
out by applying tensile and compressive stress on the
work.
LO 5.17 Explain the features and working of inverted dies,
compound dies and progressive dies.
MODULE 5 JIGS & FIXTURES 275
5.1 JIGS & FIXTURES

LO 5.1 Comment on the needs for Jigs and Fixtures.
The products obtained from manufacturing processes like
casting and forging often requires further finishing by way of
machining. By machining, the surfaces of these products may
be finished by removal of unwanted metal. In addition, holes,
threads and other internal cavities also may be developed by
machining.
It is necessary that the workpiece need to be properly
placed and clamped in position (location) so that the workpiece
is not dislocated by the cutting forces acting on it. Though
locating and clamping are two distinct problems in practice,
these cannot be separated and often the same device may
facilitate locating and clamping a workpiece. Jigs and fixtures
the devices used for this purpose.
Fixtures are strong and rigid mechanical devices which
enable easy, quick and consistently accurate locating,
supporting and clamping, work blanks against cutting tools
and result faster and accurate machining with consistent
quality, functional ability and interchangeability. Jig is also
a fixture with an additional feature of guiding the tool to the
correct location where machining is to be carried out.
5.2 PRINCIPLES OF LOCATION
LO 5.2 List various principles of location.
The method of establishing correct relative position of the
workpiece with respect to tool is termed as location. Following
are the basic principles of location.
• Location must be related to the dimensional requirements

stated on the workpiece drawing.
• It is preferable to use a more accurately machined surface

than a less accurate surface for location.
• The workpiece should be prevented from moving along

and rotating around the x, y, z axes.
• Location system should facilitate easy and quick loading

and unloading of the workpiece and aim at motion
economy.
• Redundant locators must be avoided.
• Location system should positively prevent wrong loading

of the workpiece by fool proofing.
• Minimum locating points should be used to secure the

location of workpiece.
• Locating surfaces should be perpendicular to each other

to reduce errors.
5.2.1 Degrees of Freedom
LO 5.3 Define degrees of freedom.
When we consider the case of any object or body, it has the
freedom to move in space unless the movement is restricted.
With respect to a three dimensional co-ordinate system,
we can define these movements as translational (linear)
movements parallel to the co-ordinate axes and rotations
about the co-ordinate axes. This means the body can have 3
linear movements and 3 rotary movements with reference to
the co-ordinate system. Hence, we can say that the body is
having 6 degrees of freedom. Here, degrees of freedom means,
the freedom of movement of the body with respect to the co-
ordinate axes. Consider a rectangular block as shown in figure
5.1. This rectangular block has 6 degrees of freedom as shown.
III
VI
II
V
z
y
IV x
I
Figure 5.1
If we examine the movements of the rectangular block in
more detail, it can be said that the block can have 6 linear
(translational) movements along the three co-ordinate
directions. These are along +x, -x, +y, -y, +z and –z directions.
In addition there can be 6 clockwise and anti-clockwise
rotations about the x, y, z axes (see figure 5.2). All these 12
degrees of freedom needs to be arrested for properly locating
and clamping the block.
-x
2
+z 5
12 7
-y
4 +y
10 3
9
z
11 y
8
+x -z 6 x
1
Figure 5.2
5.2.2 The 3-2-1 Principle of Locating
LO 5.4 Explain the 3-2-1 principle of locating.
With reference to figure 5.3, the block is supported at the
bottom surface (marked as A) by 3 pins fixed over a flat surface.
It is equivalent to say that the block is placed over three fixed
pins. Now, some of the degrees of freedom are arrested. With
reference to figure 5.2, the linear movement along –z direction
(6) and 2 rotations each about x-axis and y-axis (7, 8, 9, 10)
are arrested. Here, the horizontal bottom surface of the block
is the primary locating surface and when it is placed above the
three locating pins, five degrees of freedom are arrested.
B
C
A
x
Figure 5.3
By providing two additional supports (locators) on a plane
perpendicular to the primary surface (marked as B), 3 more
degrees of freedom are arrested. This plane is called secondary
surface and the two pins arrest one linear movement along –x
direction (2) and two rotations about the z-axis (11 and 12).
Now, a total of 8 degrees of freedom are arrested.
A ternary plane perpendicular to the first two locating
surfaces (marked as C) is provided with a single pin to support
the block. This sixth locating pin arrests one more linear
movement along -y direction (4). Now, a total of 9 degrees
of freedom are restricted by the six locators. Clamping of the
block restricts the remaining three degrees of freedom.
Here the movements of the block are arrested by three
locating points on the primary locating surface marked A, two
locating points on the adjacent surface marked B and another
one locating point on the ternary locating surface marked C.
Hence, location of the rectangular block can be done using six
locating points. This method of using 3-2-1 locating points on
three adjacent sides is known as the 3-2-1 principle of locating.
5.3 LOCATING FROM PLANE

plane is achieved.
The basic reference for location, can be taken as the flat

plane of a machine tool table. A plane surface can be located
with three points on the surface. A reasonably flat surface
can be located by three pins of equal height having spherical
surfaces at the location points. A rough uneven or tapered
surface should be located by three adjustable location pins
having spherical ends. A machined surface can be located by
pads having flat surface.
Three most common types of locating points are buttons,

pins and pads. Buttons are made of steel, of round cross
section and have either a flat or spherical head. Spherical or
crowned heads are used against unmachined surfaces. Rest
buttons are used as base locators, while stop buttons are used
for side and end stops. Pins are cylindrical in shape as shown
in figure 5.4. Buttons can be substituted for pins, but pins
cannot be substituted for buttons. Round pins have a spherical
head and are used on concave and unmachined surfaces. Pads
are flat components made from sheets. These are used as base
locators when rest buttons do not provide sufficient bearing
area.
Flat Spherical Plain Shoulder Step

(a) Rest Buttons
Round Bullet Plain Conical Dow

(b) Pin locators
Figure 5.4
The pins should be spaced as widely as possible for more

accuracy. When using the 3-2-1 principle, the three pins can
define a plane, but they cannot provide adequate support to
the workpiece during machining. With these three pins, the
movement of workpiece in vertical direction is prevented. Still
the workpiece is free to move along the horizontal plane against
the forces due to longitudinal or cross feed movement in a
machine. Providing two locating points in a second plane and
another locating point on a third plane would solve this. With
reference to figure 5.5, it can be said that complete location
has been accomplished here. When the workpiece is removed
from this position, every time it can be replaced exactly in the
same position. But the workpiece needs to be properly clamped
to retain it in this location during the machining.
locating and
supporting pins
locating pin
Work piece
locating and
supporting pins
Figure 5.5
5.4 LOCATING FROM CIRCULAR SURFACE
circular surface is achieved.
Location from cylinder is the most common and convenient
form of location. Here also we can take the flat plane of machine
tool table as the basic reference for location. Here we have to
locate the base and axis of circular workpiece, then it can only
rotate about its axis.
Conical location is a commonly used method of locating

from a circular surface. When locating is done from a hole,
cones or conical shaped points are used as locators. (see figure
5.6). When locating on the outside of a circle, the cones are
inverted to form cups (see figure 5.7).
Workpiece Workpiece
Machine table Machine table
Figure 5.6
Workpiece Workpiece
Machine table Machine table
Figure 5.7
The Vee method is also used to locate round workpieces
(figure 5.8). An angle of 90O is best suited for the V blocks. The
V block should be positioned in such a way that the changes
in workpiece diameter will not affect location on the workpiece.
An example is shown in figure 5.9.
O
90
O
15
Figure 5.8
Figure 5.9
Conical locators are used mainly to locate rough unmachined
cylinders in castings and forgings. Vee locators are used
extensively to locate cylindrical surfaces from outside. Fixed V
blocks are used for approximate location. For precise location,
adjustable, guided V blocks are used, which are adjusted by a
screw or a cam.
5.4.1 Concentric Locating

This method combines both locating and clamping since
the work is usually positioned to a common centre. Chuck is
a commonly used clamping and locating device, where both
the chuck and workpiece rotates. Chuck is also used to clamp

and locate idle workpieces to machine tables (Fig. 5.10). In the
case of a self centering chuck, it is easy and quick to locate and
clamp round workpieces of various diameters.
Cutting tool
Workpiece
Figure 5.10
5.5 LOCATING FROM IRREGULAR SURFACE
LO 5.7 List and explain how locating with reference to an
irregular surface is achieved.
Those surfaces which are neither flat nor circular are treated
as irregular. They may or may not be geometrically true. For
example, a parabolic or elliptical surface would be considered
an irregular surface. A surface of a workpiece that may vary
dimensionally from time to time would also be an irregular
surface. An example would be the raw edge or surface of a
casting. The degree of roughness may also determine whether
a surface would be considered flat, circular, or irregular.
A rough flat surface may have to be considered as an irregular
surface when determining locating methods, especially when
workpiece dimensions vary from part to part. Locating methods
used for flat and circular surfaces may be used for some
irregular surfaces that are finished and geometrically true. For
example, Vee locating methods may be used to locate certain
parabolic surfaces, and button locators may be used to locate
certain elliptical surfaces.
It may be necessary to locate from an irregular surface only
during the first machining operation, as it should produce holes
or surfaces that can be used as reference or locating points
for subsequent operations. The unevenness of the surface
of a casting will allow a maximum of three contact points. If
more than three points are used, the workpiece will deform
when clamping pressure is applied. It is therefore necessary
to use adjustable rest pins or equalisers to compensate for the
unevenness of the workpiece surface.
One of the simplest types of adjustable rest pins, commonly

called a fixture jack, is shown in figure 5.11. During usage, the
workpiece is positioned on three non-adjustable locators, and
the jacks are adjusted until they touch the workpiece surface.
The contact pressure between the jacks and the workpiece
depends upon the judgment of the operator.
Figure 5.11
Modified versions of fixture jacks which can be placed under
the workpiece and easily accessed by the operator are also
used (see figure 5.12). In addition to fixture jacks, mechanical
equalising jacks are also used in combination with rest pins
or cone locator pins. After locating the irregular surface in one
plane, the same steps are to be extended to the two remaining
planes.
Figure 5.12
5.5.1 Nesting or Cavity Locating
The nesting method of locating makes use of a cavity in the
work holding device into which the workpiece is placed and
located. This is an effective means of locating when the cavity
is of the same size as that of workpiece. Figure 5.13 shows an
example of nest enclosing a workpiece on its bottom surface.
The only freedom available to the workpiece is in the upward
direction.
Nests of the cavity type are used to locate a wide variety of
workpieces including a cylindrical one. No additional locating
devices like pins are not required here.
As the workpiece is completely surrounded by the cavity,

it may not be easy to lift it and remove from the cavity. The
presence of burrs and chips from machning operation also
tend to lock the workpiece into the nest. These are some
disadvantages of the cavity locating.
Figure 5.13
5.6 PRINCIPLES OF CLAMPING

LO 5.8 List the needs for clamping and principles followed
in clamping.
When the workpiece is properly by located it needs to be
clamped so that it is firmly held in position against the forces
acting on it. This step of pressing the workpiece against locating
surfaces to hold it there is called clamping and the tools used
for this are called clamps.
There are numerous types of clamps in use today. The
essential requirements of clamps are:
1. The workpiece must be held rigidly while the cutting
tools are in operation.
2. The clamp should be quick acting so that the time
required for loading or unloading must be minimum.
3. The clamp must be able to withstand vibration, chatter
and heavy pressure.
4. The clamp must not damage the workpiece.

The main principles of clamping are the following.
Position: Clamping should be positioned to direct the
clamping force on a strong supported part of the workpiece.
Clamps should not obstruct path of the cutting tool. The
clamp should not obstruct the loading and unloading of the
workpiece.
Strength: The clamping system should have sufficient
strength to hold the workpiece firmly against the cutting
forces. At the same time, the clamping force should not make
damages to the workpiece.
Productivity: The clamping time should be minimized by
using knobs, knurled screws, tommy bars, hand wheels and
handles (see figure 5.14). A clamp which can be tightened or
loosened without using spanners will have more productivity
as the setup time is reduced.
Handle
Hand knob
Knurled head Tommy

bar
Hand wheel
Figure 5.14
Operator fatigue: Pneumatic or hydraulic clamping is to
be used when the number of clamps to be set up is more. This
reduces operator fatigue and setup time.
Workpiece variation: The clamping design should be able
to accommodate variations in the workpiece dimensions.
5.7 TYPES OF CLAMPS
LO 5.9 List and explain major types of manual clamps used.

There are numerous types of clamps in use today. The
basic classification is into the following categories. Strap, cam,
screw, latch, wedge, toggle and rack & pinion. Most clamping
devices contain one or more of these elements. Another general
classification is based on the usage features of the clamps
into: Strap, side, hinge and swing clamps. In addition to these
mechanical clamping types, vacuum clamping and magnetic
clamping are also being used.
5.7.1 Strap Clamps
In the simplest form, the clamp is tightened by rotating
a hexagonal nut on a screw. One end of the clamp presses
against the workpiece and the other on a head pin. In order to
accommodate variation in workpiece dimensions, the clamping
face of the clamp is made curved and the top face of pin is
made spherical in shape (see figure 5.15).
Angle of maximum inclination Standard spherical washers
Workpiece
Figure 5.15
Another feature which supports variation in workpiece
dimension is the provision of spherical washers between clamp
and the hexagonal nut. The strap clamps are also provided
with a washer and spring below the clamp. This makes the
loading and unloading of the workpiece easier.
Many variants of strap clamp like retractable strap clamp,
slotted strap clamp, swinging strap clamp and special strap
clamps are in use for various types of workpiece configurations.
5.7.2 Side Clamps
Side clamps are preferred when the top surface of workpiece
needs to be free and unobstructed for machining. For milling,
planing and broaching, this type of clamping may be necessary.
A typical side clamp is shown in figure 5.16.
Workpiece
Figure 5.16
The figure 5.17 shows a simple side clamp. By tightening the
nut, the wedge shaped clamp presses the workpiece against
locating surface and keeps it in position.
Work piece
Figure 5.17
5.7.3 Latch Clamps
This type of clamps are simple and relatively quick in
operation. These are suitable only for smaller size, simple
shaped workpieces requiring lower clamping forces. Figure
5.18 shows an example of latch clamp.
Work piece
Figure 5.18
The latch clamps are also called swing clamps as these are
to be swung to the working position. The axis of rotation of
swing plates is such that they rotate in the planes of their
plates. Figure 5.19 shows strap plates with different types of
slots for easy removal.
Figure 5.19
5.7.4 Screw Clamps
A screw clamp is provided with a screw thread to clamp
a workpiece. The screw clamp can exert adequate force and
remains in position preventing loosening due to vibrations.
The clamping action takes more time compared to strap and
cam clamps, and may not be suitable for mass production.
The basic screw clamp comprises of a screw, hand knob
and pressure pad as shown in figure 5. 20. The clamp uses the
torque developed by the screw thread to hold the workpiece in
position.
Figure 5.18
Screw clamps make use of simple setscrews to complicated

clamping assemblies actuated by screw threads. Standard
items like handles, hand knobs, knurled head, tommy bar,
hand wheel etc. are used for the construction of screw clamps.
There are numerous other devices develped to speed up the
clamping action of screw clamps. Quick acting screw clamp
and quick acting knob are two popular devices used along with
screw clamps.
5.7.5 Cam Clamps
Cam clamps are simple to use and provide an effective and
faster method of clamping. The clamping may loosen under
vibrations. Hence this type of clamp can not be used where
heavy clamping forces are needed.
Cam clamps are available in two types, spiral and eccentric
camp clamps. The spiral cam provides better locking as
compared to the eccentric one. Eccentric cam clamps are
easier to manufacture. The construction is similar to the strap
clamp, where the hexagonal nut of the strap clamp is replaced
by an eccentric cam as in figure 5.21.
Figure 5.21
5.7.6 Wedge Clamps

A simple wedge clamp consists of a movable wedge which
forces the workpiece against a fixed stop. The horizontal
movement of wedge causes upward vertical clamping force
on the workpiece. Wedges with angle of 1 to 4 degree are self
locking type. Wedges with larger angles need another holding
device like ascrew or cam to hold the wedge and workpiece in
position.
In the side jaw wedge clamp shown in figure 5.22, the clamp
slides down as the hexagonal nut is tightened. Now the jaw is
pushed against the workpiece to clamp it firmly. Figure 5.23
shows another type of wedge clamp in which a screw is used
to force the wedge end of clamp upward causing the clamping
action.
Work piece
Figure 5.22
Figure 5.23
5.8 POWER CLAMPING
LO 5.10 List the need for power clamps and explain major
types of power assisted clamps used.
Using power clamping a number of clamps of various types

can be operated simultaneously. Power clamping can be
implemented using the following means.
• Pneumatic clamping
• Hydraulic clamping
• Vacuum clamping
• Magnetic clamping
• Electrostatic clamping
Many of the types of clamps explained earlier can be
operated using a few of the power clamping methods. Some
power clamping methods are employed for specific applications
involving special clamps or even without any clamps at all.
5.8.1 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Clamping
These two are grouped under fluid power clamping methods
since both are using fluids to generate clamping force. The
advantages of using these clamping methods are faster
clamping, uniform and equalised clamping pressure and less
operator fatigue.
Working principle of these are similar, but the pneumatic
system needs larger cylinders to develop higher pressures. With
a smaller cylinder, the hydraulic system will be able to develop
such higher pressures to operate the clampling devices.
Supply of compressed air may be available in most
manufacturing industries and it is convenient to use
pneumatically operated clamping devices. The low pressure
air available can be given a pressure boosting with the help of
an air to hydraulic booster. The booster is used to convert the
lower pneumatic pressure into higher hydraulic pressure to
operate the hydraulic powered clamping system.
During clamping, the piston inside the cylinder is actuated
by fluid pressure as illustrated in figure 5.24. The piston rod
is connected to levers of the clamp, which exerts the necessary
pressure to workpiece. As the piston moves back, the levers
release the clamping pressure on the workpiece and it is
released for unloading.
Figure 5.24
When there are a number of clamps actuated by a single
hydraulic system, clamping pressure of all clamps will be equal.
By regulating the pressure of the fluid, clamping pressure can
be varied. Higher pressure can be used for heavy cuts and
lower pressure can be used for finishing operations. The risk
of sudden pressure drops can be eliminated by providing non
return valves along the hydraulic circuit.
5.8.2 Vacuum Clamping
An application of vacuum clamping is for securing thin
sheets which cannot take up heavy clamping forces. Vacuum
clamping provides only light clamping. As shown in figure
5.25, the holding face is provided with small vacuum ducts
of around 0.25mm depth. In addition, there will be a rubber
seal covering the periphery of the holding face and acts as the
boundary of vacuum clamping area. When the vacuum pump
is operated, the vacuum ducts are evacuated and develops a
clamping force on the flat thin workpiece. Upon stopping the
vacuum pump, the clamping is released.
0.025 mm deep vacuum grooves
Workpiece
Seal
Vacuum pump
Seal
Figure 5.25
5.8.3 Magnetic Clamping

Similar to vacuum clamping, magnetic force can be made
use to clamp the workpiece in position. Permanent magnets or
electromagnets are used for this purpose.
Permanent magnets are mounted on a sliding member and
moved under a non magnetic material to block the magnetic
flux. The permanent magnets are slid into the clamping and
unclamping position by a lever. The workpiece to be clamped
is placed on the surface of clamp. There are a number of
permanent magnets below the surface of clamp. A lever is used
operate the clamp. In the ON position, magnetic flux passes
through the workpiece to complete the magnetic circuit. When
in the OFF position, the flux passes through the clamp surface
only and not through the workpiece. Thus the workpiece
is unclamped. This is done by aligning the magnets with a
number of non magnetic separators.
The magnetic table surface is divided into alternative strips
of magnetic and non magnetic material. The non magnetic
strips block the path of a part of magnetic flux and hence the
flux passes through the workpiece to clamp it with magnetic
force. The non magnetic strips act as flux dams. When the
magnets are slid below the non-magnetic strips the magnetic
flux is completely blocked and the workpiece is unclamped
(figure 5.26).
Workpiece
Permanent magnets
Workpiece Non magnetic

strips
Figure 5.26
Electromagnetic tables use solenoid coils as temporary

magnets. The solenoid coil acts like a magnet when DC
current is supplied. When current is switched off, the table
is demagnetized and workpiece is released. By varying the
current through the solenoid coil, the magnetic clamping
force can be varied. These magnets are more powerful than
permanent magnets.
5.9 PRESS WORKING
LO 5.11 List the need for press working and the different
processes used for sheet metal processing.
Products made by casting or forging are of simple design and
are heavier. For making light weight and versatile products like
appliances, automotive bodies, cans, household utensils etc.,
sheet metal is used. Low carbon steel is most commonly used
sheet material. It is a low cost material with good strength and
formability. For aircraft and aerospace applications sheets of
aluminium and titanium are used.
From a large sheet of metal, a blank of suitable dimensions
is cut and removed by shearing operation. This blank is then
formed into various shapes, by stretching and bending the
sheet. Certain characteristics of sheet metal which are having
important effects on the sheet metal forming are explained
here.
Elongation: Since the sheet metal is usually being stretched
during sheet forming, high uniform elongation is desirable for
good formability. A higher value of strain hardening exponent
(n) and strain rate sensitivity index (m) are desirable. (see
Section 3.8.2 for details). Along with elongation, necking also
occurs, but a diffused necking is desirable in sheet forming
operations. Another related factor is total elongation of the
material.
Yield point elongation: Low carbon steels exhibit a
behaviour called yield point elongation. Aluminium and
magnesium alloys also exhibit this behaviour. Once the
material yields, the sheet stretches more in certain regions
while in other regions sheet has not at all yielded.
Anisotropy: Another important factor that influences
sheet metal forming is anisotropy of the sheet. Due to this
property,the material exhibits different behaviours in different
planar directions, which can be reduced or eliminated by
annealing.
Grain size: The grain size of sheet metal is important due

to two reasons. Grain size affects mechanical properties and
influences the surface appearance. In a coarse grained sheet,
surface appearance will be rougher.
Spring back: Caused by elastic recovery of the plastically
deformed sheet after removing the applied loads. This leads to
distortion of the part and loss of dimensional accuracy.
5.9.1 Shearing Action
LO 5.12 Explain the shearing action during press working
in detail.
Shearing is the basic operation of cutting sheet metal to
the required dimensions and shape. The sheet is subjected
to shear stresses developed between a die and a punch as in
figure 5.27.
During the shearing process, initially cracks are formed on
the top and bottom edges of the workpiece. These points are
marked as 1, 2, 3, 4 in figure 5.27.
Sheet
Punch
1 3
T
2 4
Clearance Die
Figure 5.27
As shearing proceeds, the points 1 and 2 move towards
each other and meets, so does the points 3 and 4. This leads to
separation of materials and creation of a hole on the workpiece.
A typical application of shearing process is to cut large
sheets into smaller sections for subsequent press working
operations. Based on shearing process, there are several
operations performed on sheet metals.
Shearing Operations
Blanking is the process of cutting sheet metal along a closed
outline in a single step. Here the part cut out from the sheet is
called blank and it is the desired product and the remaining
portion is discarded.
Piercing or punching is similar to blanking except that the
part cut and separated is (slug) discarded. Punching is used
to create cut outs of different shapes in sheet metal. Piercing

is also a shearing process in which raw metal is pierced with a
punch, resulting in the creation of a circular or other shaped
hole. As the raw metal is pierced, the metal from the newly
created hole is considered scrap. The figure 5.28 illustrates
the distinction.
Strip (scrap)
Part
Blank (part)
Slug (scrap)
Figure 5.28
Slotting is the term used to call the punching operation
for cutting rectangular holes as in figure 5.29. Perforating
involves cutting a number of holes in sheet metal for decorative
purpose or for passage of light or air. Notching is another kind
of shearing process by which pieces of metal of various shapes
are removed from the edges of sheets. Semi notching removes
a portion of metal (blank) from the interior of sheet to create
a part of the blank outline. This is different from punching
and slotting as these processes create holes in sheets. These
processes are illustrated in figure 5.29.
Notchin
Slot
Slug
(a) Slotting (b) Perforating (c)

Notching Cutoff line
Slot
Slug
Seminotching
(b) Perforating (c)
Figure 5.29
Fine blanking is another shearing operation by which holes

with very smooth and square edges are produced in sheet
metal. Though this process is carried out as a single step
process, it is limited to sheets of relatively small thickness.
Flanging is the process of bending edges of sheets at 90O.
This is done prior to joining two sheet metal parts or to increase
stiffness (figure 5.30).
Figure 5.30
Hemming is the process of folding over the edge of a piece of
sheet metal and then pressing it to make it flat. This is done to
stiffen the edges of sheets as in figure 5.31.
Figure 5.31
Seaming is done to join two sheets without use of fasteners
or welding. One or both sheets are flanged before seaming and
a joint is made as shown in figure 5.32.
Figure 5.32
Trimming is used to remove flash (small fin like extra
material spread out near parting line) in products made by die
casting and drop forging process. The flash is trimmed before
the forging is used. Dies similar to blanking dies are used for
this. But the presses used for trimming process usually have a
larger table. See figure 5.33.
Figure 5.33
The edges of blank or hole produced by blanking or piercing
operations, may have some burrs created by the shearing
process. The shaving operation is used to remove these burrs,
following the blanking or piercing process. The shaving dies
usually have very small clearances as shown in figure 5.34.
Figure 5.34
Nibbling is used to remove metal from a sheet metal in

small increments to form a specific contour. This process is
used when the contour is long and a single punch may not be
economical. Round or square punches can be used to punch
the plate repeatedly to develop the required profile.
Figure 5.35
5.9.2 Analysis of Shearing
LO 5.13 Analyse the shearing process to determine
clearances.
Clearance is the space between cutting edge of punch
and the die which is given intentionally. The amount of
clearance depends on the material and the thickness of plate.
The principle of determining clearance for the blanking and
piercing operations are different.
In blanking, the cut out portion is the required product
or part. Here, the die will be having the exact dimension of
the part and the punch is made smaller giving the required
clearance as shown in figure 5.36.
Figure 5.36
Dimension of part = Dimension of die = s
Dimension of punch = s - 2c
=
Clearance per side, c 0.0032 × t × τ mm , where t is the
thickness of sheet and τ is the ultimate shear stress of the
material in MPa. Usually, the value of c varies from 3% to 8%
of material thickness.
In piercing, the cut out portion is scrap and the left out
portion is the required product or part. Here, the punch will
be having the exact dimension of the part and the die is made
bigger giving the required clearance as shown in figure 5.37.
Figure 5.37
Dimension of part = Dimension of punch = s
Dimension of die = s + 2c
After shearing, for the smooth removal of blank or slug, the

die opening should be enlarged by providing angular clearance
or draft on the die block as shown in figure 5.37. The standard
values of angular clearance range from 0.25 to 0.75 degree per
side. Higher clearances upto 2 degrees are provided for thicker
and softer materials.
Punching Force
Punching force or cutting force is the force to be exerted

by the punch for shearing out the blank from the plate. It is
a function of the area of cutting edge (shear area) and shear

strength (ultimate shear stress) of the material.
Punching force, P= Lt τ , where L is the perimeter of cut

out area in mm, t is the thickness of plate in mm and τ , the
ultimate shear strength of material.
Smallest hole that can be pierced in a sheet
The compressive strength of punch limits the punching force

that can be applied to it. This means the maximum punching
force that can be applied to a punch is equal to compressive
strength of punch.
For punching a circular hole of diameter D, on a sheet of

thickness, t,
Punching force, P =πDt τ

π 2
F
Maximum force that can be applied to punch,= D σc
4
where σc is compressive strength of punch.
These two forces are to be equal

π 2
πDt
= τ D σc
4
4t τ
D=
σc
This is the diameter of the smallest hole that can be punched

on a sheet of shear strength τ and thickness t, using a punch
made of a material having compressive strength, σc .
Example 5.1
Determine the die and punch dimensions for blanking
a circular disc of 20mm diameter from a C20 steel sheet of
thickness 2.5mm. Shear strength of C20 steel is 300MPa. Also
determine the punching force. What will be the dimensions of
die and punch, if it were a piercing process,
Solution
Thickness of sheet, t = 2.5mm
Diameter of hole, D = 20mm
Perimeter of hole, L = π × 20 mm
Shear strength of material, τ =300MPa

=
Clearance per side, c 0.0032 × t × τ
= 0.0032 × 2.5 × 300

= 0.1385 ≈ 0.14mm
For blanking, Die size = Blank size = 20mm
Punch size = Blank size – 2c = 20 – 2 × 0.14 = 19.72mm
Punching force, P = Lt τ = π × 20 × 2.5 × 300
=47300N =47.3 kN
For piercing, Punch size = Blank size
Die size = Blank size + 2c = 20 + 2 × 0.14 = 20.28 mm

Example 5.2
Calculate the force required to punch a square hole of size
20mm through a 3mm thick plate of alloy steel. The ultimate
tensile strength of the alloy is given as 800MPa.
Solution
Thickness of plate, t = 3mm
Size of hole = 20 mm square
Perimeter of hole, L = 4 × 20 = 80mm
Ultimate shear strength τ = 0.577 × Ultimate tensile strength
=0.577 × 800 = 461.6 MPa
Punching force, P= Lt τ= 80 × 3 × 461.6

= 110784 N = 110.784kN
Example 5.3
Determine the minimum diameter of the hole that can
be punched in a 3.5mm thick sheet material having shear
strength 330 MPa using a punch having compressive strength
145 MPa. Calculate the punching force also.
Solution
Thickness of sheet, t =3.5mm
Shear strength of sheet, τ = 330MPa
Compressive strength of punch, σc = 145MPa
4t τ
Minimum diameter of hole, D =
σc

4 × 3.5 × 330
= = 31.86mm
145
Punching force, P =πDt τ = π × 31.86 × 3.5 × 330
= 115554 N = 115.55kN
Question no. 19(a) from Model Question Paper
Example 5.4
Estimate the force required in punching a 25mm diameter
hole through a 3.2mm thick annealed Titanium Ti-6Al-4V
sheet at room temperature.
Solution
Given, Diameter hole to be punched, D = 25mm
Thickness of plate, t = 3.2mm
Perimeter of hole, L = π × 25 = 78.5 mm
Shear strength of material is taken as τ =700MPa
Punching force, P= Lt τ= 78.5 × 3.2 × 700
= 175840N = 0.176 MN
Question no. 20(a) from Model Question Paper
Example 5.5
Determine the die and punch sizes for blanking a circular disc
of 20mm diameter from a C20 steel sheet whose thickness
is 1.5mm.
Solution
Given, Thickness of sheet, t = 1.5mm
Diameter of hole, D = 20mm
Perimeter of hole, L = π × 20 mm
Take shear strength of material as, τ =450MPa
=
Clearance per side, c 0.0032 × t × τ
= 0.0032 × 1.5 × 450
= 0.1018 ≈ 0.10mm
For blanking, Die size = Blank size = 20mm

Punch size = Blank size – 2c = 20 – 2 × 0.10 = 19.80mm
5.10 TENSION OPERATIONS

out by applying tensile stress on the work.
These press working operations subject the workpiece to
tensile stress to deform it as per the needs.
5.10.1 Stretch Forming
In stretch forming, the sheet metal is clamped along its
edges and stretched over a die or form block. There are different
types of machines in which the form block moves forward,
backward or sideways.
Rectangular sheets are usually the work materials for
stretch forming. The sheet is clamped along its narrower edges
and stretched lengthwise. The rectangular sheet gets elongated
in length and shortened in width. Stretch forming cannot be
used for products with sharp corners.
Popular applications of stretch forming are for making
automobile door panels, window frames and aircraft wing
panels. Jaws
Die
ws
Die
Figure 5.38
Stretch forming operation is carried out in plastic state
only, and spring back effect is eliminated. The sheet is held
between two jaws of hydraulic cylinders and stretched beyond
elastic limit. Then the die moves forward to come in contact
with the sheet and give it the shape of die. This is a simple and
inexpensive process.
An estimate of force required in stretch forming can be
obtained from the expression.
F Lt f
where L-Dimension of sheet in the direction perpendicular to
stretching (mm); t-instantaneous thickness of sheet (mm); σ f
-flow stress of work material (MPa).
5.11 COMPRESSION OPERATIONS

out by applying compressive stress on the work.
These operations are carried out by applying compressive
stress on the work material.
5.11.1 Coining
Coining is the process of pressing material in a die so that
it flows into the cavities in the die face as shown in figure
5.39. In this process, metal flows as per the contour of the die
and there is significant changes in metal thickness. Coining
operations are generally carried out in cold.
Punch
Finished
Starting part
blank
Die
Retainer
Figure 5.39
Coining is used to reproduce ornate details with excellent
surface finish and very close tolerances. Some examples of
products made by coining process are metal buttons, medals,
coins, jewellry, tableware and decoration items. In order to
impart good surface finish, the coining dies must be highly
polished and free from scratches and tool marks.
During the coining operation, the part must be properly
confined. The die block surfaces will have the details to be
inscribed on the part and will control the thickness of the part.
The sides of the die control the outside contour of the part.
5.11.2 Ironing
Ironing is a method of redrawing a tubular shell to reduce
the wall thickness to ensure a smooth uniform wall surface
with only a minor reduction in the inner diameter. The ironing
process is also called as thinning.
Ironing is done as a secondary step after drawing process.
Purpose of ironing are to correct the natural thickening of the
wall and to reduce its wall thickness to a uniform level. This
is done by making the clearance between the punch and die
less than the wall thickness of work. The metal is thinned and
length is increased as it is forced through the die and punch.
Figure 5.40 shows the ironing operation in partially completed
stage.
Figure 5.40
5.11.3 Hobbing
The process of hobbing is uses a very hard piece of steel,
previously engraved or embossed with specified details, known
as the master hob, and pushes it into an unhardened steel
blank by way of hydraulic press. This produces a hob with a
reverse image of the specific details either impressed or raised
on the blank depending on the job requirement.
The hobbing process is performed at room temperature with
the required pressure varying from 1380 MPa to 2760 MPa
depending on both the hobbing metals and blanking material.
This is a cold forming process which is generally done
with steel in a fully annealed state. Cold hobbing makes very
efficient use of material while producing very strong parts, as
the material flows into the desired shapes, maintaining its

grain structure.
5.12 TENSION & COMPRESSION OPERATIONS
out by applying tensile and compressive stress on the
work.
In this category of press working, the work material is
subjected to tensile and compressive stresses. The dies used
here are designed so as to distribute the applied load into
tensile and compressive stresses properly as per the design
requirements.
5.12.1 Bending
In sheet metal work, bending is defined as straining of metal
around a straight axis as in figure 5.41. During bending, the
outer fibres of the metal are in tension and the inner fibres are
in compression. The neutral plane with no stresses separates
these different zones (see figure 5.41). The length of neutral axis
in the bend is called bend allowance and is used to determine
length of blank for bending.
L Metal stretched
Neutral axis
T
plane Neutr
R
Metal compre
Bend axis
L Metal stretched
Neutral axis
T
plane Neutral axis
R
Metal compressed
Figure 5.41
An approximate value for bend allowance is given by
Lb (R kT )
where α is the bend angle in radians, R is bend radius, T is
sheet thickness and k is a constant. In an ideal case, neutral
axis is at the centre of sheet thickness and k=0.5, but k ranges

from 0.3 (for R< 2T) to 0.5 (for R >2T).
Bending operations are carried out using properly designed
punch and die set. There are two common methods of bending;
V-bending and edge bending. In V-bending, the metal is bent
between a V shaped punch and die. The V-dies can be used to
make bends of various included angles (see figure 5.42).
Punch
Pressure
pad
Die
Figure 5.42
Edge bending is done using a wiping die. Here sheet metal
is held in position by the application of force by the pressure
pad. The punch now forces the sheet to yield and bend over the
edge of the die. Figure 5.43 shows the wiping punch and die
set for edge bending of 90O or less. These are expensive than
the V-dies.
Punch
Die
Figure 5.43
Bending Force
The bending force can be determined from die characteristics

and the material properties.
KL uT 2
Fb
D
where L is width of part in the direction of bend axis, T is blank

thickness, D is width between contact points (die opening
dimension), σu -ultimate tensile strength and K is a constant
(see figures 5.41 and 5.44).
K =1.33 for die opening of 8T; K=1.20 for die opening of 16T;
K=0.67 for U bending and K=0.33 for a wiping die.
Punch
Die
Figure 5.44
Spring Back
In a bending operation, the load applied by punch is removed
at the end of deformation. At this time, some elastic energy
remains in the bent part and it causes partial recovery of the
deformation. This partial recovery towards original shape is
called spring back in bending. (see figure 5.45). The final bend
angle after spring back is smaller and the final bend radius
is larger than before bending. Spring back in bending is not
easly to estimate theoretically. But it can be compensated by
different means.
Punch
'b ’
R
Rt
Die
Figure 5.45
Over bending and bottoming are two common methods
for compensating spring back. In over bending, the punch
angle and radius are fabricated slightly smaller than the angle
required on the final product. Here, the metal springs back
to the desired value. Bottoming involves subjecting the bend
area with high localised compressive stress using the punch
to deform the bent region again. Another method is stretch
bending where the part is subjected to tension while being
bent.
5.12.2 Press Brake Forming
Press brakes along with simple fixtures can be used to bend
sheet metal and plates having 7m or longer dimensions. This
machine uses long dies in a mechanical or hydraulic press and
is suitable for small lots.
The tooling is simple and the dies can be made from
hardened to carbides. Carbon steel and gray iron dies are used
in general for most applications.
Press braking is a metal forming process that uses an open
frame single acting press used to bend, blank, curl, corrugate or
punch sheet metal or plate.This is one of the oldest mechanical
metal deformation processes. A die and punch set of V, U or
channel shape is used to carry out the metal forming.
Figure 5.46 shows a typical setup for press brake forming.
The first figure shows the press brake in open position with the
workpiece ready for work. The next figure shows it is closed
position and the shaped workpiece.
Press brake
punch
Workpiece
Die Block
Figure 5.46
The process can produce a variety of shapes. Some of the
most common shapes are shown in table 5.1.
Table 5.1
Shape Type of Bend
90° Rib Form
90° Bottom / V Bottom
Channel
Closing
Double Form
Hat Channel
M.T. Offset
Offset
Open Hat Channel
Radius
Single Form
Wipe Die
5.12.3 Tube Bending

Metal tubes made of steels, aluminium, copper, and brass
are being used for a wide variety of industrial and commercial
products. Tubes of various shapes like round, square,
rectangular, oval, and special shapes are in use for various
applications.
For bending tubes to a specific shape or geometry, force must
be applied so as to exceed the yield point of the material, but
below the ultimate tensile strength of the material. As the tube
is bent over a specific radius, the outside wall will stretch in
tension while the inside wall bends under compressive forces.
The boundary line through the centre of the tube, between the
tension and compression zones is called the neutral axis where

the material will be free from all forces.
There are different bending methods, the use of which
depends upon the tube diameter, wall thickness, minimum
bend radius required, and part complexity. These bending
methods include:
• Rotary draw bending
• Compression bending
• Ram bending
• Roll bending
Rotary draw bending
Rotary draw bending uses a movable bending die or form
block, along with a clamping die, and a pressure bar. The
process begins by clamping the tube against the form block
and clamp. Then the form block and clamp together is rotated
to bend the tube. The pressure bar is used to support the
unbent region of the tube during the process. This is the most
common tube bending method. Rotary draw bending can
produce bends up to 180O with standard tooling.
Tube Pressure bar

Tube
Tube Clamp
Pressure
Pressure bar
bar
Clamp
Clamp
Rotating form block

Rotating
Rotating form
form block
block
Pressure
Pressure bar
bar
Clamp
Clamp
Rotating
Rotating form
form block
block
Figure 5.47
Compression bending
Compression bending is similar to rotary draw bending
except that the bending form block remains stationary rather
than rotating with the tube. A wiper shoe is used to hold the
tube and bend it around the contour of the fixed form block.
This method is used where there is minimum clamping space
between bends.
Clamp
Wiper Shoe
Tube
Form Block
Clamp
Clamp
Wiper Shoe
Wiper Shoe Tube
Tube Wiper Shoe
Wiper Shoe
Form Block
Form Block
Figure 5.48
Mandrel bending
Mandrel bending is another modified form of rotary draw
bending.Here, a mandrel is inserted into a pipe or tube during
bending so that the shape and diameter is maintained. The
mandrel supports the pipe internally and ensures that the
interior curvature of the pipe is the best possible bend and is
not deformed. Mandrel bending maintains a good finish and is
best used for handrails, ornamental iron work, exhaust pipes,
roll cages and all stainless steel and aluminium tubing.
Form Block
Wiping Die
Mandrel
Tube
Pressure Die Clamp
Clamp
Tube
Form Block
Tube
Die Clamp
Figure 5.49
Stretch bending
The tube or pipe is held at two ends by two grippers and it
is stretched by force applied through the grippers. At the same
time, force is applied through the grippers perpendicular to
the length of tube also. As the tube is supported by the form
block, it gets bent as per the contour of the form block. The
pipe or tube is deformed inside and outside of the curvature.
Depending on the thickness of the pipe or tube material, this
process will deform the tube or pipe into an oval shape. The
arrangement is shown in figure 5.50.
A similar bending process is ram bending. Instead of the
fixed form block, here a movable ram is used to apply bending
stress to the tube stretched by the end grippers. This is the
easiest and least expensive bending process. The process
is best used for electrical conduits and similar light gauge
products.
Gripper
Tube
F
Form block
F F
Gripper
Tube
F F
F F
Figure 5.50
Roll bending is used to produce large radius bends on
heavy walled tubing. Roll bending is not typically used to bend
thin wall tubing due to the high degree of wall stretching and
thinning that occurs with the process. Roll bending uses three
forming rolls arranged in a pyramid configuration, either in
a horizontal or vertical position. Each roll has approximately
the same diameter and all are contoured to match the cross-
sectional shape of the tube. Two of the rolls are fixed while
the third is adjusted to determine the finished bend radius.
Roll bending can produce a multiple radius part, full circles,
and helixes on tube, pipe, solid, as well as extruded material.
Unlike mandrel bending, the inside of the tube or pipe is not
supported. The top roller exerts downward pressure, while the
two bottom rollers push up to deform the pipe.
5.12.4 Forming
The forming operation is generally along a curved axis
rather than a straight axis. Here, the shape of die and punch
are reproduced in the work material. There will be minimum
metal flow in forming process and there won’t be excessive
thinning or shearing of the material.
Forming operations may strenghen the workpiece, add
rigidity, remove sharp edges and improve the appearance of
the workpiece. Embossing and coining are examples for two
forming operations.
Embossing
Embossing is a shallow forming operation in which the work
material is displaced between a male and female surface. The
finished part will have a depressed surface on one side and a
raised surface on the other. A typical embossing die will have
a male die with the exact reverse pattern of the female die,
with allowances for the thickness of work material as shown
in figure 5.51.
Figure 5.51
5.12.5 Spinning
This metal forming process is used to make axially
symmetric parts by gradual forming over a rotating mandrel
by means of a rounded tool or roller. The process is somewhat
similar to that of forming clay pots on a potter’s wheel. There
are three basic types of spinning process, namely conventional
spinning, shear spinning and tube spinning.
Conventional spinning
In this process, a circular blank of sheet metal is held against
a rotating mandrel of the desired shape of final product. A
tool or roller is pressed against the rotating blank to deform it
as per the shape of mandrel. Here the metal is bend around
a moving circular axis conforming to the shape of rotating
mandrel. Figure 5.52 illustrates the process. The thickness
of metal remains unchanged during the forming process. The
process is used to make conical and curved shapes in smaller
quantities.
Mandrel
Clamp
Roller tool
mp
Roller tool
Figure 5.52
Shear spinning
This process is also called as power spinning, flow turning,
shear forming, hydro spinning and spin forging. As in the
conventional spinning, here also a circular blank is deformed
as per the shape of a rotating mandrel. But, here a shear
deformation occurs and the thickness of blank is reduced
during the process. Only bending of the blank occurs in
conventional spinning while deformation due to shear stress
occurs here and the metal deforms into the shape of mandrel.
The shear spinning process using a roller tool is shown in
figure 5.53.
t tf

Clamp
Roller tool
Mandrel
Figure 5.53
For the simple conical shape as in figure, the final thickness
of spun wall can be determined from the relationship.
t f t sin
where t-initial thickness of blank, tf- final thickness of blank,

α -half angle of mandrel.
Tube Spinning
Tube spinning is used to reduce the thickness of cylindrical
parts like tubes by spinning them on a cylindrical mandrel and
using roller tools. This can be done on the internal or external
surface of the tube. Figure 5.54 shows the process.
Tube spinning is used to make pressure vessels, automotive
wheels and components of aerospace products.
Mandrel
t tf
Roller tool
Feed
Figure 5.54
5.13 DIE CUTTING OPERATIONS

LO 5.17 Explain the features and working of inverted dies,
compound dies and progressive dies.
Die is a tool used to cut or shape the work material in a
press. Dies are designed according to the parts to be produced.
In a die set, the punch is set in a punch holder and the die
in the die shoe. Usually the die is set in the lower half and
the punch in the upper half of the die set. The upper half is
called upper shoe and the lower one, the lower shoe. The die
set will have guide pins which keep the upper and lower shoes
in proper alignment. A stripper is used to pull the part off the
punch on the upward stroke of the press.
Simple die sets are made to perform a single press working
operation like punching or bending that is done in one stroke
of the press. Inverted dies, compound dies and progressive
dies are used for various other press working operations.
5.13.1 Inverted Dies

Based the type of operations performed and the type of
construction, dies can be classified into various types.
In the simple type of dies, the punch is mounted on the ram
and is given a vertical movement, while the die is stationary
and attached to die shoe. This arrangement is reversed in an
inverted die. Here the punch is mounted on the die shoe, as
shown in figure 5.55. As the ram moves down, the blank is
sheared from the strip.
Main advantage of inverted die is that, there is little chance
of the thin blanks being bent. In an inverted die, the blank is
removed by means of a knockout pin as it is cut by the punch
and die.
The opening in the die shoe is too small to permit the
finished part to pass through the opening on the die shoe or
bolster.
Main disadvantage of the inverted dies is that the cost of
construction is very high.
Figure 5.55
5.13.2 Progressive Dies
Progressive dies are used to perform two or more operations
at a time, at different locations on the stock strip (workpiece).
Parts requiring multiple operations like punching, blanking,
notching, piercing etc can be done at a faster rate using
progressive dies.
A continuous stock strip (plate) is passed through the
progressive die in such a manner that different operations are
carried out one after the other as the plate advances through
the progressive die. There will be two or more stations in a
progressive die which does different operations like punching,
blanking etc. on the same stock strip. The stock strip is then
advanced to move through each succeeding station to produce
the complete workpiece.
Progressive die is also known as cut-carry die. It is a multi
station die that performs several operations in a single stroke
of the ram in a press. Figure 5.56 shows a progressive die to
carry out piercing and blanking operations. At first, the stock
strip is positioned manually to pierce a hole using the piercing
die set in the first cutting stroke of ram. Then the stock is
advanced to the next station where the stopper pin will ensure
correct spacing.
During the second cutting stroke of the ram, the pilot of
blanking punch enters the previously pierced hole and ensures
correct alignment. Now the blanking punch moves down and

shears the metal to form a washer. At the same time the
piercing punch produces a hole for the next washer at the first
station. From the second stroke onwards a finished washer is
produced by the action of progressive die.
Figure 5.56
Advantages
• More number of operations can be performed on the
same stock strip simultaneously.
• During every stroke of ram a finished product is made.
• Simple to construct and economical to repair.
Disadvantages
• Not suitable for thin or soft materials.
• Cost is more compared to simple dies.
• Design is complicated as compared to simple dies.
5.13.3 Compound Dies
We have seen how two or more operations are carried out
one after the other on a stock strip using a progressive die. In a
compound die, such operations are combined and carried out
in a single stroke of the press at the same station itself.

For example, in order to carry out piercing and blanking
operations, the upper and lower parts of the die will have
piercing and blanking elements placed directly opposed to
each other. During cutting stroke, the piercing punch acts
in the opposite direction as that of the blanking punch. Here
in a compound die, both the cutting actions are carried out
simultaneously, in a single stroke.
Figure 5.57 shows the layout of a compound die, used for
producing a component like a washer. The workpiece (stock)
is pierced and blanked at one station in a single stroke. The
blanking punch also serves as piercing die.
Figure 5.57
The blanking punch and die are arranged in the inverted
position. During the stroke, first the hole is pierced on the
stock and upon further travel, the blanking operation is done.
The progressive and compound dies are used mainly to perform
cutting operations.
Advantages
• Workpiece can be produced with more accuracy.
• Strip materials of shorter length can be used.
• Cost of production is low.
• Larger parts can be blanked using a small press when
compound dies are used.
Disadvantages
• More expensive to construct and repair.
• Slower than progressive die.
• Complicated design compared to progressive dies.
• Higher power requirement.
Table 5.2 Comparison between progressive and compound dies
Progressive dies Compound dies

Performs one operation at a Performs more than one
time operation at a time.
Power requirement is lower Power requirement is higher
Simple in design and Complicated design and
construction of die set construction of die set
Less expensive to construct More expensive to construct
and repair and repair
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Classify metal forming processes L1
3. List the advantages of hot working over cold L1
working of metals
4. List are specific merits of cold working over hot L1
working
5. List some important defects, prevalent in sheet L1
metal formed parts.
6. Differentiate between coining and embossing. L1
7. List various operations generally performed in a L1
sheet-metal shop.
8. Distinguish between bending and drawing in L1
sheet-metal operations.
9. Differentiate blanking and punching. L1
10. Name the various methods by which sheet-metal L1

blanks can be cut from a large sheet.
11. List the advantages of rubber forming L1
12. Differentiate between bulk deformation processes L1
and sheet metal processes
13. Differentiate between deep drawing and bar L1
drawing
14. Identify the three basic types of sheet metal L1
working operations.
15. Differentiate between a notching operation and a L1
seminotching operation
16. Define drawing in the context of sheet metal L1
working.
17. List some of the possible defects in drawn sheet- L1
metal parts
18. Distinguish between roll bending and roll forming. L1
19. List any two components manufactured by the L1
drawing process.
20. Define locating L1
21. List the major factors that determines how a L1
workpiece will be located
22. Define complete location L1
23. List the basic references for circular surfaces L1
24. Specify the best general V angle for locating circular L1
surfaces
25. State one of the shortcomings of V location L1
26. Define concentric location and give an example. L1
27. List the four essential requirements of clamps and L1
clamping devices
28. Define the term ‘degrees of freedom’ L1
29. List the main functions of locating device L1
30. Define a clamp L1
31. State the function of clamping device L1
32. Enumerate various types of clamps L1
33. Distinguish between spinning and cup drawing L2
with reference to the process and components
produced.
34. Draw a sketch of a punch and a die set used for L2
punching operation. Indicate its various parts.
35. Sketch a deep-drawing set up, labeling the various L2

important parts.
36. Show by a neat sketch, the edge-bending operation L2
with a die punch set in position, naming all the
important elements of the set up.
37. Explain why is it necessary to provide proper L2
clearance between the punch and die in a shearing
operation.
38. Explain why blank holding is necessary in a sheet- L2
metal drawing operation
39. Explain sheet metal spinning L2
40. Explain bending operation on a metal. L2
41. Explain deep drawing in detail L2
42. Explain any two applications for cold spinning L2
process.
43. Explain bending allowances, V-bending and edge L2
bending.
44. Explain the principle of hot spinning. L2
45. List the common bending operations, giving one L2
application for each.
46. Explain why do tubes buckle when bent L2
47. Explain the difference and similarities between L2
conventional spinning and shear spinning?
48. Explain why the term press working is often used L2
for sheet metal processes
49. Describe each of the two types of sheet-metal- L2
bending operations: V-bending and edge bending.
50. Explain springback in sheet-metal bending L2
51. Distinguish between redrawing and reverse L2
drawing.
52. Explain the embossing operation L2
53. Explain stretch forming L2
54. Explain how sheet-metal working process is L2
different from metal forming process
55. Explain the different stages involved in the blanking L2
operation.
56. Explain with neat sketches how a soap box can be L2
manufactured from a given sheet of material.
57. Explain the consequences, if a blank holder does L2
not hold the blank in a drawing operation
58. Differentiate between hemming, beading, seaming L2

and flanging operations.
59. List examples of the products where one or more L2
of this operations are required. Seaming, Beading,
Hemming, flanging
60. Explain why locating points should be placed as L2
far apart as possible
61. Explain the common methods of locating from L2
circular surfaces
62. Describe the basic rules for applying clamping L2
forces
63. Explain what is a spherical washer, and when is L2
it used
64. Describe briefly ‘principles of location’ L2
65. Explain the principles of clamping L2
66. Explain 3-2-1 principle. L2
67. Explain the various locating methods. L2
68. Explain the principles of clamping. L2
69. Explain strap clamp. L2
70. Explain side clamp. L2
71. Explain hinged clamp. L2
72. Explain the factors which affect the clearances for L3
proper cutting operation in blanking or piercing
73. List and explain the properties of materials that L3
influence springback.
74. Outline the difference that you have observed L3
between products made of sheet metals and those
made by casting and forging.
75. Describe the cutting process that takes place when L3
a pair of scissors cuts through aluminium foil.
76. Explain why springback in bending depends on L3
yield stress, elastic modulus, sheet thickness, and
bend radius.
77. Justify whether we can carry out coining process L3
in hot condition
78. Explain the consequences of using coolant in L3
coining and embossing operations
79. Explain why it is necessary to establish complete L3
location of a workpiece whose configuration is
formed by flat planes

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Manufacturing Process

(KTU - MET 204)

Dr. S. Jose Ph.D, FIE

Pentagon Educational Services

Kollam Dr. S. Jose

The revised syllabus of the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological

LO 1.1 Define the sand casting process.

LO 1.15 List the different types of cores used in casting

1.1 SAND CASTING

(gating system) and provision to supply additional liquid metal

box is filled with the previously prepared Gatemoulding sand

These are the steps involved in the preparation of a sand

1.4 MOULDING SAND

Some of the commonly used additives are

mould, the moisture content gets converted into water vapour

separate boxes. An example is shown in figure 1.7. Here, the

• Moulding method used.

casting of the exact dimensions is obtained. Example 1.1

Rapping or Shaking Allowance

When the job is cast with the 54×84 mm surface horizontal

Core prints are provided on the mould for positioning the

1.6.3 Types of Cores

Hanging core : This is supported along the parting line

Core MouldParting line

1.6.4 Applications of Cores

The main application of cores is to provide accurate internal

of casting properly. In practice, the gating system and casting

1.8 GATING SYSTEM

without any turbulance, so that mould erosion is

Sprue Sprue Pouring

Pouring cup Strainer core

Gating Figure 1.21

Sand Cope Mould

pouring temperature. On the other hand, if pouring time is too

Gating Ratio: Based on the calculated value of choke area

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/sec2

1.9 RISERING OR RISERS

The casting process involves phase transformation of

During solidification, the last region to solidify may require

The risers are to be included in a mould in such a way that

Top riser: This is located on top of the casting. It is also

Side riser: It is located on the side of casting. The side

Blind riser: The riser completely surrounded by moulding

Sprue Top riser Open type

Open type Blind type Permeable core

The risers are expected to loose heat at a slower rate, as they

Chill is a piece of metal placed near the casting surface or

Shrinkage Metal chill

casting. This is achieved by local insulations and exothermic

diagram, such points falling on the right side of the curve

0.1 + ( 0.000251D 3 − 0.03 )

Volume at room temperature

Minimum dimension of riser, d = 15cm

1.10 SPECIAL CASTING PROCESSES

Sand moulds are single use moulds which are to be

special covering made of refractory material surrounding the

content in the mould also is removed by the heating. Molten

the application of external pressure. As high pressure in the

Cold Chamber Die Casting

Movable Fixed die half

Fixed die half

Movable Fixed die half

The pressure is maintained